Jump to content

Transcendental Meditation: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Naturezak (talk | contribs)
428 edits
m modified statements in first graf to indicate that they are debatable assertions and not factual
m no pipe
 
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Short description|Form of mantra meditation}}
{{Template:COI2}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2015}}
{{neutrality}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
{{TOC right}}
[[File:Maharishi Huntsville Jan 1978A.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]], developer of the Transcendental Meditation technique.<ref name="Bromley-Cowan 2015"/>]]
'''Transcendental Meditation''' ('''TM''') is a form of silent [[meditation]] developed by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. The TM technique involves the silent repetition of a ''[[mantra]]'' or sound, and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught by certified teachers through a standard course of instruction, with a cost which varies by country and individual circumstance. According to the Transcendental Meditation movement, it is a non-religious method that promotes relaxed [[awareness]], [[stress relief]], [[self-development]], and [[higher consciousness|higher states of consciousness]]. The technique has been variously described as both religious<ref name="transcendental deception">{{cite book |last1=Siegel |first1=Aryeh |title=Transcendental Deception: Behind the TM Curtain |date=2018 |publisher=Janreg Press |location=Los Angeles, CA |isbn=978-0-9996615-0-5}}</ref> and non-religious.{{refn|group=nb|[[Sociology|Sociologists]], [[Religious studies|religion scholars]], and a [[New Jersey]] judge and court are among those who have expressed views on it being religious or non-religious.<ref name="Bromley-Cowan 2015"/><ref name="Praeger">{{cite book |author-last=Calo |author-first=Zachary |year=2008 |chapter=Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues |editor1-first=Ann |editor1-last=Duncan |editor2-first=Steven |editor2-last=Jones |title=Church-State Issues in America Today |location=Westport, Connecticut |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Praeger Publishers]] |isbn=978-0-275-99368-9 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzOn09EaETgC }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="American Bar Association 1978 144">{{cite journal |author-last=Ashman |author-first=Allan |date=January 1978 |title=What's New in the Law |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDu0e8buVPAC&pg=PA124 |journal=[[American Bar Association Journal]] |location=Chicago |publisher=[[American Bar Association]] |volume=64 |pages=124–144 |issn=0002-7596}}</ref> The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]] upheld the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/1979789592F2d197_1763/MALNAK%20v.%20YOGI |title=Malnak v. Yogi |date=1979 |website=Leagle |access-date=19 May 2017 }}</ref><ref name="Evans2000">{{cite book|author=Bette Novit Evans|title=Interpreting the Free Exercise of Religion: The Constitution and American Pluralism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7lzMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|date=9 November 2000|publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press|isbn=978-0-8078-6134-9|page=65|quote=Proponents of the program denied that Transcendental Meditation was a religion; the Third Circuit concluded that it was.}}</ref>}}


Maharishi began teaching the technique in India in the mid-1950s.<ref name="Bromley-Cowan 2015">{{cite book |editor1-last=Cowan |editor1-first=Douglas E. |editor2-last=Bromley |editor2-first=David G. |editor2-link=David G. Bromley |year=2015 |orig-year=2007 |chapter=Transcendental Meditation: The Questions of Science and Therapy |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_xgBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |title=Cults and New Religions: A Brief History |location=Chichester, West Sussex |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |edition=2nd |series=Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion |pages=38–58 |isbn=978-1-118-72350-0 |lccn=2015005385}}</ref> Building on the teachings of his master, the [[Advaita Vedanta|Hindu Advaita]] monk [[Brahmananda Saraswati]] (known honorifically as Guru Dev), the Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.<ref name="Bromley-Cowan 2015"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Dawson |first=Lorne |year=2003 |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |title=Cults and New Religious Movements |url=https://archive.org/details/cultsnewreligiou00daws |url-access=limited |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=[https://archive.org/details/cultsnewreligiou00daws/page/n61 54]|isbn=9781405143493 }}</ref> TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s as the Maharishi shifted to a more secular presentation, and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities, most prominently members of [[the Beatles]] and [[the Beach Boys]]. At this time, he began training TM teachers. The worldwide TM [[organization]] had grown to include educational programs, health products, and related services. Following the Maharishi's death in 2008, leadership of the TM organization passed to [[neuroscientist]] [[Tony Nader]].


Research on TM began in the 1970s. A 2012 [[meta-analysis]] of the psychological impact of meditation found that Transcendental Meditation had a comparable overall effectiveness to other meditation techniques in improving general wellbeing, but might have distinctive effects on specific psychological variables.<ref name="Sed12a"/> A 2017 overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses indicates TM practice may lower blood pressure, an effect comparable with other health interventions. Because of a potential for bias and conflicting findings more research is needed.<ref name="J. Hum. Hypertens.">{{cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Z |last2=Chang |first2=J |last3=Chen |first3=C |last4=Li |first4=P |last5=Yang |first5=K |last6=Chi |first6=I |date=February 2015 |title=Investigating the effect of transcendental meditation on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=[[Journal of Human Hypertension]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=653–662 |doi=10.1038/jhh.2015.6 |issn=1476-5527 |pmid=25673114 |s2cid=22261}}</ref><ref name="Complement. Ther. Med.">{{cite journal |last1=Ooi |first1=Soo Liang |last2=Giovino |first2=Melisa |last3=Pak |first3=Sok Chean |date=October 2017 |title=Transcendental meditation for lowering blood pressure: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses |journal=[[Complementary Therapies in Medicine]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=34 |pages=26–34 |doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2017.07.008 |issn=1873-6963 |pmid=28917372 |s2cid=4963470}}</ref>
'''Transcendental Meditation,''' or '''TM,''' is the trademarked name of a [[meditation]] technique introduced in 1958 by [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]]. The technique, practiced for twenty minutes twice a day while sitting with the eyes closed,<ref name="tmorg">[http://tm.org ''The Transcendental Meditation Program'']</ref> is said to be effortless, and not to involve concentration or contemplation.<ref>Shear, Jonathan (2006). ''The Experience of Meditation'', 25, 30-32, 43-44</ref> The TM technique is said to have been taught to over six million people worldwide.<ref>[http://www.tm.org/ The Transcendental Meditation Program]</ref>
The Transcendental Meditation technique is a component of what Maharishi Mahesh Yogi terms [[Maharishi Vedic Science]].<ref>[http://www.maharishi-european-sidhaland.org.uk/Science.htm ''Maharishi's Vedic Science'' Frequently Asked Questions], Maharishi European Sidhaland website, Retrieved [[August 30]], [[2007]]</ref>


==Procedure==
==History==
{{Main|History of Transcendental Meditation}}


The Transcendental Meditation program and the Transcendental Meditation movement originated with their founder [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] and continued beyond his death in 2008.<ref name="Bromley-Cowan 2015"/> In 1955,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/religion/2008-02-05-maharishi-obit_N.htm|title=Beatles guru dies in Netherlands|work=USA Today|author=AP|date=5 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/default/article/PAGE-ONE-Politics-and-Transcendental-Meditation-3016926.php |last=Epstein|first=Edward|title=Politics and Transcendental Meditation|work=San Francisco Chronicle|date=29 December 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.mum.edu/pdf_msvs/v05/morris.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527120152/http://www.mum.edu/pdf_msvs/v05/morris.pdf |archive-date=2010-05-27 |url-status=live |last=Morris|first=Bevan |title=Maharishi's Vedic Science and Technology: The Only Means to Create World Peace|journal=Journal of Modern Science and Vedic Science|volume=5|year=1992|page=200|issue=1–2}}</ref> "the Maharishi began publicly teaching a traditional meditation technique"<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1577866/Maharishi-Mahesh-Yogi-guru-to-Beatles-dies.html|last= Rooney|first=Ben|title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, guru to Beatles, dies |work=The Telegraph|date=6 February 2008 | location=London}}</ref> learned from his master [[Brahmananda Saraswati]] that he called Transcendental Deep Meditation<ref name="Williamson 2010">{{cite book |last=Williamson |first=Lola |year=2010 |publisher=NYU Press |location=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OxD1SYaelLAC&q=Kriya |title=Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion |isbn=9780814794500 |pages=97–99}}</ref> and later renamed Transcendental Meditation.<ref name="Russell">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZ89AAAAIAAJ&q=maharishi+%22transcendental+deep+meditation%22|last= Russell|first=Peter|title=The TM Technique: An Introduction to Transcendental Meditation and the Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi|publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=1977|isbn=978-0-7100-8539-9|pages=25–26}}</ref>
Maharishi explains that the Transcendental Meditation technique is derived from the ancient Vedic tradition of India. The technique, taught worldwide, in a standardized, seven-step procedure, includes two introductory lectures, a personal interview, and a two-hour instruction session given on each of four consecutive days. Instruction begins with a short ceremony performed by the teacher, after which the student learns and begins practicing the technique. Subsequent sessions provide further clarification of correct practice, as well as more information about the technique. <ref>[http://tm.org/learn/course/index.html ''The Seven-Step Course'']</ref><ref>[http://www.maharishi.org/tm/learn_tm.html ''7 Steps to Learn the TM </ref>
The Maharishi initiated thousands of people, then developed a TM teacher training program as a way to accelerate the rate of bringing the technique to more people.<ref name=Russell/><ref name=Needleman>{{Cite book | edition = 1st | publisher = Doubleday | last = Needleman | first = Jacob | title = The New Religions| url = https://archive.org/details/newreligions0000unse | url-access = limited | location = Garden City N.Y. | year = 1970|chapter=Transcendental Meditation|page=[https://archive.org/details/newreligions0000unse/page/144 144]}}</ref> He also inaugurated a series of tours that started in India in 1955 and went international in 1958 which promoted Transcendental Meditation.<ref name= "History-of-transcendental-meditation">{{cite book | url=https://www.businessinsider.com/history-of-transcendental-meditation-2016-11 | title=History of transcendental meditation | publisher=Insider | author=Richard Feloni | year=2016 }}</ref><ref name="Philosophers">{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=25yC2ePhbXEC&q=Maharishi+World+Tours&pg=PA120 | title=Philosophers and religious leaders | publisher=The Orynx Press |author1=Christian D. Von Dehsen |author2=Scott L. Harris | year=1999 | pages=120| isbn=9781573561525 }}</ref> These factors, coupled with endorsements by celebrities who practiced TM and claims that scientific research had validated the technique, helped to popularize TM in the 1960s and 1970s. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Times (London) |title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi |date=7 February 2008 |page=62}}</ref> Despite organizational changes and the addition of advanced meditative techniques in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite book|last=Oates |first=Robert M. |title=Celebrating the Dawn: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and the TM technique|page=226|location=New York|publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons|isbn=978-0-399-11815-9|year=1976}}</ref> the Transcendental Meditation technique has remained relatively unchanged.


Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In modern times, the movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice,<ref>{{cite news|first=T. K. |last=Irwin|title=What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad'|work=Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly|date=8 October 1972|pages=8–9}}</ref> and includes many associated programs based on the Maharishi's interpretation of the [[Vedic]] traditions. In the U.S., non-profit organizations included the [[Students International Meditation Society]],<ref name="Chryssides">{{Cite book | last1 = Chryssides | first1 = George D. | title = Exploring New Religions | year = 1999 | publisher = Cassell | location = London | isbn = 978-0-8264-5959-6 | pages = 293–296| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jxIxPBpGMwgC&pg=PA293 }}</ref> AFSCI,<ref name="Craze">{{Cite magazine| issn =0040-781X| title = Behavior: The TM Craze: 40 Minutes to Bliss| magazine = Time| access-date = 15 November 2009 | date = 13 October 1975 | url = http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,947229,00.html| archive-url = https://archive.today/20130105182424/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,947229,00.html| url-status = dead| archive-date = 5 January 2013}}</ref> [[World Plan Executive Council]], [[Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation]], [[Global Country of World Peace]], Transcendental Meditation for Women, and [[Maharishi Foundation]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.heraldonline.com/2013/07/15/5022454/australian-food-store-offers-transcendental.html | title=Australian Food Store Offers Transcendental Meditation to Employees | publisher=The Herald (South Carolina, USA) | date=15 July 2013 | access-date=3 August 2013 | author=Press Release by Maharishi Foundation | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130803192934/http://www.heraldonline.com/2013/07/15/5022454/australian-food-store-offers-transcendental.html | archive-date=3 August 2013 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and leader of the Global Country of World Peace, is [[Tony Nader]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Forget the F-16s, Israel needs more Yogic Flyers to beat Hizbullah: 30-strong TM group, sole guests at Nof Ginnosar Hotel, say they need another 235 colleagues to make the country safe|first=Amir|last=Mizroch|work=Jerusalem Post|date=23 July 2006|page=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Maharishi's ashes immersed in Sangam|work=The Hindustan Times|location= New Delhi|date=12 February 2008|agency=Indo-Asian News Service}}</ref>
== Research on the Transcendental Meditation technique ==


==Technique==
Medical indexes, such as [http://www.pubmed.gov PubMed], show that over 250 studies have been conducted on the Transcendental Meditation technique. The universities and medical centers where this research has taken place include Harvard Medical School, Yale Medical School, Stanford University, Princeton University, MIT, Purdue University, UCLA, UC Irvine, UC Berkeley, the University of Chicago, the University of Michigan Medical School, and the University of Texas.<ref>[http://www.mum.edu/tm_research/univs_jrnls ''Scientific Journals'']</ref>
{{Main|Transcendental Meditation technique}}
The meditation practice involves the use of a silently-used [[mantra]] for 15–20 minutes twice per day while sitting with the eyes closed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tm.org/meditation-techniques |title=The Transcendental Meditation Program |publisher=Tm.org |access-date=17 February 2013}}</ref><ref name="Epi06">{{Cite journal|last1=Lansky |first1=Ephraim |last2=St Louis |first2=Erik |title=Transcendental meditation: a double-edged sword in epilepsy? |journal=Epilepsy & Behavior |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=394–400 |date=November 2006 |pmid=16931164 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019 |s2cid=31764098 }}</ref> It is reported to be one of the most widely practiced,<ref name="google138">{{Cite book| last1 = Cotton | first1 = Dorothy H. G. | title = Stress management: An integrated approach to therapy | year = 1990 | publisher = Brunner/Mazel | location = New York | isbn = 0-87630-557-5 | page = 138|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLsECokSFHwC}}</ref><ref name="Total Heart Health">{{cite book |last1=Schneider |first1=Robert |last2=Fields |first2=Jeremy |year=2006 |publisher=Basic Health Publications |location=Laguna Beach, CA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EWXz0Y9maukC&q=transcendental+meditation+seven+steps&pg=PA148 |title=Total Heart Health: How to Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease with the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health |pages=148–149 |isbn=1458799247}}</ref> and among the most widely researched, meditation techniques,<ref name="Murphy">{{cite book|title=The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996|last1=Murphy|first1=M|last2=Donovan|first2=S|last3=Taylor|first3=E|publisher=Institute of Noetic Sciences|year=1997|location=Sausalito, California}}</ref><ref name="The Relaxation Response">{{Cite book|last1=Benson|first1=Herbert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TJDGTP9Sa5UC&q=transcendental%20meditation&pg=PA61|title=The Relaxation Response|last2=Klipper|first2=Miriam Z.|publisher=Quill|year=2001|isbn=978-0-380-81595-1|location=New York, NY|page=61}}</ref><ref name="Sinatra">{{Cite book|last1=Sinatra|first1=Stephen T.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4TfJqNA8sOIC&q=transcendental+meditation&pg=PA192|title=Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late|last2=Roberts|first2=James C.|last3=Zucker|first3=Martin|date=20 December 2007|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-470-22878-4|page=192}}</ref><ref name="Bushell">{{cite journal |first=William |last=Bushell |title=Longevity Potential Life Span and Health Span Enhancement through Practice of the Basic Yoga Meditation Regimen |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1172 |pages=20–7 | year=2009 | quote=Transcendental Meditation (TM), a concentrative technique&nbsp;... has been the most extensively studied meditation technique. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TMJRynOxsisC&q=Transendental+Meditation&pg=PA20 |isbn=9781573316774 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04538.x | pmid=19735236|s2cid=222086314 }}</ref> with hundreds of published research studies.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M |title=Meditation practices for health: state of the research |journal=Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) |issue=155 |pages=62|date=June 2007 |pmid=17764203|display-authors=etal |pmc=4780968}}</ref><ref name="Rosenthal 2011 14">{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Rosenthal |title=Transcendence: Healing and Transformation through Transcendental Meditation |publisher=Tarcher/Penguin |year=2011 |page=14 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-58542-873-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ssJ6jU0YeNEC&q=340&pg=PT12 | quote = By my latest count, there have been 340 per-reviewed articles published on TM, many of which have appeared in highly respected journals.}}</ref><ref name="Freeman2009">{{cite book |first=Lyn |last=Freeman |title=Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach |publisher=Mosby Elsevier |year=2009 |pages=176|isbn= 9780323053464}}</ref> The technique is made available worldwide by certified TM teachers in a seven-step course,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tm.org/learn-tm |title=How To Learn |publisher=Tm.org |access-date=17 February 2013}}</ref> and fees vary from country to country.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tm.org/tuition |title=TM Course Fee |publisher=TM.org |access-date=30 May 2012 |archive-date=23 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523183618/http://www.tm.org/tuition |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.t-m.org.uk/learning.shtml |title=Transcendental Meditation Fees and Course Details |publisher=Transcendental Meditation: Official website for the UK |access-date=31 January 2013 |archive-date=10 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010161859/http://www.t-m.org.uk/learning.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> Beginning in 1965, the Transcendental Meditation technique has been incorporated into selected schools, universities, corporations, and prison programs in the US, Latin America, Europe, and India. In 1977, a US district court ruled that a curriculum in TM and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) being taught in some New Jersey schools was religious in nature and in violation of the [[First Amendment]] of the United States Constitution.<ref name="Praeger"/><ref>{{cite journal|last=American Bar Association|title=Constitutional Law&nbsp;... Separating Church and State|journal=ABA Journal|date=Jan 1978|volume=64|pages=144|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDu0e8buVPAC&q=Transcendental+Meditation+was+held+to+be+a+religion+in+a+New+Jersey+court+case&pg=PA124}}</ref> The technique has since been included in a number of educational and social programs around the world.<ref name="Humes page 69">{{Cite book|last=Humes|first=C.A.|year=2005|chapter=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique|title=Gurus in America|editor1-first=Thomas A. |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |editor2-last=Humes|publisher=SUNY Press|page=69|isbn=0-7914-6573-X |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ugSb7mArJlYC |quote=This lawsuit was the most significant setback for TM in the United States&nbsp;... Since then TM has made a comeback of sorts with some governmental sponsorship}}</ref>


The Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism,<ref name="Bainbridge">{{Cite book|last1 = Bainbridge | first1 = William Sims | title = The Sociology of Religious Movements | year = 1997 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York | isbn = 0-415-91202-4 | page = 188|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eCKbw8QuhEkC&q=tm }}</ref><ref name="Aghiorgoussis 21, 34">{{Cite journal|title=The challenge of metaphysical experiences outside Orthodoxy and the Orthodox response|first=Maximos|last=Aghiorgoussis|journal=Greek Orthodox Theological Review|location=Brookline|date=Spring 1999|volume=44|issue=1–4|pages=21, 34}}</ref> and as a non-religious practice for self-development.<ref name="Chryssides 2001 301–303">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyX1sL8-0gMC&pg=PA292 |last=Chryssides|first= George D.|title=Exploring New Religions|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|year=2001|isbn=9780826459596|pages=301–303}}"Although one can identify the Maharishi's philosophical tradition, its teachings are in no way binding on TM practitioners. There is no public worship, no code of ethics, no scriptures to be studied, and no rites of passage that are observed, such as dietary laws, giving to the poor, or pilgrimages. In particular, there is no real TM community: practitioners do not characteristically meet together for public worship, but simply recite the mantra, as they have been taught it, not as religious obligation, but simply as a technique to benefit themselves, their surroundings and the wider world."</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Partridge | first = Christopher | year = 200 | title = New Religions: A Guide To New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities | publisher = Oxford University Press | quote = It is understood in terms of the reduction of stress and the charging of one's mental and physical batteries.| location = New York| pages = 184}}</ref><ref name="Rosenthal 2011 4">{{cite book|title=Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation|author-link=Norman E. Rosenthal|first=Norman E.|last=Rosenthal|publisher=Tarcher Penguin|year=2011|isbn=978-1-58542-873-1|page=[https://archive.org/details/transcendencehea00mdno/page/n18 4]|title-link=Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation}}</ref>
===Effects on the physiology===


The public presentation of the TM technique over its 50-year history has been praised for its high visibility in the mass media and effective global propagation, and criticized for using celebrity and scientific endorsements as a marketing tool. Also, advanced courses supplement the TM technique and include an advanced meditation program called the [[TM-Sidhi]] program,<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Shear|editor-first=Jonathan|title=Experience of Meditation: Experts Introduce the Major Traditions|publisher=Paragon House|location=St Paul, MN|year=2006|isbn=978-1-55778-857-3}}</ref> the unveiling of which created media controversy and a time of crisis for the movement’s image.<ref name="Thursby">{{citation |last = Thursby |first = Gene |chapter = Hare Krishna In America: Growth, Decline, and Accommodation |title = America's Alternative Religions |place = Albany |publisher = [[State University of New York Press]] |pages = 193–195 |isbn = 9780791423981 |year = 1995 |url = https://archive.org/details/americasalternat00mill }}</ref> In 2014, a meta-analysis of research found insufficient evidence that meditation such as TM "had an effect on any of the psychological stress and well-being outcomes".<ref name=Rohrlich>{{cite web | url =https://www.thedailybeast.com/ivanka-trumps-gurus-say-their-techniques-can-end-war-and-make-you-fly | title =Ivanka Trump's Gurus Say Their Techniques Can End War and Make You Fly | last = Rohrlich| first = Justin| date = October 14, 2018| website = thedailybeast.com| publisher = The Daily Beast Company LLC| access-date = May 21, 2024| quote = TM has its own set of scientists, viewed with skepticism by the mainstream scientific community.}}</ref>
Research studies have described specific physiological effects that occur during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. The first of these studies was published in the early 1970’s in ''Science'',<ref>Wallace RK. ''Physiological effects of Transcendental Meditation''. Science 1970;167:1751–1754</ref> ''American Journal of Physiology'',<ref>Wallace RK. The Physiology of Meditation. Scientific American 1972;226:84-90</ref> and ''Scientific American''.<ref>Wallace RK, Benson H, Wilson AF. ''A wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state''. American Journal of Physiology 1971;221:795-799</ref>


==Movement==
This research found that the Transcendental Meditation technique produced a physiological state that was termed "restful alertness." During the practice of the technique the physiology becomes relaxed, as indicated by significant reductions in respiration, minute ventilation, tidal volume, blood lactate, and significant increases in basal skin resistance, yet EEG measurements showed increased coherence and integration of brain functioning,<ref>Dillbeck, M.C. and E.C. Bronson: 1981, "Short-term longitudinal effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on EEG power and coherence", International Journal of Neuroscience 14, pp. 147-151</ref> indicating that the physiology was alert rather than asleep.<ref>Dillbeck, M.C., and D.W. Orme-Johnson: 1987, "Physiological differences between Transcendental Meditation and rest", ''American Psychologist'' 42, pp. 879-881</ref>
{{Main|Transcendental Meditation movement}}
The Transcendental Meditation movement consists of the programs and organizations connected with the Transcendental Meditation technique and founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Transcendental Meditation was first taught in the 1950s in India and has continued since the Maharishi's death in 2008. The organization was estimated to have 900,000 participants worldwide in 1977,<ref name="Stark 1986 page 287">{{cite book|last1=Stark|first1=Rodney|last2=Bainbridge|first2=William, Sims| title=The Future Of Religion|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520057319|pages=287}} "Time magazine in 1975 estimated that the U.S. total had risen to 600,000 augmented by half that number elsewhere" =[900,000 worldwide] "Annual Growth in TM Initiations in the U.S. [chart] Cumulative total at the End of Each Year: 1977, 919,300"</ref> a million by the 1980s,<ref name="Petersen, William J. 1982 p 123">{{cite book|last=Peterson|first=William|title=Those Curious New Cults in the 80s|year=1982|publisher=Keats Publishing|location=New Canaan, Connecticut|isbn=9780879833176|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thosecuriousnewc0000pete/page/123 123]|url=https://archive.org/details/thosecuriousnewc0000pete/page/123}} claims "more than a million" in the USA and Europe.</ref><ref name="Occhiogrosso, Peter 1996 p 66">Occhiogrosso, Peter. ''The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious Traditions.'' New York: Doubleday (1996); p 66, citing "close to a million" in the USA.</ref><ref name="Bainbridge, William Sims 1997 page 189">Bainbridge, William Sims (1997) Routledge, The Sociology of Religious Movements, page 189 "the million people [Americans] who had been initiated"</ref> and 5 million in more recent years.{{when|date=May 2021}}<ref>Analysis: Practice of requiring probationers to take lessons in transcendental meditation sparks religious controversy, NPR All Things Considered, 1 February 2002 | ROBERT SIEGEL "TM's five million adherents claim that it eliminates chronic health problems and reduces stress."</ref><ref>Martin Hodgson, The Guardian (5 February 2008) "He [Maharishi] transformed his interpretations of ancient scripture into a multimillion-dollar global empire with more than 5m followers worldwide"</ref><ref>Stephanie van den Berg, Sydney Morning Herald, Beatles guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi dies, (7 February 2008) "the TM movement, which has some five million followers worldwide"</ref><ref>Meditation a magic bullet for high blood pressure – study, Sunday Tribune (South Africa), (27 January 2008) "More than five million people have learned the technique worldwide, including 60,000 in South Africa."</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Maharishi Mahesh Yogi - Transcendental Meditation founder's grand plan for peace, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA), 19 February 2006 | ARTHUR MAX Associated Press writer "transcendental meditation, a movement that claims 6 million practitioners since it was introduced."</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Bank makes an issue of mystic's mint|last=Bickerton|first=Ian|work=Financial Times|location=London (UK)|date=8 February 2003|page=09}} the movement claims to have five million followers,</ref><ref name="Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 1955">Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Spiritual Leader Dies, New York Times, By LILY KOPPEL, Published: 6 February 2008 "Since the technique's inception in 1955, the organization says, it has been used to train more than 40,000 teachers, taught more than five million people"</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=May 2021}}


Programs include the Transcendental Meditation technique, an advanced meditation practice called the TM-Sidhi program ("Yogic Flying"), an alternative health care program called [[Maharishi Ayurveda]],<ref name="Sharma 1998 loc=Preface">{{harvnb|Sharma|Clark|1998|loc=Preface}}</ref> and a system of building and architecture called Maharishi Sthapatya Ved.<ref name="Argus">{{Cite web|url=http://download.tmnews.org/2005_08_05_RockIsArgus_ltr.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326064802/http://download.tmnews.org/2005_08_05_RockIsArgus_ltr.pdf |archive-date=2010-03-26 |url-status=live|title=Welvaert, Brandy, "Vedic homes seek better living through architecture", ''Rock Island Argus'', (5 August 2005)}}</ref><ref name="Spivack">{{cite news|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|title=Bricks Mortar and Serenity|first=Miranda|last=Spivack|date=12 September 2008|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/11/AR2008121103497.html}}</ref> The TM movement's past and present media endeavors include a publishing company (MUM Press), a television station ([[KSCI]]), a radio station ([[KHOE]]), and a satellite television channel (Maharishi Channel). During its 50-year history, its products and services have been offered through a variety of organizations, which are primarily nonprofit and educational. These include the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, the International Meditation Society, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, Transcendental Meditation for Women, the [[Global Country of World Peace]], and the [[David Lynch Foundation]].
Studies suggest that this state of physiology promotes regulation of cortisol and other hormones associated with chronic stress and a healthier regulation of serotonin (a neurotransmitter associated with mood).<ref>MacLean, C.R.K., et al: 1996, "Effects of the Transcendental Meditation program on adaptive mechanisms: Changes in hormone levels and responses to stress after four months of practice", ''Psychoendrocrinology'' 22, pp. 277-295</ref>


The TM movement also operates a worldwide network of Transcendental Meditation teaching centers, schools, universities, health centers, herbal supplements, solar panel, and home financing companies, plus several TM-centered communities. The global organization is reported to have an estimated net worth of [[USD]] 3.5 billion.<ref name="Times0882">{{cite news|date=7 February 2008|title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi|work=The Times|location=London (UK)|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article3320882.ece|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100524223404/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article3320882.ece|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi |encyclopedia=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/maharishi-mahesh-yogi}}</ref> The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a [[new religious movement]],<ref name="books.google.com">For ''new religious movement'' see:
===Range of studies===
<br />{{cite book|last=Beckford|first=James A.|title=Cult controversies: the societal response to new religious movements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0pc9AAAAIAAJ|year=1985|publisher=Tavistock Publications|isbn=978-0-422-79630-9|page=23}}
<br />{{cite book|last=Parsons|first=Gerald|title=The Growth of Religious Diversity: Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlKkZoNPi0oC&pg=PA288|year=1994|publisher=The Open University/Methuen|isbn=978-0-415-08326-3|page=288}}
<br />For ''neo-Hindu'', see:
<br />{{cite book|last=Alper|first=Harvey P.|title=Understanding mantras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V8Upy4ApG_oC&pg=PA442|date=December 1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0746-4|page=442}}
<br />{{cite book|last1=Raj|first1=Selva J.|author2=William P. Harman|title=Dealing With Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ov2oltTLinkC&pg=PA129|year=2007|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-6708-4|page=129}}</ref><ref name="TM and cult mania">{{Cite book | last1 = Persinger | first1 = Michael A. | last2 = Carrey | first2 = Normand J. | last3 = Suess | first3 = Lynn A. | title = TM and cult mania | year = 1980 | publisher = Christopher Pub. House | location = North Quincy, Mass. | isbn = 0-8158-0392-3 }}</ref> a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement,<ref name="Dawson">Dawson, Lorne L. (2003) Blackwell Publishing, Cults and New Religious Movements, Chapter 3: Three Types of New Religious Movement by Roy Wallis (1984), page 44-48</ref> a new social movement,<ref name=Blatter>Christian Blatter, Donald McCown, Diane Reibel, Marc S. Micozzi, (2010) Springer Science+Business Media, Teaching Mindfulness, Page 47</ref> a guru-centered movement,<ref name="Olson, Carl 2007 page 345">Olson, Carl (2007) Rutgers University Press, The Many Colors of Hinduism, page 345</ref> a personal growth movement,<ref name="Shakespeare">{{cite news|last=Shakespeare|first=Tom|title=A Point of View|work=BBC News|date=24 May 2014|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27554640|access-date=31 May 2014}}</ref> a religion, and a [[cult]].<ref name="TM and cult mania" /><ref name="Market85">{{cite book |author=Stark, Rodney |author2=Bainbridge, William Sims |title=The future of religion: secularization, revival, and cult formation |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, Calif |year=1985 |isbn=0-520-05731-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTzPyvT2yusC&q=public+relations+Transcendental+meditation&pg=PA285}}</ref><ref name="Sagan, Carl 1997 16">{{cite book |author=Sagan, Carl |title=The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |year=1997 |page=16 |isbn=0-345-40946-9 }}</ref><ref name="Szimhart">{{cite journal |last1=Szimhart |first1=Joseph |title=A look into the Transcendental Deception |journal=Skeptical Inquirer |date=2019 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=61–63}}</ref> Additional sources contend that TM and its movement are not a cult.<ref name=Harrison>Harrison, Shirley (1990). Cults: The Battle for God. Kent: Christopher Helm. pp. 93–103 "none of the other 'cultic qualities' defined by cult watchers can be fairly attributed to TM."</ref><ref name="heraldscotland.com">Rowson, Jonathan (23 April 2007) [http://www.heraldscotland.com/meditation-for-old-hippies-or-a-better-way-of-life-1.839896 Meditation: for old hippies or a better way of life?] Sunday Herald (Scotland) " the TM movement is not a cult", accessed 2 Feb 2013</ref><ref name="Hannaford, Alex 2010">Hannaford, Alex (27 December 2010). "Mantra with a mission; Feature Om or ominous? The maverick film director David Lynch wants to bring Transcendental Meditation to our classrooms, and believes in 'yogic flying'. Can he get it off the ground?". The Sunday Times (London).</ref><ref name="Lyster, Samantha 2000">Lyster, Samantha (21 October 2000) Samantha Lyster finds herself in holistic heaven with new-found happiness and tranquillity after learning the art of transcendental meditation, The Birmingham Post (England), "TM is not a religion, a cult or a philosophy"</ref> Participants in TM programs are not required to adopt a belief system; it is practiced by atheists, agnostics and people from a variety of religious affiliations.<ref name="Liebler 2009">Liebler, Nancy and Moss, Nancy (2009) Healing Depression the Mind-Body Way: Creating Happiness with Meditation ["the TM technique does not require adherence to any belief system—there is no dogma or philosophy attached to it, and it does not demand any lifestyle changes other than the practice of it."] [https://books.google.com/books?id=Ac0g-v6gpjkC&q=Transcendental+Meditation] accessed 25 May 2013</ref><ref name="theguardian.com">"Its proponents say it is not a religion or a philosophy."The Guardian 28 March 2009 [https://www.theguardian.com/education/2009/mar/29/schools-pupils-meditation-courses]</ref><ref name="concordmonitor.com">"It's used in prisons, large corporations and schools, and it is not considered a religion." [http://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090331/NEWS01/903310312/0/FRONTPAGE] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303195556/http://www.concordmonitor.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20090331%2FNEWS01%2F903310312%2F0%2FFRONTPAGE|date=3 March 2016}} Concord Monitor</ref>
The organization has been the subject of controversies that includes being labelled a [[cult]] by several parliamentary inquiries or [[anti-cult movement]]s in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/rap-enq/r2468.asp|title=Commission d'enquête sur les sectes – Assemblée nationale|website=www.assemblee-nationale.fr|access-date=2019-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ariplex.com/ama/amasenat.htm|title=Die Deutsche Amalgam-Page, SEKTEN – Risiken und Nebenwirkungen|website=www.ariplex.com|access-date=2019-03-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1987/07/02/group-claims-tm-movement-is-a-cult/f3ace676-19b6-4968-a712-1be95fa1b428/?noredirect=on|title=GROUP CLAIMS TM MOVEMENT IS A CULT|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref name="TM and cult mania" /><ref name="Market85"/><ref name="Sagan, Carl 1997 16"/>


Some notable figures in pop-culture practicing TM include [[the Beatles]], [[the Beach Boys]], [[Kendall Jenner]], [[Hugh Jackman]], [[Tom Hanks]], [[Jennifer Lopez]], [[Mick Jagger]], [[Eva Mendes|Eva Mendez]], [[Moby]], [[David Lynch]], [[Jennifer Aniston]], [[Nicole Kidman]], [[Eric André]], [[Jerry Seinfeld]], [[Howard Stern]], [[Julia Fox]], [[Clint Eastwood]], [[Martin Scorsese]], [[Russell Brand]], [[Nick Cave]] and [[Oprah Winfrey]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Celebrity Meditators - Celebrities|url=https://uk.tm.org/blog-celebrities/-/asset_publisher/PEXz6kDD8Gc5/blog/celebrity-meditators|access-date=2021-05-10|website=uk.tm.org}}<br>{{Citation|title=Eric Andre Goes Undercover on Reddit, YouTube and Twitter {{!}} GQ| date=6 April 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e739fBD1Zsw| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/e739fBD1Zsw| archive-date=2021-10-30|language=en|access-date=2021-05-10}}{{cbignore}}<br>{{Citation|title=Bob Roth Interviews Jerry Seinfeld on "Success Without Stress"| date=5 November 2014 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeRdy6LrOAI| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/IeRdy6LrOAI| archive-date=2021-10-30|language=en|access-date=2021-05-10}}{{cbignore}}<br>{{Citation|title=Clint Eastwood on the benefits the Transcendental Meditation technique has had on his life| date=12 July 2011 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=utmo3k-mMm8| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/utmo3k-mMm8| archive-date=2021-10-30|language=en|access-date=2021-05-10}}{{cbignore}}<br>{{Citation|title=Martin Scorsese & Ray Dalio on Creativity, TM & Success {{!}} Highlights {{!}} David Lynch Foundation| date=16 January 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-kJvsQh8Ak| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/5-kJvsQh8Ak| archive-date=2021-10-30|language=en|access-date=2021-05-10}}{{cbignore}}<br>{{Citation|title=Russell Brand talks about Transcendental Meditation at Operation Warrior Wellness launch| date=3 March 2011 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zTG4UcxR_8M| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/zTG4UcxR_8M| archive-date=2021-10-30|language=en|access-date=2021-05-10}}{{cbignore}}<br>{{Cite web|last=Stieg|first=Cory|date=2020-01-07|title=Oprah, Ray Dalio and Lady Gaga swear by this simple meditation technique|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/06/celebs-who-do-transcendental-meditation-oprah-ray-dalio-lady-gaga.html|access-date=2021-05-10|website=CNBC|language=en}}<br>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-01|title=25 Celebrities Who Know Transcendental Meditation|url=https://maharishischool.org/school-news-blogs/25-celebrities-who-know-transcendental-meditation/|access-date=2021-05-10|website=Maharishi School|language=en-US}}<br>{{Cite web |last=Cairns |first=Molly |date=2019-11-05 |title=Nick Cave - The Red Hand Files - Issue #69 - How do I stop fearing the end of the world? |url=https://www.theredhandfiles.com/fearing-the-end-of-the-world/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=The Red Hand Files |language=en-AU}}</ref>
A number of studies have reported finding a positive correlation between the Transcendental Meditation technique and various health-related conditions, including reduction of high blood pressure,<ref>''Hypertension 26'': 820–827, 1995</ref> younger biological age,<ref>''International Journal of Neuroscience 16'': 53–58, 1982</ref> decreased insomnia,<ref>''Journal of Counseling and Development 64'': 212–215, 1985</ref> reduction of high cholesterol,<ref>''Journal of Human Stress 5'': 24-27, 1979</ref> reduced illness and medical expenditures,<ref>''The American Journal of Managed Care 3'': 135–144, 1997</ref> decreased outpatient visits,<ref>''The American Journal of Managed Care 3'': 135–144, 1997</ref> decreased cigarette smoking,<ref>''Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 11'': 13–87, 1994</ref> decreased alcohol use,<ref>''Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 11'': 13–87, 1994</ref> and decreased anxiety.<ref>''Journal of Clinical Psychology 45'': 957–974, 1989</ref>


==Health effects==
Some studies indicate that regular practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique leads to cumulative effects in the areas of mind {{Harv|Travis|Arenander|DuBois|2004}}, body {{Harv|Barnes|Treiber|Davis|2001}} and behavior {{Harv|Barnes|Bauza|Treiber|2003}}.


The first studies of the health [[Effects of meditation|effects of Transcendental Meditation]] appeared in the early 1970s.<ref>Lyn Freeman, ''Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach'', Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163</ref>
=== Research funding from the NIH ===


There is no good evidence that TM reduces anxiety, or has any beneficial effect on forms of psychological stress or well-being.<ref name="pmid16437509">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krisanaprakornkit T, Krisanaprakornkit W, Piyavhatkul N, Laopaiboon M | title = Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 1 | pages = CD004998 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16437509 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2 }}</ref><ref name="goyal-2014-ahrq">{{cite book | publisher = [[Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality]] |vauthors=Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, Berger Z, Sleicher D, Maron DD, Shihab HM, Ranasinghe PD, Linn S, Saha S, Bass EB, Haythornthwaite JA | year = 2014 | title = Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-Being |series=AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews |pmid=24501780 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0063263/| quote = Our review finds that the mantra meditation programs do not appear to improve any of the psychological stress and well-being outcomes we examined, but the strength of this evidence varies from low to insufficient.}}</ref>
As of 2004, the [[National Institutes of Health]] (NIH) had spent more than $20 million funding research on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique on heart disease[http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105]. In 1999, the NIH awarded a grant of nearly $8 million to Maharishi University of Management to establish the first research center specializing in natural preventive medicine for minorities in the U.S.<ref>[http://www.usmedicine.com/article.cfm?articleID=47&issueID=12 ''Vedic Medicine, Meditation Receive Federal Funds''], ''U.S. Medicine'',Matt Pueschel, July 2000</ref>


A 2012 review found that Transcendental Meditation performed no better overall than other meditation techniques.<ref name="Sed12a">{{Cite journal |first1=Peter |last1=Sedlmeier |last2=Eberth |first2=Juliane |last3=Schwarz|last4=Zimmerman|last5=Haarig|last6=Jaeger|last7=Kunze|first3=Marcus|first4=Doreen|first5=Frederik|first6=Sonia|first7=Sonja|date=May 2012 |title=The Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Meta-Analysis |quote=The global analysis yielded quite comparable effects for TM, mindfulness meditation, and the other meditation procedures...So, it seems that the three categories we identified for the sake of comparison, TM, mindfulness meditation, and the heterogeneous category we termed other meditation techniques, do not differ in their overall effects. For most of the specific categories that could be analyzed, we found quite a variation in effects. These results indicate that different approaches to meditation might have differential effects. To date, it is difficult, however, to deduce any consistent differences therefrom.|journal=[[Psychological Bulletin]]|doi=10.1037/a0028168 |pmid=22582738 |display-authors=etal |volume=138 |issue=6 |pages=1139–1171}}</ref> The authors' analysis of a subset of these studies, those that studied specific categories of outcome, found that TM might perform better in reducing negative emotions, trait anxiety, and neuroticism and improving markers of learning, memory, and [[self-actualization]], but performs more poorly in reducing negative personality traits, reducing stress, improving attention and mindfulness and cognition, in comparison with other meditation approaches.<ref name="Sed12b">{{Cite journal |first1=Peter |last1=Sedlmeier|last2=Eberth|first2=Juliane|last3=Schwarz|last4=Zimmerman|last5=Haarig|last6=Jaeger|last7=Kunze|first3=Marcus|first4=Doreen|first5=Frederik|first6=Sonia|first7=Sonja|date=May 2012 |title=The Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Meta-Analysis |quote=A thorough comparison of the three kinds of meditation was difficult, due in part to the small number of studies that used a given category of dependent measure. Again, we only included results that could be calculated from at least three studies. On the basis of these data...there might indeed be differential effects. Comparatively strong effects for TM...were found in reducing negative emotions, trait anxiety, and neuroticism and being helpful in learning and memory and in self-realization...For mindfulness meditation, such comparatively strong effects were identified in reducing negative personality traits, reducing stress, and improving attention and mindfulness...(other meditation techniques) yielded a comparatively large effect in the category of cognition...TM yielded noticeably larger effects than mindfulness meditation for the categories negative emotions, neuroticism, trait anxiety, learning and memory, and self-realization. The opposite results were found for negative personality traits and self-concept, where the effects of mindfulness meditation were larger...For most of the specific categories that could be analyzed, we found quite a variation in effects. These results indicate that different approaches to meditation might have differential effects. To date, it is difficult, however, to deduce any consistent differences therefrom|journal=Psychological Bulletin |doi=10.1037/a0028168 |pmid=22582738 |display-authors=etal |volume=138 |issue=6 |pages=1139–1171}}</ref>
The research institute, called the Institute for Natural Medicine and Prevention, was inaugurated on [[October 11]], [[1999]], at the University's Department of Physiology and Health in Fairfield, Iowa.<ref>[http://www.mum.edu/inmp/nih ''NIH Awards $8 Million Grant to Establish Research Center on Natural Medicine'']</ref>


A statement from the [[American Heart Association]] said that TM could be considered as a treatment for [[hypertension]], although other interventions such as exercise and device-guided breathing were more effective and better supported by clinical evidence.<ref name="AHA">{{cite journal |vauthors=Brook RD, Appel LJ, Rubenfire M, Ogedegbe G, Bisognano JD, Elliott WJ, Fuchs FD, Hughes JW, Lackland DT, Staffileno BA, Townsend RR, Rajagopalan S |title=Beyond medications and diet: alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association |journal=Hypertension |volume=61 |issue=6 |pages=1360–83 |year=2013 |pmid=23608661 |doi=10.1161/HYP.0b013e318293645f |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Research in medical journals ===


TM may reduce [[blood pressure]] according to a review that compared TM to [[Treatment and control groups|control groups]]. A trend over time indicates practicing TM may lower blood pressure. Such effects are comparable to other [[Lifestyle medicine|lifestyle interventions]]. Conflicting findings across reviews and a potential risk of [[bias]] indicated the necessity of further evidence, conducted by researchers without bias.
A paper published in 1977 in ''The Lancet'' demonstrated that the Transcendental Meditation technique had no effect on blood pressure in patients.<ref>Pollack, A. A., Weber, M. A., Case, D. B., Laragh, J. H. "Limitations of Transcendental Meditation in the treatment of essential hypertension." ''The Lancet'', [[January 8]], [[1977]], 71-73.</ref>
<ref name="J. Hum. Hypertens."/><ref name="Complement. Ther. Med."/>


By 2004, the US government had given more than $20 million to Maharishi International University to study the effect of meditation on health.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |title=Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding|first=SUSANNE|last=QUICK|date=17 October 2004|work=Journal Sentinel|location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124114/http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=267105 |archive-date = 29 September 2007|quote=Maharishi University ... has received more than $20 million in government support to date to explore the health benefits of meditation.}}</ref>
In 2005, the ''American Journal of Cardiology'' published a review of two studies that looked at stress reduction with the Transcendental Meditation technique and mortality among patients receiving treatment for high blood pressure.<ref>{{cite web | title = ''Long-Term Effects of Stress Reduction on Mortality in Persons >55 Years of Age With Systemic Hypertension'' | url = http://161.58.228.161/TM_and_mortality.pdf | author = Schneider RH et al. | citation = Am J Cardiol 2005;95:1060–1064 | accessdate = 2006-09-12 }}</ref> This study was a long-term, randomized trial. It evaluated the death rates of 202 men and women, average age 71, who had mildly elevated blood pressure. The study tracked subjects for up to 18 years and found that the group practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had death rates that were reduced by 23%. The review was funded in part by a grant from NIH's [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]]. Also in 2005, the American Journal of Hypertension published the results of a study that found the Transcendental Meditation technique may be useful as an adjunct in the long-term treatment of hypertension among African-Americans.<ref>{{cite web | title = ''A randomized controlled trial of stress reduction in African Americans treated for hypertension for over one year'' | url = http://www.ajh-us.org/article/PIIS0895706104010088/abstract | author = Schneider RH et al.|accessdate = 2006-09-12}}</ref>


==Views and claims==
In 2006, a study published in the [[American Medical Association]]'s Archives of Internal Medicine found that [[coronary heart disease]] patients who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique for 16 weeks showed improvements in blood pressure, insulin resistance, and autonomic nervous system tone, compared with a control group of patients who received health education.<ref>[http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/166/11/1218 ''Effects of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation on Components of the Metabolic Syndrome in Subjects With Coronary Heart Disease''], ''Archives of Internal Medicine'', Maura Paul-Labrador et al,, Vol. 166 No. 11, [[June 12]], [[2006]]</ref>


===Views on consciousness (1963)===
The [[American Heart Association]] has published two studies on the Transcendental Meditation technique. In 2000, the association's journal, ''Stroke,'' published a study that found that, on average, the hypertensive, adult subjects who practiced the Transcendental Meditation technique daily experienced reduced thickening of coronary arteries, thereby decreasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. After six to nine months, carotid intima-media thickness decreased in the group that was practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique as compared with matched control subjects.<ref>''Stroke''. 2000 Mar;31(3):568-73.</ref>The association's journal ''Hypertension'' published the results of a randomized, controlled trial in which a group of older African-Americans practicing the Transcendental Meditation technique had reduced blood pressure.<ref>[http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/5/820 ''A Randomized Controlled Trial of Stress Reduction for Hypertension in Older African Americans''], Robert H. Schneider et al, ''Hypertension'', 1995, 26: 820-827</ref>
In his 1963 book, ''The Science of Being and Art of Living,'' Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says that, over time, through the practice of the TM technique, the conscious mind gains familiarity with deeper levels of the mind, bringing the subconscious mind within the capacity of the conscious mind, resulting in expanded awareness in daily activity. He also teaches that the Transcendental Meditation practitioner transcends all mental activity and experiences the 'source of thought', which is said to be pure silence, 'pure awareness' or 'transcendental Being', 'the ultimate reality of life'.<ref name="Science of Being">{{cite book |author=Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi |year=1963 |publisher=Meridian Publishing |title=The Science of Being and Art of Living}}</ref>{{rp |pp 44–53}}<ref name=Phelan>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/assr_0335-5985_1979_num_48_1_2186|first=Michael|last=Phelan|journal=Archives de sciences sociales des religions|title=Transcendental Meditation. A Revitalization of the American Civil Religion|year=1979|volume =48|issue=48–1|pages=5–20| doi=10.3406/assr.1979.2186 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Interview with Larry King |first=Larry |last=King |date=May 12, 2002 |work=CNN}}</ref> TM is sometimes self described as a technology of consciousness.<ref name=Hunt>{{Cite book| last1 = Hunt | first1 = Stephen | author-link=Stephen J. Hunt|title = Alternative religions: a sociological introduction | year = 2003 | publisher = Ashgate | location = Aldershot, Hampshire, England; Burlington, VT | isbn = 978-0-7546-3410-2 | pages = 197–198|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GuWbJhYIccC&q=transcendental%20meditation&pg=PA197 }}</ref> According to author Michael Phelan, "The fundamental premise of the psychology of fulfillment is that within every person exists a seemingly inexhaustible center of energy, intelligence, and satisfaction... To the extent that our behavior depends on the degree of energy and intelligence available to us, this center of pure creative intelligence may be described as that resource which gives direction to all that we experience, think and do."<ref>{{cite journal |title=Transcendental Meditation. A Revitalization of the American Civil Religion |journal=[[Archives de sciences sociales des religions]] |first=Michael |last=Phelan |date=Jul–Sep 1979 |volume=1 |issue=48 }}</ref>


According to the Maharishi, there are seven levels of consciousness: (i) deep sleep; (ii) dreaming; (iii) waking; (iv) transcendental consciousness; (v) cosmic consciousness; (vi) God consciousness; and, (vii) unity consciousness.<ref>Williams, Patrick Gresham (2000) The Spiritual Recovery Manual: Vedic Knowledge and Yogic Techniques to Accelerate Recovery, page 202</ref> The Maharishi says that transcendental consciousness can be experienced through Transcendental Meditation, and that those who meditate regularly over time could become aware of cosmic consciousness.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dkuHUWYnW80C&dq=maharishi+%22god+consciousness%22&pg=PA66 Tillery, Gary, ''The Cynical Idealist; A Spiritual Biography of John Lennon''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304013412/http://books.google.com/books?id=dkuHUWYnW80C&pg=PA66&dq=maharishi+%22god+consciousness%22 |date=2014-03-04}} Quest Books, 2009 {{ISBN |0-8356-0875-1}}, {{ISBN |978-0-8356-0875-6}} pp 66-67</ref> An indication of cosmic consciousness is "ever present wakefulness" present even during sleep.<ref name="Walsh R, Shapiro SL 2006 227–39">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Walsh R, Shapiro SL |title=The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue |journal=The American Psychologist |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=227–39 |date=April 2006 |pmid=16594839 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227 |s2cid=3015768 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7885t0n6 }}</ref> Research on long-term TM practitioners experiencing what they describe as cosmic consciousness, has identified unique EEG profiles, muscle tone measurements, and REM indicators that suggest physiological parameters for this self described state of consciousness.<ref name="Walsh R, Shapiro SL 2006 227–39"/><ref name=Shapiro>{{Cite journal |first1=Shauna L. |last1=Shapiro |first2=Roger |last2=Walsh |url=http://www.brittonlab.com/publications/Shapiro,%20Walsh,%20Britton%2003.pdf |title=An Analysis of Recent Meditation Research and Suggestions for Future Directions |journal=Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research |year=2003 |volume=3 |pages=69–90 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091123031814/http://www.brittonlab.com/publications/Shapiro,%20Walsh,%20Britton%2003.pdf |archive-date=2009-11-23 }}</ref> However, the Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness notes that it is premature to say that the EEG coherence found in TM is an indication of a higher state of consciousness.<ref name=Lutz>{{Cite book |isbn=978-0-521-85743-7 |editor1-first=Philip David |editor1-last=Zelazo |editor2-first=Morris |editor2-last=Moscovitch |editor3-first=Evan |editor3-last=Thompson |title=The Cambridge handbook of consciousness |year=2007 |pages=534–535 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>
Also in 2006, a [[functional MRI]] study of 24 patients published in NeuroReport found that the long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique may reduce the brain's response to pain.<ref>{{cite web | title = ''Neuroimaging of meditation's effect on brain reactivity to pain'' | url = http://www.neuroreport.com/pt/re/neuroreport/abstract.00001756-200608210-00026.htm;jsessionid=FG1JDGN8fXtCs1LW2Lcv51LdS2Pvz1D88ylnnGy9d5djbymvYPQS!1230047961!-949856144!8091!-1?index=1&database=ppvovft&results=1&count=10&searchid=1&nav=search | author = Orme-Johnson DW et al. | Publisher = NeuroReport | citation = Neuroreport. 17(12):1359-1363, [[August 21]], [[2006]] | accessdate = 2006-9-12}} </ref>


===Science of Creative Intelligence (1971)===
=== Research on cognitive function ===
In 1961, the Maharishi created the "International Meditation Society for the Science of Creative Intelligence".<ref name=Kennedy>{{Cite news |title=Field of TM dreams |first1=John W |last1=Kennedy |first2=Irving |last2=Hexham. |work=[[Christianity Today]] |date=January 8, 2001 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=74–79}}</ref> In 1971 the Maharishi inaugurated "Maharishi's Year of Science of Creative Intelligence" and described SCI as the connection of "modern science with ancient Vedic science".<ref name=Hume2005>{{Cite book |last=Humes |first=Cynthia A |year=2005 |chapter=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique |title=Gurus in America |editor1-first=Thomas A |editor1-last=Forsthoefel |editor2-first=Cynthia Ann |editor2-last=Humes |publisher=SUNY Press |pages=55–79 |isbn=0-7914-6573-X}}</ref> Author Philip Goldberg describes it as Vedanta philosophy that has been translated into scientific language.<ref name="Philip Goldberg2">Goldberg, Philip (2011) Harmony Books, American Veda, page 165</ref> A series of international symposiums on the Science of Creative Intelligence were held between 1970 and 1973 and were attended by scientists and "leading thinkers", including [[Buckminster Fuller]], [[Melvin Calvin]], a [[Nobel Prize]] winner in chemistry, [[Hans Selye]], [[Marshal McLuhan]] and [[Jonas Salk]].<ref name="Philip Goldberg2"/> These symposiums were held at universities such as [[Humboldt State University]] and [[University of Massachusetts]].<ref>{{Cite news |work=Sociological Analysis |year=1992 |volume=53 |issue=–S S1–S13 |series=Presidential Address — 1987 |title=On Founders and Followers: Some Factors in the Development of New Religious Movements |first=Benton |last=Johnson}}</ref><ref>Jefferson, William (1976). ' 'The Story of The Maharishi' ', pp118-123. Pocket Books, New York, NY.</ref><ref>Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Fuller, Buckminster (1971) Maharishi Channel Maharishi and Buckminster Fuller Press Conference YouTube, retrieved September 24, 2012</ref><ref name="Una Kroll"/> The following year, the Maharishi developed a World Plan to spread his teaching of SCI around the world.<ref name="Una Kroll"/><ref>{{Cite book |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofaf00murp/page/1045 1045] |chapter=Eastern Family, Part I |last=Melton |year=2003 |title=Encyclopedia of American Religions |isbn=0-8153-0500-1 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofaf00murp/page/1045}}</ref>


The theoretical part of SCI is taught in a 33-lesson video course.<ref name="maharishi.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.maharishi.org/sci/sci.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125150229/http://maharishi.org/sci/sci.html |archive-date=November 25, 2010 |title=The Science of Creative Intelligence Course |publisher=maharishi.org |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the early 1970s, the SCI course was offered at more than 25 American universities including [[Stanford University]], [[Yale University]], the [[University of Colorado]], the [[University of Wisconsin]], and [[Oregon State University]].<ref name="Una Kroll">Kroll, Una (1974) John Knox Press, The Healing Potential of Transcendental Meditation, chapter 1: The Guru, pp 17-25</ref><ref name="TM ABC guide">{{cite book |author=Goldhaber, Nat |year=1976 |publisher=Ballantine Books |title=TM:An alphabetical guide to the Transcendental Meditation program}}</ref>{{rp |p 125}}<ref>{{Cite news |first=T. K. |last=Irwin |title=What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad' |work=Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly |date=October 8, 1972 |pages=8–9 |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=NRAzAAAAIBAJ&pg=5803,3090100}}</ref> Until 2009, [[Maharishi University of Management]] (MUM) required its undergraduate students to take SCI classes,<ref>{{Cite book |edition=24th |publisher=Barron's |isbn=978-0-7641-7294-6 |last=Barron's Educational Series, Inc. |title=Profiles of American colleges |location=Hauppauge N.Y.; London |year=2000}}</ref><ref name=JME>{{Cite journal |last1=Schmidt-Wilk |first1=Jane |last2=Heston |first2=Dennis |last3=Steigard |first3=David |title=Higher education for higher consciousness Maharishi University of Management as a model for spirituality in management education |journal=Journal of Management Education |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=580–611 |year=2000 |doi=10.1177/105256290002400505 |s2cid=145812629 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Random House Information Group |isbn=978-0-375-76557-5 |author=Princeton Review |title=Complete Book of Colleges, 2007 Edition |date=August 15, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mum.edu/pdf_catalog/mvs.pdf |title=MUM catalog for the Department of Maharishi Vedic Science |access-date= |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527194259/https://www.mum.edu/pdf_catalog/mvs.pdf |archive-date=2010-05-27 }}</ref> and both MUM and [[Maharishi European Research University]] (MERU) in Switzerland have awarded degrees in the field.<ref name=DePalma>{{Cite news |title=University's Degree Comes With a Heavy Dose of Meditation (and Skepticism) |last=DePalma |first=Anthony |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 29, 1992 |page=B.8}}</ref> ''[[The Independent]]'' reports that children at [[Maharishi School, Lancashire|Maharishi School]] learn SCI principles such as "the nature of life is to grow" and "order is present everywhere".<ref>{{Cite news |first=Michelle |last=Teasdale |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/healthy-living/mummy-can-we-meditate-now-how-relaxation-exercises-can-help-your-child-to-sleep-1990059.html |title=Mummy, can we meditate now? |work=The Independent |date=June 3, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224507/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/healthy-living/mummy-can-we-meditate-now-how-relaxation-exercises-can-help-your-child-to-sleep-1990059.html |archive-date=March 3, 2016 }}</ref> SCI is reported to be part of the curriculum of TM related lower schools in Iowa, [[Wheaton, Maryland]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=This School Offers Readin', 'Ritin' and Mantras |first=Stephen |last=Buckley |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=March 19, 1993 |page=D.01}}</ref> and [[Skelmersdale]], UK.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Children meditate on top class GCSEs |first=Claire |last=Tolley |work=Daily Post |location=Liverpool |date=January 12, 2002 |page=13}}</ref> In 1975 SCI was used as the call letters for a TM owned television station in [[San Bernardino, California]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Eclectic TV KSCI's Programming in 14 Languages Offers News, Entertainment, Comfort to Ethnic Communities |first=David |last=Holley |work=Los Angeles Times |date=June 5, 1986 |page=1}}</ref>
A paper published in the ''Journal of Applied Psychology'' in 1978 found no effect on school grades.<ref>Carsello, C. J. and Creaser, J. W. "Does Transcendental Meditation Training Affect Grades?" Journal of Applied Psychology, 1978, 63, 644-645.</ref> A 1985 study in the ''British Journal of Educational Psychology'', and a 1989 study in ''Education'' showed improved academic performance.<ref>Nidich, S.I. and Nidich, R.J. Increased academic achievement at Maharishi School of the Age of Enlightenment: A replication study. Education 109: 302–304, 1989.</ref>
<ref>Kember, P. The Transcendental Meditation technique and postgraduate academic performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology 55: 164–166, 1985.</ref>


The Science of Creative Intelligence is not science.<ref name="sci">{{cite news |url = https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2012/may/13/letters-steiner-maharishi-schools-wrong |title = Schools of pseudoscience pose a serious threat to education |newspaper = The Guardian |date = 12 May 2012 |first1 = Pavan |last1 = Dhaliwal |first2 = Edzard |last2 = Ernst |first3 = David |last3 = Colquhoun |first4 = Simon |last4 = Singh |display-authors = etal |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170910173601/https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2012/may/13/letters-steiner-maharishi-schools-wrong |archive-date = 10 September 2017 }}</ref> Theologian [[Robert M. Price]], writing in the ''Creation/Evolution Journal'' (the journal of the [[National Center for Science Education]]), compares the Science of Creative Intelligence to [[Creationism]].<ref name="Price">{{Cite journal |url=http://ncse.com/cej/3/1/scientific-creationism-science-creative-intelligence |last=Price |first=Robert M. |author-link=Robert M. Price |title=Scientific Creationism and the Science of Creative Intelligence |journal=Creation Evolution Journal |volume=3 |date=Winter 1982 |pages=18–23 |issue=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331072532/http://ncse.com/cej/3/1/scientific-creationism-science-creative-intelligence |archive-date=2010-03-31 }}</ref> Price says instruction in the Transcendental Meditation technique is "never offered without indoctrination into the metaphysics of 'creative intelligence{{'"}}.<ref name="Price"/> Skeptic [[James Randi]] says SCI has "no scientific characteristics."<ref name="randi.org">{{Cite web|url=https://web.randi.org/t---encyclopedia-of-claims.html |title=James Randi Educational Foundation — An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural |access-date= }}</ref> [[Astrophysicist]] and sceptic [[Carl Sagan]] writes that the "Hindu doctrine" of TM is a [[pseudoscience]].<ref name="Sagan, 1997 p16">{{Cite book|author=Sagan, Carl |title=The Demon-haunted World: Science as a Candle In the Dark |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |year=1997 |page=16 |isbn=0-345-40946-9 |oclc= |doi= |access-date=}}</ref> [[Irving Hexham]], a professor of religious studies, describes the TM teachings as "pseudoscientific language that masks its religious nature by mythologizing science".<ref name=Kennedy/> Sociologists [[Rodney Stark]] and [[William Sims Bainbridge]] describe the SCI videotapes as largely based on the [[Bhagavad Gita]], and say that they are "laced with parables and metaphysical postulates, rather than anything that can be recognized as conventional science".<ref name=Stark>{{Cite book| last = Stark | first = Rodney | author-link = Rodney Stark |author2=[[William Sims Bainbridge]] |title = The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation | year = 1986 | publisher = University of California Press |location = Berkeley | isbn = 0520057317 | page = 289}}</ref> In 1979, the court case ''Malnak v Yogi'' determined that although SCI/TM is not a theistic religion, it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions.<ref name=Merriman>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l_8VFygyaDYC |last=Merriman |first=Scott A. |title=Religion and the Law in America |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85109-863-7 |page=522 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101101752/http://books.google.com/books?id=l_8VFygyaDYC |archive-date=2014-01-01 }}</ref> Maharishi biographer Paul Mason suggests that the scientific terminology used in SCI was developed by the Maharishi as part of a restructuring of his philosophies in terms that would gain greater acceptance and increase the number of people starting the TM technique. He says that this change toward a more academic language was welcomed by many of the Maharishi's American students.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Paul |title=The Maharishi |location=Great Britain |publisher=Element Books Limited |year=1994 |page=210 |isbn=1-85230-571-1}}</ref>
A paper published in 2001 in the journal, ''Intelligence,'' reported the effects on 362 Taiwanese students of three randomized, controlled trials that used seven standardized tests. The trials measured the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique, a contemplative meditative technique from the Chinese tradition, and napping, on a wide range of cognitive, emotional and perceptual functions. The three studies ranged in time from six months to one year. Results indicated that taken together the Transcendental Meditation group had significant improvement on all seven measurements compared to the non-treatment and napping control groups. Contemplative meditation showed a significant result in two categories, and napping had no effect. The results included an increase in IQ, creativity, fluid intelligence, field independence, and practical intelligence.<ref>Intelligence (September/October 2001), Vol. 29/5, pp. 419-440</ref>


===Maharishi effect (1974)===
In 2003 a study in the journal, ''Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift,'' reviewed ten randomized, controlled trials that looked at the effect of the Transcendental Meditation technique on cognitive function. Four trials showed a significant effect on cognitive function, while the remaining trials showed mixed results. Study authors, Canter and Ernst, noted that the four positive trials used subjects who had already intended to learn the Transcendental Meditation technique, and attributed the significant positive results to an [[Subject-expectancy effect|expectation effect]].<ref name="Wien Klin Wochenschr.">''Canter, P., Ernst, E. (2003) ''The cumulative effects of Transcendental Meditation on cognitive function&mdash;a systematic review of randomised controlled trials'' Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2003 November 28;115(21-22):758-766</ref> Orme-Johnson, co-author of one of these trials, has critiqued this study, noting errors and omissions.<ref>[http://www.truthabouttm.org/truth/Research/No-EffectStudies/index.cfm#Canter David Orme-Johnson: ''Critique of studies alleging that Transcendental Meditation technique has no effect'']</ref>
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi claimed that the quality of life would noticeably improve if at least the square root of one per cent (1%) of the population practised the Transcendental Meditation technique. This is known as the "Maharishi effect" and according to the Maharishi, it was perceived in 1974 after an analysis of crime statistics in 16 cities.<ref name="Science of Being"/>{{rp |329}}<ref name="Karam">Karam, Ted (2005) Jumping on Water: Awaken Your Joy, Empower Your Life, page 137</ref><ref name=Wager>{{Cite news |title=Musicians Spread the Maharishi's Message of Peace |first=Gregg |last=Wager |work=Los Angeles Times |date=December 11, 1987 |page=12}}</ref> With the introduction of the [[TM-Sidhi program]] including Yogic Flying, the Maharishi proposed that the square root of 1 per cent of the population (around 6325 people, the square root of 40 million (1% of the global
population of about 4 billion people in 1974<ref name="worldpop1974">{{cite news |url= https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/global-population-doubles-since-74-hits-8-billion-today/articleshow/95517415.cms|title= Global population doubles since 1974, hits 8 billion today|newspaper= The Times of India|date= 15 November 2022}}</ref>)) practicing this advanced program together at the same time and in the same place would create benefits in society. This was referred to as the "Extended Maharishi Effect".<ref name="Karam"/><ref name="Maharishi University of Management">{{cite web |url=http://www.mum.edu/m_effect/ |archive-date=August 23, 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000823041441/http://www.mum.edu/m_effect/ |title=Maharishi Effect – Research on the Maharishi Effect |publisher=Maharishi University of Management |access-date=December 29, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>


Author Ted Karam claims that there have been numerous studies on the Maharishi effect including a gathering of over 4,000 people (just under two thirds of the square root of 1% of the population as of 1974) in Washington, D.C. in the summer of 1993.<ref name="Karam"/> The effect has been examined in 42 scientific studies.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Meditation touted as crime-fighter // Study presented builds the case for 'Maharishi effect' |first=Conrad |last=deFiebre |work=Star Tribune |location=Minneapolis, Minn. |date=October 7, 1994 |page=03.B}}</ref> The TM organisation has linked the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] and a reduction in global terrorism, US inflation and crime rates to the Maharishi effect.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Maharishi mob meditates on Limerick's ills |first=Liam |last=Fay |work=Sunday Times |location=London (UK) |date=June 13, 2004 |page=32}}</ref> The Maharishi effect has been endorsed by the former President of Mozambique [[Joaquim Chissano]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.salon.com/people/feature/2000/12/01/mozambique/print.html |last=Roach |first=Mary |title=The last tourist in Mozambique |work=Salon |date=December 1, 2000 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604161759/http://www.salon.com/people/feature/2000/12/01/mozambique/print.html |archive-date=June 4, 2011 }}</ref>
A 1971 survey by Leon Otis found that a significant percentage of those who practice the Transcendental Meditation technique also report feeling anxiety, confusion, and depression.<ref>Deane H. Shapiro and Roger N. Walsh, editors, Meditation: Classic and Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Aldine Publishing Co., 1984), p. 207</ref> Other researchers have found that the Transcendental Meditation technique has no correlation with these conditions.<ref>Herron, Robert E., et al: 1996, “Cost-Effective Hypertension Management: Comparison of Drug Therapies with an Alternative Program,” The American Journal of Managed Care Vol. 11, No. 4, p. 433</ref>


As the theories proposed by TM practitioners<ref name="Park">{{Cite book |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780198604433 |page=30 |last=Park |first=Robert L. |title=Voodoo science: The road from foolishness to fraud |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzCK6-Kqs6QC}}</ref> go beyond modern science{{weasel inline|date=May 2024}}, the Maharishi effect still lacks a [[causality|causal basis]].<ref name="Fales">{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2580722 |last1=Fales |first1=Evan |last2=Markovsky |first2=Barry |title=Evaluating Heterodox Theories |jstor=2580722 |journal=Social Forces |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=511–525 |year=1997}}</ref> Moreover, the evidence has been said to result from [[Cherry picking (fallacy)|cherry-picked data]]<ref name="Schrodt">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0022002790034004008 |jstor=174187 |last=Schrodt |first=Phillip A. |title=A methodological critique of a test of the Maharishi technology of the unified field |journal=Journal of Conflict Resolution |volume=34 |issue=4 |year=1990 |pages=745–755|s2cid=145426830 }}</ref> and the [[credulity]] of believers.<ref name=Fales/><ref name="SFGate">{{Cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/1995/12/29/MN65432.DTL |last=Epstein |first=Edward |title=Politics and Transcendental Meditation |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=29 December 1995}}</ref> Critics, such as [[James Randi]], have called this research [[pseudoscience]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Stop the bleeping pseudoscience; Quantum physics film drowns in its own bunk science High point in What The Bleep is stunning animation sequence |first=PETER |last=CALAMAI |work=Toronto Star |date=October 9, 2004 |page=J.13}}</ref> Randi says that he investigated comments made by former Maharishi International University faculty member Robert Rabinoff in 1978. He spoke to the [[Fairfield, Iowa|Fairfield]] Chief of Police who said local crime levels were the same and the regional Agriculture Department who reportedly deemed that farm yields for [[Jefferson County, Iowa|Jefferson County]] matched the state average.<ref name=Randi106>{{Cite book |author=Randi, James |title=Flim-flam!: psychics, ESP, unicorns, and other delusions |publisher=Prometheus Books |location=Buffalo, N.Y. |year=1982 |page=106 |isbn=0-87975-198-3 }}</ref>
==Theory of consciousness==
===Maharishi's theory of enlightenment===
According to Maharishi's theory of enlightenment, there are seven major states of consciousness, of which the first three are commonly known. The last three states describe aspects of enlightenment (a state in which the human being is said to be fully developed ), that, according to Maharishi, is the ultimate goal of long-term practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique:
# ''Dreamless sleeping state of consciousness''
# ''Dreaming state of consciousness'' (REM)
# ''Waking state of consciousness''
# ''Transcendental Consciousness,'' said to be a fourth major state of consciousness, distinct from waking, sleeping or dreaming. According to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique thought becomes increasingly subtle, until the finest level of thought is reached. From there the mind can further experience the source of thought, or transcends thought, and is no longer bound by thoughts or perceptions but experiences awareness of itself alone.This state is said to be an experience of "am-ness", or "Being"experienced at the source of thought. <ref>[http://www.mum.edu/m_effect/alexander/index#innerpeace''Transcendental Consciousness: The State of Inner Peace'']</ref> Maharishi calls this state Transcendental Consciousness, and has said that Transcendental Consciousness is experienced via ''dhyana'', a Sanskrit term which he equates with Transcendental Meditation. <ref>[http://www.enmag.org/05/5bkreview.htm ''Enlightenment Online'']</ref> While ''dhyana'' is often characterized as involving concentration or contemplation, Transcendental Meditation, according to Maharishi, makes use of the "natural, expansive response of the mind." Maharishi believes that concentration is a mistranslation of ''dhyana'' and that meditation that uses concentration can result in a failure to transcend. <ref name="SACM">[http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/3/4/513 ''Studies of Advanced Stages of Meditation in the Tibetan Buddhist and Vedic Traditions. I: A Comparison of General Changes''], Hethe House, ''eCAM'', 2006 3(4):513-521</ref>
# ''Cosmic Consciousness'', the fifth state, is said to be the state of "enlightenment" which results from alternating the experience of Transcendental Consciousness with the activity of our daily lives. Through repeated practice, the non-changing state of Being of Transcendental Consciousness becomes permanently maintained along with waking, sleeping and dreaming. This all-inclusive state - "cosmic" - is said to be marked by a peacefully, non-changing, restfully alert, inner state that is maintained while one is actively engaged in the constant changes of life. <ref>[http://www.mum.edu/m_effect/alexander/index#CC ''Cosmic Consciousness: A Permanent State of Peace'']</ref>
# ''God Consciousness'' is said to be the state where, during waking, sleeping and dreaming states, the awareness of Cosmic Consciousness is accompanied by refined sensory perception and awareness of the mechanics of creation. This perception is said to lead to a devotion for and love of creation and its creator.<ref name="gcuc">[http://www.mum.edu/m_effect/alexander/index#GCUC ''God Consciousness and Unity Consciousness: The Highest States of Peace and Fulfillment'']</ref>
# ''Unity Consciousness'', the seventh state, is said to be a state in which the perception that all aspects of life, from gross to subtle, are nothing but expressions of one's Being, or pure consciousness. The outer and inner realities of life are said to have been bridged in Unity Consciousness.


===Maharishi Vedic Science (1981)===
=== Research on "higher states of consciousness" ===
The Maharishi proclaimed 1981 as the Year of Vedic Science.<ref name="Science of Being"/>{{rp |336}} It is based on the Maharishi's interpretation of ancient Vedic texts and includes subjective technologies like the Transcendental Meditation technique and the TM-Sidhi program plus programs like Maharishi Sthapatya Veda (MSV) and Maharishi Vedic Astrology (MVA) services which apply Vedic science to day-to-day living.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bonshek |first1=Anna |last2=Bonshek |first2=Corrina |last3=Fergusson |first3=Lee |title=The Big Fish: Consciousness as Structure, Body and Space. (Consciousness, Literature the Arts) |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=978-90-420-2172-3 |year=2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mum.edu/msvs/Chandler1.html |title=Modern Science and Vedic Science: An Introduction |publisher=Modern Science and Vedic Science, Volume 1 |access-date=November 15, 2009 |first=Kenneth |last=Chandler |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527213259/https://www.mum.edu/msvs/Chandler1.html |archive-date=May 27, 2010}}</ref> Vedic science studies the various aspects of life and their relationship to the Veda.


===Maharishi Ayurveda===
While earlier studies focused on physiological effects during meditation, later on-going studies (from about 1970 and on) began to focus on understanding the state of the mind and the body during the experience of higher states of consciousness (as defined above), and on episodes of what became known as "pure" Transcendental Consciousness during practice of the Transcendental Meditation technique. Several common physiological markers for Transcendental Consciousness, including reduced breath volume, high alpha EEG coherence, and decreased heart rate as compared to the remainder of a TM meditation period, were found. <ref>Badawi K, Wallace RK, Orme-Johnson D, Rouzere AM. "Electrophysiologic characteristics of respiratory suspension periods occurring during the practice of the Transcendental Meditation Program." Psychosomatic Medicine 1984 May-Jun;46(3):267-76</ref> <ref>Travis F, Wallace RK. "Autonomic patterns during respiratory suspensions: possible markers of Transcendental Consciousness." Psychophysiology. 1997 Jan;34(1):39-46</ref>
{{main|Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health}}
Maharishi Ayurveda<ref>{{harvnb|Wallace|1993|pp=64–66}}</ref><ref name="harvnb|Sharma|Clark|1998">{{harvnb|Sharma|Clark|1998}}</ref> or Maharishi Vedic Medicine<ref>{{harvnb|Reddy|Egenes|2002}}</ref> is a form of [[alternative medicine]] founded in the mid-1980s by Maharishi.<ref name="Sharma 1998 loc=Preface"/> Distinct from traditional [[ayurveda]], it emphasizes the role of consciousness, and gives importance to positive emotions.<ref>For a brief history of traditional ayurveda, and selected translations from the original Sanskrit sources, see {{harvnb|Wujastyk|2003}}</ref> Maharishi Ayurveda has been variously characterized as emerging from, and consistently reflecting, the [[Advaita Vedanta]] school of [[Hindu philosophy]], representing the entirety of the ayurvedic tradition.<ref>Cynthia Ann Humes, "Maharishi Ayur-Veda", chapter 17 in {{harvnb|Wujastyk|Smith|2008|pp=309 and 326}}</ref><ref name=Sharma95>{{harvnb|Sharma|1995}}</ref>


== Notes ==
More recently, several studies have been conducted on individuals who report having experiences of Transcendental Consciousness in activity or sleep (referred to above as "Cosmic Consciousness"). A study published in 1997, in the journal, ''Sleep'', found greater alpha and theta EEG power, but no difference in delta EEG power in long-term TM meditators reporting episodes of "higher states of consciousness" during sleep compared to controls.<ref>Mason LI, Alexander CN, Travis FT, Marsh G, Orme-Johnson DW, Gackenbach J, Mason DC, Rainforth M, Walton KG. "Electrophysiological correlates of higher states of consciousness during sleep in long-term practitioners of the Transcendental Meditation program." Sleep. 1997 Feb;20(2):102-10.</ref> A study published in 2002, in ''Biological Psychology'', found distinct EEG patterns in the 17 long-term meditators as compared to two matched control groups. In addition, using a measure called choice-contingent negative variation, the researchers found that the subjects' brains responded more efficiently during tasks.<ref>Travis, F. T., Tecce, J., Arenander, A., & Wallace, R. K. (2002), ''Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and contingent negative variation characterize the integration of transcendental and waking states''. ''Biological Psychology'', 61, 293-319</ref> Using the same three groups of subjects, a followup study, that utilized content analysis to characterize and classify their subjective experiences, found that the group reporting an experience of Transcendental Consciousness during activity had unique subjective experiences. This was characterized by an on-going experience described as "unboundedness." <ref>Travis, F., Arenander, A., & DuBois, D. (2004). ''Psychological and physiological characteristics of a proposed object-referral/self-referral continuum of self-awareness''. ''Consciousness and Cognition'', 13, 401-420</ref>
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==History==

In 1957, at the end of a festival of "spiritual luminaries" in remembrance of the previous [[Shankaracharya]] of the North, [[Swami]] [[Brahmananda Saraswati]], [[Maharishi Mahesh Yogi]] (or simply "[[Maharishi]]" to followers) inaugurated a movement to "spiritually regenerate the world." From that point in time, the Transcendental Meditation technique has spread throughout the world.<ref>Oates, Robert M. (1976)''Celebrating the Dawn'', New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11815-2</ref> Maharishi's publications during this period include ''Beacon Light of the Himalayas'' (1955),<ref>[http://www.paulmason.info/gurudev/Beacon.htm] </ref> ''Science of Being and Art of Living'' (1963), a translation of, and commentary on, the first six chapters of the [[Bhagavad-Gita]] (1965), and the long devotional poem ''Love and God'' (1967).<ref>[http://mumpress.com/m_books_m.html]</ref>

In the early 1970s, Maharishi launched a "World Plan" to establish one Transcendental Meditation teaching center for each million of the world's population, which at that time would have meant 3,600 TM centers throughout the world. Since 1990, Maharishi has coordinated his global activities from his headquarters in the town of [[Vlodrop]] in the municipality of [[Roerdalen]] in the [[Netherlands]]. The Global Country of World Peace is the name of the organization through which the TM technique is taught.

Maharishi founded [[Maharishi University of Management]], which began offering classes in 1973 in California and relocated to Fairfield, [[Iowa]], USA, in 1974. He has also founded a number of schools around the world. He inspired the founding of [[Maharishi Vedic City]] in southeast Iowa and the [[Natural Law Party]], a political party that became active in several countries. To date most have been dissolved. The U.S. NLP closed on [[April 30]], [[2004]].<ref>[http://www.natural-law.org/ ''Natural Law Party'']</ref>

The official TM website indicates that more than 6 million people worldwide have learned the Transcendental Meditation technique since its inauguration,<ref>[http://tm.org ''The Transcendental Meditation Program'']</ref> including celebrities such as comedian [[Jerry Seinfeld]],[http://www.philly.com/inquirer/entertainment/20071021_While_promoting_Bee_Movie__he_keeps_processing.html] [[Dolly Parton]], [[Andy Kaufman]], [[The Beatles]], [[Beach Boys]]' [[Mike Love]], [[Stevie Wonder]], and [[Al Jardine]], jazz musicians Eric Kloss and [[Charles Lloyd]], actor [[Stephen Collins]], radio personality [[Howard Stern]], actor [[Clint Eastwood]], film director [[David Lynch]], actor [[Hugh Jackman]], inventor and author [[Itzhak Bentov]], Scottish musician [[Donovan]], actresses [[Mia Farrow]] and [[Heather Graham]] [http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,1101030804,00.html]. For nearly eight years, [[Deepak Chopra]] was one of Maharishi's most prominent spokespersons and promoters of Maharishi [[Ayurveda]] or [[alternative medicine]].<ref>Chopra, D. (1991)''Perfect Health: The Complete Mind/Body Guide'', New York: Harmony Books ISBN 0-517-58421-2</ref> Political leaders who practice TM include [[Joaquim Chissano]] [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/africa/article3087262.ece][http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,556139,00.html], former president of [[Mozambique]].

== Transcendental Meditation communities ==
There are several [[Intentional community|intentional communities]] centered on Transcendental Meditation:
* In Israel there are two settlements in [[Galilee]] whose residents practice Transcendental Meditation - [[Hararit]] and [[Yachad (kibbutz)|Yachad]].
* [[Maharishi Vedic City, Iowa]], incorporated in 2001, has a total population of about 420, and is expected by its planners to reach a population of 1,200 by the year 2010.

== Transcendental Meditation controversies==
===Relationship to religion and spirituality===

Official Transcendental Meditation websites state that the TM technique is a mental technique for deep rest and for contacting what is described as a field of unlimited potential. These sites state that the Transcendental Meditation technique does not require faith, belief, or a change in lifestyle to be effective. [http://www.tm.org/discover/glance/what.html]

Clergy have varying views when assessing the compatibility of their religions to the TM technique and programs. [[Jaime Cardinal Sin|Cardinal Sin]], Archbishop of Manila, believes, as he outlines in his 1984 pastoral statement, that the Transcendental Meditation perspective conflicts with Christianity. For example, unlike the Christian idea of God – a personal god caring for every individual – Archbishop Sin believes the inner reality one reaches through the TM technique to be impersonal. Man, as described by TM philosophy, is capable of increasing levels of perfection, but is not born in Original sin, a foundation of Christian doctrine. Pain and suffering as redemptive, another foundation of much Christian thought, is lacking in TM theory, according to Cardinal Sin. [http://www.rcam.org/library/pastoral_statements/1981-1986/0025.htm] Archbishop Sin also noted the belief that mantras used in the Transcenental Meditation technique are apparent invocations to deities. No information on mantras exists on official Transcendental Meditation technique web sites.

Maharishi does call Transcendental Meditation "a path to God", <ref>''Meditations of Maharishi''. p. 59</ref> and in his teaching often makes references to "God" or a creator.<ref>''Science of Being and Art of Living'', Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Rev. Ed. 1967, p. 271</ref> Transcendental Meditation program websites indicate Maharishi makes no references to the Transcendental Meditation technique as a religious practice, although he does describe himself as a spiritual teacher.{{Fact|date=September 2007}} Kelly Zellers and Pamela Perrewe in their discussion of “The Role of Spirituality in Occupational Stress and Well-Being,” in ''Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance'', describe meditation, yoga, and the Transcendental Meditation technique, one form of meditation mentioned, as spiritual and describe all three as coping strategies people may employ in business and in life in general.<ref> Zellers, Kelly L., Perrewe, Pamela. “The Role of Spirituality in Occupational Stress and Well-Being”, ''Handbook of Workplace Spirituality and Organizational Performance'', M.E. Sharp, December 2002.</ref>

Clergy who find the TM technique to be compatible with their religious teachings and beliefs include Rabbi Allan Green who finds the Transcendental Meditation technique and its philosophy to provide insight into his work as a rabbi, <ref> Vesely,Carolin, “Its All in Your Mind” Winnipeg Free Press, [[March 21]], [[2006]].</ref> and Rabbi Raphael Levine who discovered that TM theory contains many of the same insights found in the teachings of Hebrew Prophets. [http://www.tm.org/news/seatimes.html]
Father Adrian Smith, a Catholic priest, describes Transcendental Meditation as compatible with any religion because of its pertinence to human nature rather than to religious virtue.<ref> Smith, Adrian B. A Key to the Kingdom of Heaven: A Christian Understanding of Transcendental Meditation. Temple House Books, 1993. </ref> Father Basil Pennington, a Cistercian monk, believes that the deepest self described by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi as the Absolute is known to Christians, and is the same as "our God of love, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”.<ref> Pennington, Basil. “TM and Christian Prayer”, Daily We Touch Him: Practical Religious Experiences. Doubleday, 1977:73 </ref>

An early controversy on the use of the Transcendental Meditation technique in schools arose in 1979, when the United States Third Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the lower court decision in Malnak v. Yogi (592 F.2d 197) that a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, which included the Transcendental Meditation technique, could not be taught in New Jersey public schools because it violated the Establishment Clause <ref name="conlaw">http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/estabinto.htm</ref> of the [[First Amendment]], which creates a wall of separation between church and state. <ref name="malnak">Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)</ref> The lower court based the ruling in part on the brief ceremony (known as the "puja") involved in Transcendental Meditation instruction (though an appellate judge disagreed<ref>In his concurring opinion, Judge Adams said that the ceremony didn't violate the Establishment Clause because “(a) the Puja was never performed in a school classroom, or even on government property; (b) it was never performed during school hours, but only on a Sunday; (c) it was performed only once in the case of each student; (d) it was entirely in Sanskrit with neither the student nor, apparently, the teacher who chanted it, knowing what the foreign words meant. Moreover, the elements of involuntariness present in Engel and Schempp are wholly absent here.” Malnak v. Yogi, 592 F.2d 197, 203 (3rd Cir., 1979)</ref>) and also on the fact that the Science of Creative Intelligence dealt with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions. Because the ruling centered around a curriculum in the Science of Creative Intelligence, and because the [[Wallace v. Jaffree]] decision in 1986 allows for quiet time/meditation with a secular purpose, instruction in the Transcendental Meditation technique has continued in public charter schools, despite comments like those of sociologist Barry Markovsky, who felt that in teaching the Transcendental Meditation technique in the schools, there might be an undercurrent of religion. He labeled this as “stealth religion." <ref>[http://www.gtrnews.com/greater-tulsa-reporter/753/once-grand-camelot-hotel-had-a-quick-demise ''Man Fails To Fly, Sues Camlot Owner''], ''GTR News Online'', Nancy K. Owens<br> </ref> <ref>''The White Plain Journal News'', Joy Victory, [[May 18]], [[2004]] </ref>
Principals of public charter schools Nataki Talibah Schoolhouse in Detroit and Fletcher-Johnson School in Washington, D.C.,
note that in their views the TM technique is not religious. They point out the benefits of the technique, one of which is to help to relieve stress in their students. [http://www.tdn.com/articles/2004/11/06/this_day/news01.txt][http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/02/14/opinion/rmed.php]

=== Cult accusations ===

In 1987, the controversial and now defunct group “old” [[Cult Awareness Network]] (CAN)
<ref name="shupe">[http://www.cesnur.org/2001/CAN.htm CAN, We Hardly Knew Ye: Sex, Drugs, Deprogrammers’ Kickbacks, and Corporate Crime in the (old) Cult Awareness Network], by [[Anson Shupe]] and Susan E. Darnell, October 21, 2000, paper presented at SSSR meeting</ref>
held a press conference and demonstration in Washington, D.C., charging that Transcendental Meditation, “seeks to strip individuals of their ability to think and choose freely.” Steve Hassan, author of several books on cults, and at one time a CAN deprogrammer <ref name="shupe">[http://www.cesnur.org/2001/CAN.htm CAN, We Hardly Knew Ye: Sex, Drugs, Deprogrammers’ Kickbacks, and Corporate Crime in the (old) Cult Awareness Network], by [[Anson Shupe]] and Susan E. Darnell, October 21, 2000, paper presented at SSSR meeting</ref> commented in the same press conference that TM practitioners display what he considers to be cult–like behaviors.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/cult/trans_med/tm2.htm ''Group Says Movement a Cult''], [[The Washington Post]], Phil McCombs, [[July 2]], [[1987]]</ref>
These cult-like tendencies were also noted in Michael A. Persinger's book, TM and Cult Mania, published in 1980.<ref> Michael A. Persinger et al, Christopher Pub House, May 1980, ISBN 0815803923</ref>

David Orme-Johnson, former psychology professor and researcher at Maharishi University of Management and author of over 100 studies related to the Transcendental Meditation technique, cites research showing greater autonomy, independence, and innovative thought in TM practitioners, as well as increases in creativity, general intelligence and moral reasoning. Cult followers, according to Orme–Johnson allegedly operate on blind faith, and adherence, usually rigid, to arbitrary rules and authority, whereas Orme-Johnson notes that these studies indicate the ability of TM practitioners to make mature, independent, principle-based judgments. [http://www.global-country.net/truth/Home/AboutDavidOrme-Johnson/index.cfm]

=== Lawsuits ===

'''Kropinski v. WPEC'''

In a civil suit against the World Plan Executive Council filed in 1985,<ref>United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Civil Suit #85-2848, 1986</ref> Robert Kropinski claimed fraud, psychological, physical, and emotional harm as a result of the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi programs. The district court dismissed Kropinski's claims concerning intentional tort and negligent infliction of emotional distress, and referred the claims of fraud and negligent infliction of physical and psychological injuries to a jury trial. The jury awarded Robert Kropinski $137,890 in the fraud and negligence claims. The appellate court overturned the award and dismissed Kropinski's claim alleging psychological damage. The claim of fraud and the claim of a physical injury related to his practice of the TM-Sidhi program were remanded to the lower court for retrial, and the parties then settled these remaining claims out of court.<ref>Kropinski v. WPEC, 853 F.2d 948</ref>

'''Butler/Killian vs. MUM'''

Two lawsuits were filed as a result of a stabbing at [http://www.mum.edu Maharishi University of Management] in [[Fairfield, Iowa]] on [[March 1]], [[2004]]<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1207936,00.html ''Trouble in transcendental paradise as murder rocks the Maharishi University''], ''The Observer'', [[May 2]], [[2004]]</ref> The families of the murdered student and a student who was assaulted earlier in the day have sued MUM and the Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation. Their separate suits, filed on February 24, 2006, allege that the twice-daily practice of Transcendental Meditation, which the university requires of all students, can be dangerous for people with psychiatric problems. They also charge the university with failing to call the police or take action to protect students from a violent, mentally ill student.<ref>Butler v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa, Central Div., Case No. 06-cv-00072</ref><ref>Kilian v. Maharishi University of Management, US District Court, Southern District of Iowa</ref>

=== Consciousness and the unified field ===

Maharishi teaches that the Transcendental Meditation technique allows the mind to contact an underlying field of existence. Teachers of Transcendental Meditation hypothesize this field to be parallel to or the same as a hypothetical unified field described by physicists.[http://permanentpeace.org/theory/peace.html][http://permanentpeace.org/theory/nature.html] For a short time in the 1980s, the Transcendental Meditation technique was referred to as the Maharishi Technology of the Unified Field.

The relationship between the mind and physics is a matter of dispute among physicists. In 1986 Heinz Pagels, who was at the time the executive director of the New York Academy of Science, wrote a letter stating that the philosophical claims of the TM organization willfully distort scientific truth.<ref>[http://skepdic.com/chopra.html ''Deepak Chopra''], ''The Skeptics Dictionary'', Robert Carroll</ref>

=== Issue of cost ===

In response to what they feel is a high course fee to learn TM, some former TM teachers offer instruction on their own. Other former TM teachers, critical of the organization, have published what they claim to be TM mantras. [http://www.tm-meditation.co.uk/index1.htm ''TM Independent''] says it is their goal to make TM available at an affordable price. [http://www.NaturalStressReliefUSA.org ''Natural Stress Relief''] states that the technique they offer does not consist of the Transcendental Meditation program.<ref>[http://www.naturalstressreliefusa.org/separate-from-TM.php ''We Do Not Teach Transcendental Meditation'']</ref>

The TM organization recommends that the TM technique be learned from an authorized teacher only.<ref>[http://www.tm.org/main_pages/learn_tm.html Must be learned from a qualified teacher]</ref> The fee in the U.S. is currently $2,500.<ref>[http://tm.org/learn/course/requirements.html ''Course Requirements'']</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
<!--See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags-->
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references/>


==Sources==
* {{Harvard reference | Given1=Daniel | Surname1=Druckman | Given2=Robert, editors, | Surname2=Bjork | Year=NRC 1991 | Title=In the Mind's Eye: Enhancing Human Performance | Place=Washington, DC | Pages=122 | Publisher=National Academy Press |}}
*{{Citation | last1 = Reddy | first1 = Kumuda | last2 = Egenes | first2 = Linda | title = Conquering Chronic Disease Through Maharishi Vedic Medicine | year = 2002 | publisher = Lantern Books | location = New York| isbn = 978-1-930051-55-3 | page = 10 }}
* {{Harvard reference | Given1=Vernon A. | Surname1=Barnes | given2=Lynnette B. | Surname2=Bauza | Given3= Frank A. | Surname3=Treiber | Title= Impact of stress reduction on negative school behavior in adolescents | Journal=Health and Quality of Life Outcomes | Year= 2003 | Volume= 1 | Issue=10 | Year= 2003| URL=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-1-10}}
*{{Citation |doi=10.1089/act.1995.1.364 |title=Maharishi Ayur-VedaAn Ancient Health Paradigm in a Modern World |year=1995 |last1=Sharma |first1=Hari |journal=Alternative and Complementary Therapies |volume=1 |page=364 |issue=6}}
* {{Harvard reference | Surname1=Barnes | Given1=Vernon A. | Surname2=Treiber | Given2=Frank A. | Surname3=Davis | Given3=Harry |Authorlink= | Title=Impact of Transcendental Meditation1 on cardiovascular function at rest and during acute stress in adolescents with high normal blood pressure | Journal=Journal of Psychosomatic Research | Volume= 51 | Issue=4 | Year=2001 | Page=597-605 | URL=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(01)00261-6}}
*{{Citation | last1 = Wallace | first1 = Robert Keith | title = The physiology of consciousness | year = 1993 | publisher = Maharishi International University Press | location = Fairfield, Iowa | isbn = 978-0-923569-02-0 | pages = 64–66 }}
* {{Harvard reference | Given1=John S. | Surname1=Hagelin | Given2=Maxwell V. | Surname2=Rainforth| Given3= David W. | Surname3=Orme-Johnson | Given4=Kenneth L. | Surname4=Cavanaugh | Given5=Charles N. | Surname5=Alexander | Given6=Susan F. | Surname6=Shatkin | Given7=John L. Surname7=Davies | Given8=Anne O. | Surname8=Hughes | Given9=Emanuel| Surname9= Ross | Title= Effects of Group Practice of the Transcendental Meditation Program on Preventing Violent Crime in Washington, D.C.: Results of the National Demonstration Project, June&mdash;July 1993 | Journal=Social Indicators Research | Publisher=Springer | Volume=47| Issue=2| Page=153-201| Year=1999| URL= http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/soci/1999/00000047/00000002/00198917? }}
*{{Cite book| last1 = Wujastyk| first1 = Dominik| title = The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings | year = 2003 | publisher = Penguin | location = London, New York, etc. | isbn = 978-0-14-044824-5 }}
* {{Harvard reference | Given1=Christopher R. K.|Surname1= MacLean| Given2=Kenneth G. | Surname2=Walton | Given3=Stig R. | Surname3=Wenneberg | Given4=Debra K. | Surname4=Levitsky| Given5=Joseph P. | Surname5=Mandarino | Given6=Rafiq | Surname6=Waziri | Given7=Stephen L.| Surname7= Hillis | Given8=Robert H. Surname8=Schneider| Title= Effects of the Trancendentale Meditation program on adaptive mechanism: changes in hormone levels and responses to stress after 4 months of practice | Journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology | Volume= 22| Issue=4 | Year= 1997| Page=227-295| URL= http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4530(97)00003-6}}
*{{Cite book| last1 = Wujastyk| first1 = Dagmar| last2 = Smith| first2 = Frederick M.| title = Modern and global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms | year = 2008 | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany | isbn = 978-0-7914-7489-1 }}
* {{Harvard reference | Given1= Robert A. |Surname1=Rabinoff | Given2=Michael C. | Surname2=Dillbeck | Given3=Robert | Surname3=Deissler | Title=Effect of coherent collective consciousness on the weather | Journal=Scientific Research On Maharishi's Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Programme - Collected Papers | Volume=4, paper 324 | Issue=| Year=1981 | Page=2564-2565 | URL=http://www.mum.edu/tm_research/tm_biblio/socio_c.html}}
* {{Harvard reference | First=James| Last=Randi | Year=1982 | Title= Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions; [introduction by Isaac Asimov] | Chapter=Chapter 5, "The Giggling Guru: A Matter of Levity"| Editor= | Others=| Place=Buffalo, New York|Pages= | Publisher=Prometheus Books| ID=ISBN 0-87975-198-3 | URL=http://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0879751983| Authorlink= James_Randi}}


==Further reading==
* {{Harvard reference | Given1= Maura | Surname1=Paul-Labrador | Given2=Donna | Surname2=Polk | Given3= James | Surname3=Dwyer | Given4=Ivan | Surname4=Velasquez | Given5= sanford | Surname5=Nidich | Given6=Maxwell | Surname6=Rainforth |
* Bloomfield, Harold H., Cain, Michael Peter, Jaffe, Dennis T. (1975) ''TM: Discovering Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress'' {{ISBN|0-440-06048-6}}
Given7= Robert | Surname7=Schneider | Given8=C. Noel Bairey | Surname8=Merz | Title = Effects of a Randomized Controlled Trial of Transcendental Meditation on Components of the Metabolic Syndrome in Subjects With Coronary Heart Disease | Journal=Archives of Internal Medicine | Volume=166 | Year=2006 | Page=1218-1224 | URL=http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/166/11/1218}}
* Denniston, Denise, ''The TM Book'', Fairfield Press 1986 {{ISBN|0-931783-02-X}}
* Forem, Jack (2012) Hay House UK Ltd, ''Transcendental Meditation: The Essential Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi'' {{ISBN|1-84850-379-2}}
* {{Harvard reference | Given1= Frederick |Surname1=Travis | Given2=Alarik | Surname2=Arenander | Given3=David | Surname3= DuBois | Title = Psychological and physiological characteristics of a proposed object-referral/self-referral continuum of self-awareness | Journal=Consciousness and Cognition | Volume= 13 | Year=2004 | Page=401-420 |URL= http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2004.03.001}}
* Roth, Robert (1994) Primus, ''Transcendental Meditation'' {{ISBN|1-55611-403-6}}

* Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1968) (Bantam Books) ''Transcendental Meditation: Serenity Without Drugs'' {{ISBN|0-451-05198-X}}
</div>


==External links==
==External links==
{{sister project links|d=Q558571|m=no|mw=no|voy=no|species=no|c=Category:Transcendental Meditation movement|n=no|q=no|s=no|b=no|v=no}}
* [http://www.tm.org/discover/research/index.html ''Discover the benefits''] - Link to official TM site, includes some scientific study summaries.
*{{Official website}}
* [http://www.truthabouttm.org//truth/Home/index.cfm ''Truth About TM''] - A leading researcher on Transcendental Meditation responds to issues.
<!--======================== {{No more links}} ============================
* [http://www.tm-business.org/ American Association of Professionals Practicing the Transcendental Meditation Program]
| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia |
* [http://tm-education.org/ ''Stress-Free Schools'']
| is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. |
* [http://adhd-tm.org/video/to_the_contrary.html The Transcendental Meditation technique and ADHD]
| |
* [http://www.suggestibility.org ''Falling Down the TM Rabbit Hole - How TM Really Works, a Critical Opinion''] - Criticism of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and TM by a former TM teacher
| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. |
* [http://www.minet.org/ Meditation Information Network] - Web site supporting critical examination of Transcendental Meditation and associated programs. Includes archived newsletters of TM-EX, the Transcendental Meditation Ex-Members Support Group (1990 - 1994).
| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] & [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details. |
*[http://behind-the-tm-facade.org/ ''Behind the TM Facade''] - Criticizes claims made by the TM organization.
| |
* [http://www.mum.edu/tm_research ''Research on the Transcendental Meditation Technique'']
| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or |
* [http://www.freedomofmind.com/resourcecenter/groups/t/tm/ ''Transcendental Meditation''] -- Links to [[Steven Hassan]]'s "Freedom of Mind Center"
| replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link |

| to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) |
==Further reading==
| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140192476 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi on the Bhagavad-Gita : A New Translation and Commentary, Chapters 1-6]
======================= {{No more links}} =============================-->
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0452282667 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Science of Being and Art of Living : Transcendental Meditation]
{{Transcendental Meditation|state=expanded}}
* [http://www.davidlynchfoundation.com/ The David Lynch Foundation For Consciousness-Based Education and World Peace]
{{Meditation}}
* [http://www.theheart.org/article/714763.do June 16, 2006 Transcendental meditation improves blood pressure, insulin resistance]
{{Authority control}}
* {{Harvard reference | First=Paul| Last=Mason | Year=2005 | Title=Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: The Biography of the Man Who Gave Transcendental Meditation to the World | Chapter= | Editor= | Others=Language: English | Pages=335 pages | Publisher=Evolution Publishing | ID=ISBN 0-9550361-0-0| URL=http://www.maharishibiography.com | Authorlink= }}
* [[Geoff Gilpin]], ''The Maharishi Effect: A Personal Journey Through the Movement That Transformed American Spirituality'', Tarcher-Penguin 2006, ISBN 1-58542-507-9
* {{Harvard reference | First=Michael| Last=Persinger | Year=1980 | Title=TM and Cult Mania | Chapter= | Editor= | Others=Language: English | Pages=198 pages | Publisher=Christopher Pub House | ID=ISBN 0-8158-0392-3 | URL= | Authorlink= }}
* Kropinski v. World Plan Executive Council, 853 F, 2d 948, 956 (D.C. Cir, 1988)

{{Transcendental Meditation}}


[[Category:1955 introductions]]
[[Category:Hindu new religious movements]]
[[Category:Meditation]]
[[Category:Parapsychology]]
[[Category:Self religions]]
[[Category:Transcendental Meditation| ]]
[[Category:Transcendental Meditation| ]]

[[da:Transcendental meditation]]
[[de:Transzendentale Meditation]]
[[el:Υπερβατικός διαλογισμός]]
[[es:Meditación trascendental]]
[[fr:Méditation transcendantale]]
[[he:מדיטציה טרנסצנדנטלית]]
[[lt:Transcendentinė meditacija]]
[[nl:Transcendente meditatie]]
[[no:Transcendental meditasjon]]
[[pl:Medytacja transcendentalna]]
[[ru:Трансцендентальная медитация]]
[[sr:Трансцендентална медитација]]
[[fi:Transsendenttinen meditaatio]]

Latest revision as of 20:43, 18 November 2024

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, developer of the Transcendental Meditation technique.[1]

Transcendental Meditation (TM) is a form of silent meditation developed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. The TM technique involves the silent repetition of a mantra or sound, and is practiced for 15–20 minutes twice per day. It is taught by certified teachers through a standard course of instruction, with a cost which varies by country and individual circumstance. According to the Transcendental Meditation movement, it is a non-religious method that promotes relaxed awareness, stress relief, self-development, and higher states of consciousness. The technique has been variously described as both religious[2] and non-religious.[nb 1]

Maharishi began teaching the technique in India in the mid-1950s.[1] Building on the teachings of his master, the Hindu Advaita monk Brahmananda Saraswati (known honorifically as Guru Dev), the Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.[1][7] TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s as the Maharishi shifted to a more secular presentation, and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities, most prominently members of the Beatles and the Beach Boys. At this time, he began training TM teachers. The worldwide TM organization had grown to include educational programs, health products, and related services. Following the Maharishi's death in 2008, leadership of the TM organization passed to neuroscientist Tony Nader.

Research on TM began in the 1970s. A 2012 meta-analysis of the psychological impact of meditation found that Transcendental Meditation had a comparable overall effectiveness to other meditation techniques in improving general wellbeing, but might have distinctive effects on specific psychological variables.[8] A 2017 overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses indicates TM practice may lower blood pressure, an effect comparable with other health interventions. Because of a potential for bias and conflicting findings more research is needed.[9][10]

History

[edit]
Main article: History of Transcendental Meditation

The Transcendental Meditation program and the Transcendental Meditation movement originated with their founder Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and continued beyond his death in 2008.[1] In 1955,[11][12][13] "the Maharishi began publicly teaching a traditional meditation technique"[14] learned from his master Brahmananda Saraswati that he called Transcendental Deep Meditation[15] and later renamed Transcendental Meditation.[16] The Maharishi initiated thousands of people, then developed a TM teacher training program as a way to accelerate the rate of bringing the technique to more people.[16][17] He also inaugurated a series of tours that started in India in 1955 and went international in 1958 which promoted Transcendental Meditation.[18][19] These factors, coupled with endorsements by celebrities who practiced TM and claims that scientific research had validated the technique, helped to popularize TM in the 1960s and 1970s. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement.[20] Despite organizational changes and the addition of advanced meditative techniques in the 1970s,[21] the Transcendental Meditation technique has remained relatively unchanged.

Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In modern times, the movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice,[22] and includes many associated programs based on the Maharishi's interpretation of the Vedic traditions. In the U.S., non-profit organizations included the Students International Meditation Society,[23] AFSCI,[24] World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, Global Country of World Peace, Transcendental Meditation for Women, and Maharishi Foundation.[25] The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and leader of the Global Country of World Peace, is Tony Nader.[26][27]

Technique

[edit]
Main article: Transcendental Meditation technique

The meditation practice involves the use of a silently-used mantra for 15–20 minutes twice per day while sitting with the eyes closed.[28][29] It is reported to be one of the most widely practiced,[30][31] and among the most widely researched, meditation techniques,[32][33][34][35] with hundreds of published research studies.[36][37][38] The technique is made available worldwide by certified TM teachers in a seven-step course,[39] and fees vary from country to country.[40][41] Beginning in 1965, the Transcendental Meditation technique has been incorporated into selected schools, universities, corporations, and prison programs in the US, Latin America, Europe, and India. In 1977, a US district court ruled that a curriculum in TM and the Science of Creative Intelligence (SCI) being taught in some New Jersey schools was religious in nature and in violation of the First Amendment of the United States Constitution.[3][42] The technique has since been included in a number of educational and social programs around the world.[43]

The Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism,[44][45] and as a non-religious practice for self-development.[46][47][48]

The public presentation of the TM technique over its 50-year history has been praised for its high visibility in the mass media and effective global propagation, and criticized for using celebrity and scientific endorsements as a marketing tool. Also, advanced courses supplement the TM technique and include an advanced meditation program called the TM-Sidhi program,[49] the unveiling of which created media controversy and a time of crisis for the movement’s image.[50] In 2014, a meta-analysis of research found insufficient evidence that meditation such as TM "had an effect on any of the psychological stress and well-being outcomes".[51]

Movement

[edit]
Main article: Transcendental Meditation movement

The Transcendental Meditation movement consists of the programs and organizations connected with the Transcendental Meditation technique and founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Transcendental Meditation was first taught in the 1950s in India and has continued since the Maharishi's death in 2008. The organization was estimated to have 900,000 participants worldwide in 1977,[52] a million by the 1980s,[53][54][55] and 5 million in more recent years.[when?][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][excessive citations]

Programs include the Transcendental Meditation technique, an advanced meditation practice called the TM-Sidhi program ("Yogic Flying"), an alternative health care program called Maharishi Ayurveda,[63] and a system of building and architecture called Maharishi Sthapatya Ved.[64][65] The TM movement's past and present media endeavors include a publishing company (MUM Press), a television station (KSCI), a radio station (KHOE), and a satellite television channel (Maharishi Channel). During its 50-year history, its products and services have been offered through a variety of organizations, which are primarily nonprofit and educational. These include the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, the International Meditation Society, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, Transcendental Meditation for Women, the Global Country of World Peace, and the David Lynch Foundation.

The TM movement also operates a worldwide network of Transcendental Meditation teaching centers, schools, universities, health centers, herbal supplements, solar panel, and home financing companies, plus several TM-centered communities. The global organization is reported to have an estimated net worth of USD 3.5 billion.[66][67] The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a new religious movement,[68][69] a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement,[70] a new social movement,[71] a guru-centered movement,[72] a personal growth movement,[73] a religion, and a cult.[69][74][75][76] Additional sources contend that TM and its movement are not a cult.[77][78][79][80] Participants in TM programs are not required to adopt a belief system; it is practiced by atheists, agnostics and people from a variety of religious affiliations.[81][82][83] The organization has been the subject of controversies that includes being labelled a cult by several parliamentary inquiries or anti-cult movements in the world.[84][85][86][69][74][75]

Some notable figures in pop-culture practicing TM include the Beatles, the Beach Boys, Kendall Jenner, Hugh Jackman, Tom Hanks, Jennifer Lopez, Mick Jagger, Eva Mendez, Moby, David Lynch, Jennifer Aniston, Nicole Kidman, Eric André, Jerry Seinfeld, Howard Stern, Julia Fox, Clint Eastwood, Martin Scorsese, Russell Brand, Nick Cave and Oprah Winfrey.[87]

Health effects

[edit]

The first studies of the health effects of Transcendental Meditation appeared in the early 1970s.[88]

There is no good evidence that TM reduces anxiety, or has any beneficial effect on forms of psychological stress or well-being.[89][90]

A 2012 review found that Transcendental Meditation performed no better overall than other meditation techniques.[8] The authors' analysis of a subset of these studies, those that studied specific categories of outcome, found that TM might perform better in reducing negative emotions, trait anxiety, and neuroticism and improving markers of learning, memory, and self-actualization, but performs more poorly in reducing negative personality traits, reducing stress, improving attention and mindfulness and cognition, in comparison with other meditation approaches.[91]

A statement from the American Heart Association said that TM could be considered as a treatment for hypertension, although other interventions such as exercise and device-guided breathing were more effective and better supported by clinical evidence.[92]

TM may reduce blood pressure according to a review that compared TM to control groups. A trend over time indicates practicing TM may lower blood pressure. Such effects are comparable to other lifestyle interventions. Conflicting findings across reviews and a potential risk of bias indicated the necessity of further evidence, conducted by researchers without bias. [9][10]

By 2004, the US government had given more than $20 million to Maharishi International University to study the effect of meditation on health.[93]

Views and claims

[edit]

Views on consciousness (1963)

[edit]

In his 1963 book, The Science of Being and Art of Living, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says that, over time, through the practice of the TM technique, the conscious mind gains familiarity with deeper levels of the mind, bringing the subconscious mind within the capacity of the conscious mind, resulting in expanded awareness in daily activity. He also teaches that the Transcendental Meditation practitioner transcends all mental activity and experiences the 'source of thought', which is said to be pure silence, 'pure awareness' or 'transcendental Being', 'the ultimate reality of life'.[94]: pp 44–53 [95][96] TM is sometimes self described as a technology of consciousness.[97] According to author Michael Phelan, "The fundamental premise of the psychology of fulfillment is that within every person exists a seemingly inexhaustible center of energy, intelligence, and satisfaction... To the extent that our behavior depends on the degree of energy and intelligence available to us, this center of pure creative intelligence may be described as that resource which gives direction to all that we experience, think and do."[98]

According to the Maharishi, there are seven levels of consciousness: (i) deep sleep; (ii) dreaming; (iii) waking; (iv) transcendental consciousness; (v) cosmic consciousness; (vi) God consciousness; and, (vii) unity consciousness.[99] The Maharishi says that transcendental consciousness can be experienced through Transcendental Meditation, and that those who meditate regularly over time could become aware of cosmic consciousness.[100] An indication of cosmic consciousness is "ever present wakefulness" present even during sleep.[101] Research on long-term TM practitioners experiencing what they describe as cosmic consciousness, has identified unique EEG profiles, muscle tone measurements, and REM indicators that suggest physiological parameters for this self described state of consciousness.[101][102] However, the Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness notes that it is premature to say that the EEG coherence found in TM is an indication of a higher state of consciousness.[103]

Science of Creative Intelligence (1971)

[edit]

In 1961, the Maharishi created the "International Meditation Society for the Science of Creative Intelligence".[104] In 1971 the Maharishi inaugurated "Maharishi's Year of Science of Creative Intelligence" and described SCI as the connection of "modern science with ancient Vedic science".[105] Author Philip Goldberg describes it as Vedanta philosophy that has been translated into scientific language.[106] A series of international symposiums on the Science of Creative Intelligence were held between 1970 and 1973 and were attended by scientists and "leading thinkers", including Buckminster Fuller, Melvin Calvin, a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, Hans Selye, Marshal McLuhan and Jonas Salk.[106] These symposiums were held at universities such as Humboldt State University and University of Massachusetts.[107][108][109][110] The following year, the Maharishi developed a World Plan to spread his teaching of SCI around the world.[110][111]

The theoretical part of SCI is taught in a 33-lesson video course.[112] In the early 1970s, the SCI course was offered at more than 25 American universities including Stanford University, Yale University, the University of Colorado, the University of Wisconsin, and Oregon State University.[110][113]: p 125 [114] Until 2009, Maharishi University of Management (MUM) required its undergraduate students to take SCI classes,[115][116][117][118] and both MUM and Maharishi European Research University (MERU) in Switzerland have awarded degrees in the field.[119] The Independent reports that children at Maharishi School learn SCI principles such as "the nature of life is to grow" and "order is present everywhere".[120] SCI is reported to be part of the curriculum of TM related lower schools in Iowa, Wheaton, Maryland[121] and Skelmersdale, UK.[122] In 1975 SCI was used as the call letters for a TM owned television station in San Bernardino, California.[123]

The Science of Creative Intelligence is not science.[124] Theologian Robert M. Price, writing in the Creation/Evolution Journal (the journal of the National Center for Science Education), compares the Science of Creative Intelligence to Creationism.[125] Price says instruction in the Transcendental Meditation technique is "never offered without indoctrination into the metaphysics of 'creative intelligence'".[125] Skeptic James Randi says SCI has "no scientific characteristics."[126] Astrophysicist and sceptic Carl Sagan writes that the "Hindu doctrine" of TM is a pseudoscience.[127] Irving Hexham, a professor of religious studies, describes the TM teachings as "pseudoscientific language that masks its religious nature by mythologizing science".[104] Sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge describe the SCI videotapes as largely based on the Bhagavad Gita, and say that they are "laced with parables and metaphysical postulates, rather than anything that can be recognized as conventional science".[128] In 1979, the court case Malnak v Yogi determined that although SCI/TM is not a theistic religion, it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions.[129] Maharishi biographer Paul Mason suggests that the scientific terminology used in SCI was developed by the Maharishi as part of a restructuring of his philosophies in terms that would gain greater acceptance and increase the number of people starting the TM technique. He says that this change toward a more academic language was welcomed by many of the Maharishi's American students.[130]

Maharishi effect (1974)

[edit]

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi claimed that the quality of life would noticeably improve if at least the square root of one per cent (1%) of the population practised the Transcendental Meditation technique. This is known as the "Maharishi effect" and according to the Maharishi, it was perceived in 1974 after an analysis of crime statistics in 16 cities.[94]: 329 [131][132] With the introduction of the TM-Sidhi program including Yogic Flying, the Maharishi proposed that the square root of 1 per cent of the population (around 6325 people, the square root of 40 million (1% of the global population of about 4 billion people in 1974[133])) practicing this advanced program together at the same time and in the same place would create benefits in society. This was referred to as the "Extended Maharishi Effect".[131][134]

Author Ted Karam claims that there have been numerous studies on the Maharishi effect including a gathering of over 4,000 people (just under two thirds of the square root of 1% of the population as of 1974) in Washington, D.C. in the summer of 1993.[131] The effect has been examined in 42 scientific studies.[135] The TM organisation has linked the fall of the Berlin Wall and a reduction in global terrorism, US inflation and crime rates to the Maharishi effect.[136] The Maharishi effect has been endorsed by the former President of Mozambique Joaquim Chissano.[137]

As the theories proposed by TM practitioners[138] go beyond modern science[weasel words], the Maharishi effect still lacks a causal basis.[139] Moreover, the evidence has been said to result from cherry-picked data[140] and the credulity of believers.[139][141] Critics, such as James Randi, have called this research pseudoscience.[142] Randi says that he investigated comments made by former Maharishi International University faculty member Robert Rabinoff in 1978. He spoke to the Fairfield Chief of Police who said local crime levels were the same and the regional Agriculture Department who reportedly deemed that farm yields for Jefferson County matched the state average.[143]

Maharishi Vedic Science (1981)

[edit]

The Maharishi proclaimed 1981 as the Year of Vedic Science.[94]: 336  It is based on the Maharishi's interpretation of ancient Vedic texts and includes subjective technologies like the Transcendental Meditation technique and the TM-Sidhi program plus programs like Maharishi Sthapatya Veda (MSV) and Maharishi Vedic Astrology (MVA) services which apply Vedic science to day-to-day living.[144][145] Vedic science studies the various aspects of life and their relationship to the Veda.

Maharishi Ayurveda

[edit]
Main article: Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health

Maharishi Ayurveda[146][147] or Maharishi Vedic Medicine[148] is a form of alternative medicine founded in the mid-1980s by Maharishi.[63] Distinct from traditional ayurveda, it emphasizes the role of consciousness, and gives importance to positive emotions.[149] Maharishi Ayurveda has been variously characterized as emerging from, and consistently reflecting, the Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, representing the entirety of the ayurvedic tradition.[150][151]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Sociologists, religion scholars, and a New Jersey judge and court are among those who have expressed views on it being religious or non-religious.[1][3][4] The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit upheld the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools.[5][6]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e Cowan, Douglas E.; Bromley, David G., eds. (2015) [2007]. "Transcendental Meditation: The Questions of Science and Therapy". Cults and New Religions: A Brief History. Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 38–58. ISBN 978-1-118-72350-0. LCCN 2015005385.
  2. ^ Siegel, Aryeh (2018). Transcendental Deception: Behind the TM Curtain. Los Angeles, CA: Janreg Press. ISBN 978-0-9996615-0-5.
  3. ^ a b Calo, Zachary (2008). "Chapter 4: The Internationalization of Church-State Issues". In Duncan, Ann; Jones, Steven (eds.). Church-State Issues in America Today. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-275-99368-9.[permanent dead link‍]
  4. ^ Ashman, Allan (January 1978). "What's New in the Law". American Bar Association Journal. 64. Chicago: American Bar Association: 124–144. ISSN 0002-7596.
  5. ^ "Malnak v. Yogi". Leagle. 1979. Retrieved 19 May 2017.
  6. ^ Bette Novit Evans (9 November 2000). Interpreting the Free Exercise of Religion: The Constitution and American Pluralism. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-8078-6134-9. Proponents of the program denied that Transcendental Meditation was a religion; the Third Circuit concluded that it was.
  7. ^ Dawson, Lorne (2003). Cults and New Religious Movements. Hoboken, New Jersey: Blackwell Publishing. p. 54. ISBN 9781405143493.
  8. ^ a b Sedlmeier, Peter; Eberth, Juliane; Schwarz, Marcus; Zimmerman, Doreen; Haarig, Frederik; Jaeger, Sonia; Kunze, Sonja; et al. (May 2012). "The Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Meta-Analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 138 (6): 1139–1171. doi:10.1037/a0028168. PMID 22582738. The global analysis yielded quite comparable effects for TM, mindfulness meditation, and the other meditation procedures...So, it seems that the three categories we identified for the sake of comparison, TM, mindfulness meditation, and the heterogeneous category we termed other meditation techniques, do not differ in their overall effects. For most of the specific categories that could be analyzed, we found quite a variation in effects. These results indicate that different approaches to meditation might have differential effects. To date, it is difficult, however, to deduce any consistent differences therefrom.
  9. ^ a b Bai, Z; Chang, J; Chen, C; Li, P; Yang, K; Chi, I (February 2015). "Investigating the effect of transcendental meditation on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Human Hypertension. 29 (11). Nature Publishing Group: 653–662. doi:10.1038/jhh.2015.6. ISSN 1476-5527. PMID 25673114. S2CID 22261.
  10. ^ a b Ooi, Soo Liang; Giovino, Melisa; Pak, Sok Chean (October 2017). "Transcendental meditation for lowering blood pressure: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses". Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 34. Elsevier: 26–34. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2017.07.008. ISSN 1873-6963. PMID 28917372. S2CID 4963470.
  11. ^ AP (5 February 2008). "Beatles guru dies in Netherlands". USA Today.
  12. ^ Epstein, Edward (29 December 1995). "Politics and Transcendental Meditation". San Francisco Chronicle.
  13. ^ Morris, Bevan (1992). "Maharishi's Vedic Science and Technology: The Only Means to Create World Peace" (PDF). Journal of Modern Science and Vedic Science. 5 (1–2): 200. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 May 2010.
  14. ^ Rooney, Ben (6 February 2008). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, guru to Beatles, dies". The Telegraph. London.
  15. ^ Williamson, Lola (2010). Transcendent in America: Hindu-Inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion. New York: NYU Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 9780814794500.
  16. ^ a b Russell, Peter (1977). The TM Technique: An Introduction to Transcendental Meditation and the Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. London: Routledge. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-7100-8539-9.
  17. ^ Needleman, Jacob (1970). "Transcendental Meditation". The New Religions (1st ed.). Garden City N.Y.: Doubleday. p. 144.
  18. ^ Richard Feloni (2016). History of transcendental meditation. Insider.
  19. ^ Christian D. Von Dehsen; Scott L. Harris (1999). Philosophers and religious leaders. The Orynx Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781573561525.
  20. ^ "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". The Times (London). 7 February 2008. p. 62.
  21. ^ Oates, Robert M. (1976). Celebrating the Dawn: Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and the TM technique. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-399-11815-9.
  22. ^ Irwin, T. K. (8 October 1972). "What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad'". Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly. pp. 8–9.
  23. ^ Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. London: Cassell. pp. 293–296. ISBN 978-0-8264-5959-6.
  24. ^ "Behavior: The TM Craze: 40 Minutes to Bliss". Time. 13 October 1975. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
  25. ^ Press Release by Maharishi Foundation (15 July 2013). "Australian Food Store Offers Transcendental Meditation to Employees". The Herald (South Carolina, USA). Archived from the original on 3 August 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
  26. ^ Mizroch, Amir (23 July 2006). "Forget the F-16s, Israel needs more Yogic Flyers to beat Hizbullah: 30-strong TM group, sole guests at Nof Ginnosar Hotel, say they need another 235 colleagues to make the country safe". Jerusalem Post. p. 4.
  27. ^ "Maharishi's ashes immersed in Sangam". The Hindustan Times. New Delhi. Indo-Asian News Service. 12 February 2008.
  28. ^ "The Transcendental Meditation Program". Tm.org. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
  29. ^ Lansky, Ephraim; St Louis, Erik (November 2006). "Transcendental meditation: a double-edged sword in epilepsy?". Epilepsy & Behavior. 9 (3): 394–400. doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2006.04.019. PMID 16931164. S2CID 31764098.
  30. ^ Cotton, Dorothy H. G. (1990). Stress management: An integrated approach to therapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel. p. 138. ISBN 0-87630-557-5.
  31. ^ Schneider, Robert; Fields, Jeremy (2006). Total Heart Health: How to Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease with the Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health. Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health Publications. pp. 148–149. ISBN 1458799247.
  32. ^ Murphy, M; Donovan, S; Taylor, E (1997). The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996. Sausalito, California: Institute of Noetic Sciences.
  33. ^ Benson, Herbert; Klipper, Miriam Z. (2001). The Relaxation Response. New York, NY: Quill. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-380-81595-1.
  34. ^ Sinatra, Stephen T.; Roberts, James C.; Zucker, Martin (20 December 2007). Reverse Heart Disease Now: Stop Deadly Cardiovascular Plaque Before It's Too Late. Wiley. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-470-22878-4.
  35. ^ Bushell, William (2009). "Longevity Potential Life Span and Health Span Enhancement through Practice of the Basic Yoga Meditation Regimen". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1172: 20–7. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04538.x. ISBN 9781573316774. PMID 19735236. S2CID 222086314. Transcendental Meditation (TM), a concentrative technique ... has been the most extensively studied meditation technique.
  36. ^ Ospina MB, Bond K, Karkhaneh M, et al. (June 2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep) (155): 62. PMC 4780968. PMID 17764203.
  37. ^ Rosenthal, Norman (2011). Transcendence: Healing and Transformation through Transcendental Meditation. New York: Tarcher/Penguin. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-58542-873-1. By my latest count, there have been 340 per-reviewed articles published on TM, many of which have appeared in highly respected journals.
  38. ^ Freeman, Lyn (2009). Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach. Mosby Elsevier. p. 176. ISBN 9780323053464.
  39. ^ "How To Learn". Tm.org. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
  40. ^ "TM Course Fee". TM.org. Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  41. ^ "Transcendental Meditation Fees and Course Details". Transcendental Meditation: Official website for the UK. Archived from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  42. ^ American Bar Association (January 1978). "Constitutional Law ... Separating Church and State". ABA Journal. 64: 144.
  43. ^ Humes, C.A. (2005). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique". In Forsthoefel, Thomas A.; Humes, Cynthia Ann (eds.). Gurus in America. SUNY Press. p. 69. ISBN 0-7914-6573-X. This lawsuit was the most significant setback for TM in the United States ... Since then TM has made a comeback of sorts with some governmental sponsorship
  44. ^ Bainbridge, William Sims (1997). The Sociology of Religious Movements. New York: Routledge. p. 188. ISBN 0-415-91202-4.
  45. ^ Aghiorgoussis, Maximos (Spring 1999). "The challenge of metaphysical experiences outside Orthodoxy and the Orthodox response". Greek Orthodox Theological Review. 44 (1–4). Brookline: 21, 34.
  46. ^ Chryssides, George D. (2001). Exploring New Religions. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 301–303. ISBN 9780826459596."Although one can identify the Maharishi's philosophical tradition, its teachings are in no way binding on TM practitioners. There is no public worship, no code of ethics, no scriptures to be studied, and no rites of passage that are observed, such as dietary laws, giving to the poor, or pilgrimages. In particular, there is no real TM community: practitioners do not characteristically meet together for public worship, but simply recite the mantra, as they have been taught it, not as religious obligation, but simply as a technique to benefit themselves, their surroundings and the wider world."
  47. ^ Partridge, Christopher (200). New Religions: A Guide To New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 184. It is understood in terms of the reduction of stress and the charging of one's mental and physical batteries.
  48. ^ Rosenthal, Norman E. (2011). Transcendence: Healing and Transformation Through Transcendental Meditation. Tarcher Penguin. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-58542-873-1.
  49. ^ Shear, Jonathan, ed. (2006). Experience of Meditation: Experts Introduce the Major Traditions. St Paul, MN: Paragon House. ISBN 978-1-55778-857-3.
  50. ^ Thursby, Gene (1995), "Hare Krishna In America: Growth, Decline, and Accommodation", America's Alternative Religions, Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 193–195, ISBN 9780791423981
  51. ^ Rohrlich, Justin (14 October 2018). "Ivanka Trump's Gurus Say Their Techniques Can End War and Make You Fly". thedailybeast.com. The Daily Beast Company LLC. Retrieved 21 May 2024. TM has its own set of scientists, viewed with skepticism by the mainstream scientific community.
  52. ^ Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William, Sims (1986). The Future Of Religion. University of California Press. p. 287. ISBN 978-0520057319.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) "Time magazine in 1975 estimated that the U.S. total had risen to 600,000 augmented by half that number elsewhere" =[900,000 worldwide] "Annual Growth in TM Initiations in the U.S. [chart] Cumulative total at the End of Each Year: 1977, 919,300"
  53. ^ Peterson, William (1982). Those Curious New Cults in the 80s. New Canaan, Connecticut: Keats Publishing. pp. 123. ISBN 9780879833176. claims "more than a million" in the USA and Europe.
  54. ^ Occhiogrosso, Peter. The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious Traditions. New York: Doubleday (1996); p 66, citing "close to a million" in the USA.
  55. ^ Bainbridge, William Sims (1997) Routledge, The Sociology of Religious Movements, page 189 "the million people [Americans] who had been initiated"
  56. ^ Analysis: Practice of requiring probationers to take lessons in transcendental meditation sparks religious controversy, NPR All Things Considered, 1 February 2002 | ROBERT SIEGEL "TM's five million adherents claim that it eliminates chronic health problems and reduces stress."
  57. ^ Martin Hodgson, The Guardian (5 February 2008) "He [Maharishi] transformed his interpretations of ancient scripture into a multimillion-dollar global empire with more than 5m followers worldwide"
  58. ^ Stephanie van den Berg, Sydney Morning Herald, Beatles guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi dies, (7 February 2008) "the TM movement, which has some five million followers worldwide"
  59. ^ Meditation a magic bullet for high blood pressure – study, Sunday Tribune (South Africa), (27 January 2008) "More than five million people have learned the technique worldwide, including 60,000 in South Africa."
  60. ^ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi - Transcendental Meditation founder's grand plan for peace, The Columbian (Vancouver, WA), 19 February 2006 | ARTHUR MAX Associated Press writer "transcendental meditation, a movement that claims 6 million practitioners since it was introduced."
  61. ^ Bickerton, Ian (8 February 2003). "Bank makes an issue of mystic's mint". Financial Times. London (UK). p. 09. the movement claims to have five million followers,
  62. ^ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, Spiritual Leader Dies, New York Times, By LILY KOPPEL, Published: 6 February 2008 "Since the technique's inception in 1955, the organization says, it has been used to train more than 40,000 teachers, taught more than five million people"
  63. ^ a b Sharma & Clark 1998, Preface
  64. ^ "Welvaert, Brandy, "Vedic homes seek better living through architecture", Rock Island Argus, (5 August 2005)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2010.
  65. ^ Spivack, Miranda (12 September 2008). "Bricks Mortar and Serenity". The Washington Post.
  66. ^ "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". The Times. London (UK). 7 February 2008. Archived from the original on 24 May 2010.
  67. ^ "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia.
  68. ^ For new religious movement see:
    Beckford, James A. (1985). Cult controversies: the societal response to new religious movements. Tavistock Publications. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-422-79630-9.
    Parsons, Gerald (1994). The Growth of Religious Diversity: Traditions. The Open University/Methuen. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-415-08326-3.
    For neo-Hindu, see:
    Alper, Harvey P. (December 1991). Understanding mantras. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 442. ISBN 978-81-208-0746-4.
    Raj, Selva J.; William P. Harman (2007). Dealing With Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia. SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7914-6708-4.
  69. ^ a b c Persinger, Michael A.; Carrey, Normand J.; Suess, Lynn A. (1980). TM and cult mania. North Quincy, Mass.: Christopher Pub. House. ISBN 0-8158-0392-3.
  70. ^ Dawson, Lorne L. (2003) Blackwell Publishing, Cults and New Religious Movements, Chapter 3: Three Types of New Religious Movement by Roy Wallis (1984), page 44-48
  71. ^ Christian Blatter, Donald McCown, Diane Reibel, Marc S. Micozzi, (2010) Springer Science+Business Media, Teaching Mindfulness, Page 47
  72. ^ Olson, Carl (2007) Rutgers University Press, The Many Colors of Hinduism, page 345
  73. ^ Shakespeare, Tom (24 May 2014). "A Point of View". BBC News. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
  74. ^ a b Stark, Rodney; Bainbridge, William Sims (1985). The future of religion: secularization, revival, and cult formation. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05731-7.
  75. ^ a b Sagan, Carl (1997). The demon-haunted world: science as a candle in the dark. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 16. ISBN 0-345-40946-9.
  76. ^ Szimhart, Joseph (2019). "A look into the Transcendental Deception". Skeptical Inquirer. 43 (2): 61–63.
  77. ^ Harrison, Shirley (1990). Cults: The Battle for God. Kent: Christopher Helm. pp. 93–103 "none of the other 'cultic qualities' defined by cult watchers can be fairly attributed to TM."
  78. ^ Rowson, Jonathan (23 April 2007) Meditation: for old hippies or a better way of life? Sunday Herald (Scotland) " the TM movement is not a cult", accessed 2 Feb 2013
  79. ^ Hannaford, Alex (27 December 2010). "Mantra with a mission; Feature Om or ominous? The maverick film director David Lynch wants to bring Transcendental Meditation to our classrooms, and believes in 'yogic flying'. Can he get it off the ground?". The Sunday Times (London).
  80. ^ Lyster, Samantha (21 October 2000) Samantha Lyster finds herself in holistic heaven with new-found happiness and tranquillity after learning the art of transcendental meditation, The Birmingham Post (England), "TM is not a religion, a cult or a philosophy"
  81. ^ Liebler, Nancy and Moss, Nancy (2009) Healing Depression the Mind-Body Way: Creating Happiness with Meditation ["the TM technique does not require adherence to any belief system—there is no dogma or philosophy attached to it, and it does not demand any lifestyle changes other than the practice of it."] [1] accessed 25 May 2013
  82. ^ "Its proponents say it is not a religion or a philosophy."The Guardian 28 March 2009 [2]
  83. ^ "It's used in prisons, large corporations and schools, and it is not considered a religion." [3] Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Concord Monitor
  84. ^ "Commission d'enquête sur les sectes – Assemblée nationale". www.assemblee-nationale.fr. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  85. ^ "Die Deutsche Amalgam-Page, SEKTEN – Risiken und Nebenwirkungen". www.ariplex.com. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  86. ^ "GROUP CLAIMS TM MOVEMENT IS A CULT". The Washington Post.
  87. ^ "Celebrity Meditators - Celebrities". uk.tm.org. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
    Eric Andre Goes Undercover on Reddit, YouTube and Twitter | GQ, 6 April 2021, archived from the original on 30 October 2021, retrieved 10 May 2021
    Bob Roth Interviews Jerry Seinfeld on "Success Without Stress", 5 November 2014, archived from the original on 30 October 2021, retrieved 10 May 2021
    Clint Eastwood on the benefits the Transcendental Meditation technique has had on his life, 12 July 2011, archived from the original on 30 October 2021, retrieved 10 May 2021
    Martin Scorsese & Ray Dalio on Creativity, TM & Success | Highlights | David Lynch Foundation, 16 January 2015, archived from the original on 30 October 2021, retrieved 10 May 2021
    Russell Brand talks about Transcendental Meditation at Operation Warrior Wellness launch, 3 March 2011, archived from the original on 30 October 2021, retrieved 10 May 2021
    Stieg, Cory (7 January 2020). "Oprah, Ray Dalio and Lady Gaga swear by this simple meditation technique". CNBC. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
    "25 Celebrities Who Know Transcendental Meditation". Maharishi School. 1 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
    Cairns, Molly (5 November 2019). "Nick Cave - The Red Hand Files - Issue #69 - How do I stop fearing the end of the world?". The Red Hand Files. Retrieved 19 August 2022.
  88. ^ Lyn Freeman, Mosby's Complementary & Alternative Medicine: A Research-Based Approach, Mosby Elsevier, 2009, p. 163
  89. ^ Krisanaprakornkit T, Krisanaprakornkit W, Piyavhatkul N, Laopaiboon M (January 2006). "Meditation therapy for anxiety disorders". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004998. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004998.pub2. PMID 16437509.
  90. ^ Goyal M, Singh S, Sibinga EM, Gould NF, Rowland-Seymour A, Sharma R, Berger Z, Sleicher D, Maron DD, Shihab HM, Ranasinghe PD, Linn S, Saha S, Bass EB, Haythornthwaite JA (2014). Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-Being. AHRQ Comparative Effectiveness Reviews. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. PMID 24501780. Our review finds that the mantra meditation programs do not appear to improve any of the psychological stress and well-being outcomes we examined, but the strength of this evidence varies from low to insufficient.
  91. ^ Sedlmeier, Peter; Eberth, Juliane; Schwarz, Marcus; Zimmerman, Doreen; Haarig, Frederik; Jaeger, Sonia; Kunze, Sonja; et al. (May 2012). "The Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Meta-Analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 138 (6): 1139–1171. doi:10.1037/a0028168. PMID 22582738. A thorough comparison of the three kinds of meditation was difficult, due in part to the small number of studies that used a given category of dependent measure. Again, we only included results that could be calculated from at least three studies. On the basis of these data...there might indeed be differential effects. Comparatively strong effects for TM...were found in reducing negative emotions, trait anxiety, and neuroticism and being helpful in learning and memory and in self-realization...For mindfulness meditation, such comparatively strong effects were identified in reducing negative personality traits, reducing stress, and improving attention and mindfulness...(other meditation techniques) yielded a comparatively large effect in the category of cognition...TM yielded noticeably larger effects than mindfulness meditation for the categories negative emotions, neuroticism, trait anxiety, learning and memory, and self-realization. The opposite results were found for negative personality traits and self-concept, where the effects of mindfulness meditation were larger...For most of the specific categories that could be analyzed, we found quite a variation in effects. These results indicate that different approaches to meditation might have differential effects. To date, it is difficult, however, to deduce any consistent differences therefrom
  92. ^ Brook RD, Appel LJ, Rubenfire M, Ogedegbe G, Bisognano JD, Elliott WJ, Fuchs FD, Hughes JW, Lackland DT, Staffileno BA, Townsend RR, Rajagopalan S (2013). "Beyond medications and diet: alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association". Hypertension. 61 (6): 1360–83. doi:10.1161/HYP.0b013e318293645f. PMID 23608661.
  93. ^ QUICK, SUSANNE (17 October 2004). "Delving into alternative care: Non-traditional treatments draw increased interest, research funding". Journal Sentinel. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Maharishi University ... has received more than $20 million in government support to date to explore the health benefits of meditation.
  94. ^ a b c Mahesh Yogi, Maharishi (1963). The Science of Being and Art of Living. Meridian Publishing.
  95. ^ Phelan, Michael (1979). "Transcendental Meditation. A Revitalization of the American Civil Religion". Archives de sciences sociales des religions. 48 (48–1): 5–20. doi:10.3406/assr.1979.2186.
  96. ^ King, Larry (12 May 2002). "Interview with Larry King". CNN.
  97. ^ Hunt, Stephen (2003). Alternative religions: a sociological introduction. Aldershot, Hampshire, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. pp. 197–198. ISBN 978-0-7546-3410-2.
  98. ^ Phelan, Michael (July–September 1979). "Transcendental Meditation. A Revitalization of the American Civil Religion". Archives de sciences sociales des religions. 1 (48).
  99. ^ Williams, Patrick Gresham (2000) The Spiritual Recovery Manual: Vedic Knowledge and Yogic Techniques to Accelerate Recovery, page 202
  100. ^ Tillery, Gary, The Cynical Idealist; A Spiritual Biography of John Lennon Archived 2014-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Quest Books, 2009 ISBN 0-8356-0875-1, ISBN 978-0-8356-0875-6 pp 66-67
  101. ^ a b Walsh R, Shapiro SL (April 2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and Western psychology: a mutually enriching dialogue". The American Psychologist. 61 (3): 227–39. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. S2CID 3015768.
  102. ^ Shapiro, Shauna L.; Walsh, Roger (2003). "An Analysis of Recent Meditation Research and Suggestions for Future Directions" (PDF). Journal for Meditation and Meditation Research. 3: 69–90. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2009.
  103. ^ Zelazo, Philip David; Moscovitch, Morris; Thompson, Evan, eds. (2007). The Cambridge handbook of consciousness. Cambridge University Press. pp. 534–535. ISBN 978-0-521-85743-7.
  104. ^ a b Kennedy, John W; Hexham., Irving (8 January 2001). "Field of TM dreams". Christianity Today. Vol. 45, no. 1. pp. 74–79.
  105. ^ Humes, Cynthia A (2005). "Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Beyond the T.M. Technique". In Forsthoefel, Thomas A; Humes, Cynthia Ann (eds.). Gurus in America. SUNY Press. pp. 55–79. ISBN 0-7914-6573-X.
  106. ^ a b Goldberg, Philip (2011) Harmony Books, American Veda, page 165
  107. ^ Johnson, Benton (1992). "On Founders and Followers: Some Factors in the Development of New Religious Movements". Sociological Analysis. Presidential Address — 1987. Vol. 53, no. –S S1–S13.
  108. ^ Jefferson, William (1976). ' 'The Story of The Maharishi' ', pp118-123. Pocket Books, New York, NY.
  109. ^ Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Fuller, Buckminster (1971) Maharishi Channel Maharishi and Buckminster Fuller Press Conference YouTube, retrieved September 24, 2012
  110. ^ a b c Kroll, Una (1974) John Knox Press, The Healing Potential of Transcendental Meditation, chapter 1: The Guru, pp 17-25
  111. ^ Melton (2003). "Eastern Family, Part I". Encyclopedia of American Religions. p. 1045. ISBN 0-8153-0500-1.
  112. ^ "The Science of Creative Intelligence Course". maharishi.org. Archived from the original on 25 November 2010.
  113. ^ Goldhaber, Nat (1976). TM:An alphabetical guide to the Transcendental Meditation program. Ballantine Books.
  114. ^ Irwin, T. K. (8 October 1972). "What's New in Science: Transcendental Meditation: Medical Miracle or 'Another Kooky Fad'". Sarasota Herald Tribune Family Weekly. pp. 8–9.
  115. ^ Barron's Educational Series, Inc. (2000). Profiles of American colleges (24th ed.). Hauppauge N.Y.; London: Barron's. ISBN 978-0-7641-7294-6.
  116. ^ Schmidt-Wilk, Jane; Heston, Dennis; Steigard, David (2000). "Higher education for higher consciousness Maharishi University of Management as a model for spirituality in management education". Journal of Management Education. 24 (5): 580–611. doi:10.1177/105256290002400505. S2CID 145812629.
  117. ^ Princeton Review (15 August 2006). Complete Book of Colleges, 2007 Edition. Random House Information Group. ISBN 978-0-375-76557-5.
  118. ^ "MUM catalog for the Department of Maharishi Vedic Science" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2010.
  119. ^ DePalma, Anthony (29 April 1992). "University's Degree Comes With a Heavy Dose of Meditation (and Skepticism)". The New York Times. p. B.8.
  120. ^ Teasdale, Michelle (3 June 2010). "Mummy, can we meditate now?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.
  121. ^ Buckley, Stephen (19 March 1993). "This School Offers Readin', 'Ritin' and Mantras". The Washington Post. p. D.01.
  122. ^ Tolley, Claire (12 January 2002). "Children meditate on top class GCSEs". Daily Post. Liverpool. p. 13.
  123. ^ Holley, David (5 June 1986). "Eclectic TV KSCI's Programming in 14 Languages Offers News, Entertainment, Comfort to Ethnic Communities". Los Angeles Times. p. 1.
  124. ^ Dhaliwal, Pavan; Ernst, Edzard; Colquhoun, David; Singh, Simon; et al. (12 May 2012). "Schools of pseudoscience pose a serious threat to education". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017.
  125. ^ a b Price, Robert M. (Winter 1982). "Scientific Creationism and the Science of Creative Intelligence". Creation Evolution Journal. 3 (1): 18–23. Archived from the original on 31 March 2010.
  126. ^ "James Randi Educational Foundation — An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural".
  127. ^ Sagan, Carl (1997). The Demon-haunted World: Science as a Candle In the Dark. New York: Ballantine Books. p. 16. ISBN 0-345-40946-9.
  128. ^ Stark, Rodney; William Sims Bainbridge (1986). The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 289. ISBN 0520057317.
  129. ^ Merriman, Scott A. (2007). Religion and the Law in America. ABC-CLIO. p. 522. ISBN 978-1-85109-863-7. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014.
  130. ^ Mason, Paul (1994). The Maharishi. Great Britain: Element Books Limited. p. 210. ISBN 1-85230-571-1.
  131. ^ a b c Karam, Ted (2005) Jumping on Water: Awaken Your Joy, Empower Your Life, page 137
  132. ^ Wager, Gregg (11 December 1987). "Musicians Spread the Maharishi's Message of Peace". Los Angeles Times. p. 12.
  133. ^ "Global population doubles since 1974, hits 8 billion today". The Times of India. 15 November 2022.
  134. ^ "Maharishi Effect – Research on the Maharishi Effect". Maharishi University of Management. Archived from the original on 23 August 2000. Retrieved 29 December 2009.
  135. ^ deFiebre, Conrad (7 October 1994). "Meditation touted as crime-fighter // Study presented builds the case for 'Maharishi effect'". Star Tribune. Minneapolis, Minn. p. 03.B.
  136. ^ Fay, Liam (13 June 2004). "Maharishi mob meditates on Limerick's ills". Sunday Times. London (UK). p. 32.
  137. ^ Roach, Mary (1 December 2000). "The last tourist in Mozambique". Salon. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011.
  138. ^ Park, Robert L. (2002). Voodoo science: The road from foolishness to fraud. Oxford University Press. p. 30. ISBN 9780198604433.
  139. ^ a b Fales, Evan; Markovsky, Barry (1997). "Evaluating Heterodox Theories". Social Forces. 76 (2): 511–525. doi:10.2307/2580722. JSTOR 2580722.
  140. ^ Schrodt, Phillip A. (1990). "A methodological critique of a test of the Maharishi technology of the unified field". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 34 (4): 745–755. doi:10.1177/0022002790034004008. JSTOR 174187. S2CID 145426830.
  141. ^ Epstein, Edward (29 December 1995). "Politics and Transcendental Meditation". San Francisco Chronicle.
  142. ^ CALAMAI, PETER (9 October 2004). "Stop the bleeping pseudoscience; Quantum physics film drowns in its own bunk science High point in What The Bleep is stunning animation sequence". Toronto Star. p. J.13.
  143. ^ Randi, James (1982). Flim-flam!: psychics, ESP, unicorns, and other delusions. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. p. 106. ISBN 0-87975-198-3.
  144. ^ Bonshek, Anna; Bonshek, Corrina; Fergusson, Lee (2007). The Big Fish: Consciousness as Structure, Body and Space. (Consciousness, Literature the Arts). Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-420-2172-3.
  145. ^ Chandler, Kenneth. "Modern Science and Vedic Science: An Introduction". Modern Science and Vedic Science, Volume 1. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2009.
  146. ^ Wallace 1993, pp. 64–66
  147. ^ Sharma & Clark 1998
  148. ^ Reddy & Egenes 2002
  149. ^ For a brief history of traditional ayurveda, and selected translations from the original Sanskrit sources, see Wujastyk 2003
  150. ^ Cynthia Ann Humes, "Maharishi Ayur-Veda", chapter 17 in Wujastyk & Smith 2008, pp. 309 and 326
  151. ^ Sharma 1995

Sources

[edit]
  • Reddy, Kumuda; Egenes, Linda (2002), Conquering Chronic Disease Through Maharishi Vedic Medicine, New York: Lantern Books, p. 10, ISBN 978-1-930051-55-3
  • Sharma, Hari (1995), "Maharishi Ayur-VedaAn Ancient Health Paradigm in a Modern World", Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 1 (6): 364, doi:10.1089/act.1995.1.364
  • Wallace, Robert Keith (1993), The physiology of consciousness, Fairfield, Iowa: Maharishi International University Press, pp. 64–66, ISBN 978-0-923569-02-0
  • Wujastyk, Dominik (2003). The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. London, New York, etc.: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044824-5.
  • Wujastyk, Dagmar; Smith, Frederick M. (2008). Modern and global Ayurveda: Pluralism and Paradigms. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7489-1.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Bloomfield, Harold H., Cain, Michael Peter, Jaffe, Dennis T. (1975) TM: Discovering Inner Energy and Overcoming Stress ISBN 0-440-06048-6
  • Denniston, Denise, The TM Book, Fairfield Press 1986 ISBN 0-931783-02-X
  • Forem, Jack (2012) Hay House UK Ltd, Transcendental Meditation: The Essential Teachings of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi ISBN 1-84850-379-2
  • Roth, Robert (1994) Primus, Transcendental Meditation ISBN 1-55611-403-6
  • Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1968) (Bantam Books) Transcendental Meditation: Serenity Without Drugs ISBN 0-451-05198-X
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Transcendental_Meditation&oldid=1258226565"