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The Celtic calendar is a compilation of pre-Christian Celtic systems of timekeeping, including the Gaulish Coligny calendar, used by Celtic countries to define the beginning and length of the day, the week, the month, the seasons, quarter days, and festivals.^[1]

Continental Celtic calendar

The Gaulish Coligny calendar is the oldest known Celtic solar-lunar ritual calendar. It was discovered in Coligny, France, and is now on display in the Palais des Arts Gallo-Roman museum, Lyon. It dates from the end of the second century AD,^[2] when the Roman Empire imposed the use of the Julian Calendar in Roman Gaul. The calendar was originally a single huge plate, but it survives only in fragments.^[3] It is inscribed in Gaulish with Latin characters and uses Roman numerals.

The Coligny Calendar reconciles the cycles of the moon and sun. The Coligny calendar considers the phases of the moon to be important, and each month always begins with the same moon phase. The calendar uses a mathematical arrangement to keep a normal 12 month calendar in sync with the moon and keeps the whole system in sync by adding an intercalary month every 2+1⁄2 years. The Coligny calendar registers a five-year cycle of 62 lunar months, divided into a "bright" and a "dark" fortnight (or half a moon cycle) each. The internal notations show that the months began with the first quarter moon, and a 13th intercalary month was added every two and a half years to align the lunations with the solar year.

The astronomical format of the calendar year that the Coligny calendar represents may well be far older, as calendars are usually even more conservative than rites and cults. The date of its inception is unknown, but correspondences of Insular Celtic and Continental Celtic calendars suggest that some early form may date to the earlier Iron Age. The Coligny calendar achieves a complex synchronisation of the solar and lunar months. Whether it does this for philosophical or practical reasons, it points to a considerable degree of sophistication.

Medieval Irish and Welsh calendars

Among the Insular Celts, the year was divided into a light half and a dark half. As the day was seen as beginning at sunset, so the year was seen as beginning with the arrival of the darkness, at Calan Gaeaf / Samhain (around 1 November in the modern calendar).^[4] The light half of the year started at Calan Haf/Bealtaine (around 1 May, modern calendar). This observance of festivals beginning the evening before the festival day is still seen in the celebrations and folkloric practices among the Gaels, such as the traditions of Oíche Shamhna (Samhain Eve) among the Irish and Oidhche Shamhna among the Scots.^[5]^[6]

Julius Caesar said in his Gallic Wars: "[the Gaulish Celts] keep birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an order that the day follows the night." Longer periods were reckoned in nights, as in the surviving English term fortnight meaning two weeks, and the obsolete se'nnight meaning one week.

The Laws of Hywel Dda (in editions surviving from the 12th and 13th centuries) make repeated references to periods of nine days (nawfed dydd), rather than the "eight nights" that make up the current word wythnos.^[7]

Native calendar terms in Celtic languages

Many calendrical and time-keeping terms used in the medieval and modern Celtic languages were borrowed from Latin and reflect the influence of Roman culture and Christianity on the Insular Celts. The words borrowed include the month names Januarius (Old Irish Enáir, Irish Eanáir, Welsh Ionawr), Februarius (Old Irish Febra, Irish Feabhra, Welsh Chwefror), Martius (Old Irish Mart, Welsh Mawrth), Aprilius (Old Irish Apréil, Irish Aibreán, Welsh Ebrill), Maius (Welsh Mai), Augustus (Old Irish Auguist, Welsh Awst); the names for the days of the week, Solis, Lunae, Martis, Mercurii, Jovis, Veneris, Saturni; the terms septimana "week" (Old Irish sechtmain, Breton sizun, Cornish seithun), kalendae "first day of the month" (Old Irish callann, Welsh calan, Breton kala), tempore "time" (Welsh amser), matutina "morning" (Cornish metin, Irish maidin), vespera "evening", nona "noon" (Welsh nawn, Irish nóin), and ôra "hour" (Welsh awr, Breton eur, Irish uair).^[8]^[9]

A number of native Celtic terms survived the adoption of the Roman/Christian calendar, however:

Term	Proto-Celtic	Gaulish	Old/Middle Irish	Modern Irish	Scottish Gaelic	Manx	Welsh	Cornish	Breton
Day / 24-hour period	*latyo-	lat (abbreviation, Coligny Calendar)	la(i)the	lá	là, latha	laa
Day	*dīy(w)o-	(sin)diu "(to)day"	día; indiu "today"	dia, dé; inniu, inniubh, inniugh "today"	dia; andiu "today"	jee; jiu "today"	dydd; heddiw "today"; diwrnod "24-hour day period"	dydh; hidhyw "today"	deiz; hiziou "today"
Night	noχt-, ad-akʷi-(?)	(decam)noct- "(10)-night"	nocht, adaig	nocht, oíche	nochd, oidhche	noght, oie	noson, nos	neth (comp.), nos	neiz (comp.), noz
Week (eight nights/days)	oχtu-noχt- / oχtu-dīy(w)o-						wythnos "8-nights"		eizhteiz "8-days"
Fortnight	*kʷenkʷe-dekam-noχt-		cóicthiges "15-(days)"	coicís	cola-deug (coig latha deug "15-days")	kegeesh	pythefnos "15-nights"		pemzektez
Month	*mīns-	mid (read *miđ)	mí	mí	mìos	mee	mis	mis	miz
Year	blēdā- / blēdanī	b[l]is (abbreviation, Coligny Calendar)	bliadain	bliain	bliadhna	blein	blwydd, blwyddyn	bledhen	bloavezh, bloaz
Season, Period of Time	am-n-, amsterā-, ratyo-, kʷritu-	amman	amm, aimser, ráithe	am, aimsir, ráithe	àm, aimsir, ràith	imbagh, emshyr, emshir	amser, pryd	amser	amzer
Winter	*gyemo-	giamo-	gem, gemred	geimhreadh	geamhradh	geurey	gaeaf	gwav	goañv
Spring	wesr-āko- "spring[time]", wesn-tēno-, *ɸro-bertyā ("torrent, inundation")		earrach, robarta	earrach	earrach	arragh	gwanwyn, (Old Welsh ribirthi)	gwainten	reverzi (Old Breton rebirthi)^[10]^[11]
Summer	*samo-	samo-	sam, samrad	samhradh	samhradh	sourey	haf	hav	hañv
Autumn	uφo-gyemo-ro- "under wintertime", kintu-gyemo- "beginning of winter", *sido-[...] "deer-"[...]		fogamur	fóghmhar, fómhar	foghar	fouyr	cynhaeaf, hydref	kydnyav/kynyav, hedra	here, diskar-amzer ("falling season")
May, May Day	*kintu-samo-n-^[12] "beginning of summer"		Cétamain	Céideamhain^[13]	Cèitean		Cyntefin
June, Midsummer	*medyo-samo-n-^[12] "mid-summer"		Mithem(on)	Meitheamh			Mehefin	Metheven	Mezeven
July	*uɸer-kʷenno-samo- "end of summer"						Gorffennaf

In Neopaganism

In some Neopagan religions, a "Celtic calendar" loosely based on that of Medieval Ireland is observed for purposes of ritual. Adherents of Reconstructionist traditions may celebrate the four Gaelic festivals of Samhain, Imbolc, Beltane, and Lughnasadh.^[14]^[15]

Some eclectic Neopagans, such as Wiccans, combine the Gaelic fire festivals with solstices and equinox celebrations derived from non-Celtic cultures to produce the Wiccan modern Wheel of the Year.^[16]^: 337 Some eclectic Neopagans are also influenced by Robert Graves' "Celtic Tree Calendar", which has no foundation in historical calendars or actual ancient Celtic Astrology, instead being derived from Graves' extrapolation of The Song of Amergin.^[16]^: 145

References

^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 330.
^ Duval, P.M.; Pinault, G., eds. (1986). "Les Calendriers (Coligny, Villards d'Heria)". Recueil des inscriptions gauloises. Vol. 3. Paris: CNRS. p. 35.
^ Eddy, S.; Hamilton, C. "The Celtic Year". Living Myths. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
^ Lyle, Emily B. (1994). "The starting-points in the Coligny Calendar". Études celtiques. 30: 285–289. doi:10.3406/ecelt.1994.2050.
^ Danaher, Kevin (1972). The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs. Dublin: Mercier. pp. 200–229. ISBN 1-85635-093-2.
^ McNeill, F. Marian (1961). The Silver Bough. Vol. 3. Glasgow: William MacLellan. pp. 11–42.
^ Wade-Evans, Arthur (1909). Welsh Medieval Laws. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
^ Loth, Joseph (1892). Les mots latins dans les langues brittoniques. E. Bouillon. p. 44 ff.
^ "Online edition". Dictionary of the Irish language. Royal Irish Academy. 1983.
^ Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone (1967). A historical phonology of Breton. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. pp. 296, 248.
^ Hamp, Eric (1982). "The Indo-European roots *bher- in the light of Celtic and Albanian". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 39: 205–218. doi:10.1515/zcph.1982.39.1.205. S2CID 164360495.
^ ^a ^b In the reconstructed Proto-Celtic words for the beginning of summer, "kintu-sam?n", and mid-summer, "medio-sam?n", the character "?" represents an indeterminate vowel.
^ "mayday". www.teanglann.ie.
^ Bonewits, Isaac (2006). Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, NY: Kensington Publishing Group. p. 134. ISBN 0-8065-2710-2.
^ McColman, Carl (2003). Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom. Alpha Press. pp. 12, 51. ISBN 0-02-864417-4.
^ ^a ^b Hutton, Ronald (1991). The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their nature and legacy. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-18946-7 – via archive.org.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Short description|Compilation of pre-Christian Celtic systems of timekeeping}}
 {{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
-{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
+{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
 The '''Celtic calendar''' is a compilation of pre-Christian Celtic systems of timekeeping, including the [[Coligny calendar|Gaulish Coligny calendar]], used by [[Celtic countries]] to define the beginning and length of the day, the week, the month, the seasons, quarter days, and festivals.<ref name="Koch 330">{{Cite book |last=Koch, John T. |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |page=330}}</ref>
 ==Continental Celtic calendar==
-The [[Gaulish]] [[Coligny calendar]] is the oldest known Celtic solar-lunar ritual calendar. It was discovered in [[Coligny, Ain|Coligny]], France, and is now on display in the Palais des Arts [[Gallo-Roman]] museum, Lyon. It dates from the end of the second century CE,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Recueil des inscriptions gauloises |publisher=CNRS |year=1986 |editor-last=Duval, P.M. |volume=3 |location=Paris |page=35 |chapter=Les Calendriers (Coligny, Villards d'Heria) |editor-last2=Pinault, G.}}</ref> when the Roman Empire imposed the use of the [[Julian Calendar]] in [[Roman Gaul]]. The calendar was originally a single huge plate, but it survives only in fragments.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eddy |first1=S. |last2=Hamilton |first2=C. |title=The Celtic Year |url=http://www.livingmyths.com/Celticyear.htm |website=Living Myths |access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref> It is inscribed in Gaulish with Latin characters and uses [[Roman numerals]].
+The [[Gaulish]] [[Coligny calendar]] is the oldest known Celtic solar-lunar ritual calendar. It was discovered in [[Coligny, Ain|Coligny]], France, and is now on display in the Palais des Arts [[Gallo-Roman]] museum, Lyon. It dates from the end of the second century AD,<ref>{{Cite book |title=[[Recueil des inscriptions gauloises]] |publisher=CNRS |year=1986 |editor-last=Duval, P.M. |volume=3 |location=Paris |page=35 |chapter=Les Calendriers (Coligny, Villards d'Heria) |editor-last2=Pinault, G.}}</ref> when the Roman Empire imposed the use of the [[Julian Calendar]] in [[Roman Gaul]]. The calendar was originally a single huge plate, but it survives only in fragments.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eddy |first1=S. |last2=Hamilton |first2=C. |title=The Celtic Year |url=http://www.livingmyths.com/Celticyear.htm |website=Living Myths |access-date=29 June 2020}}</ref> It is inscribed in Gaulish with Latin characters and uses [[Roman numerals]].
-The Coligny Calendar is an attempt to reconcile the cycles of the moon and sun, as is the modern [[Gregorian calendar]]. However, the Coligny calendar considers the phases of the moon to be important, and each month always begins with the same moon phase. The calendar uses a mathematical arrangement to keep a normal 12&nbsp;month calendar in sync with the moon and keeps the whole system in sync by adding an [[intercalary month]] every {{frac|2|1|2}}&nbsp;years. The Coligny calendar registers a five-year cycle of 62&nbsp;[[lunar month]]s, divided into a "bright" and a "dark" fortnight (or half a moon cycle) each. The months were possibly taken to begin on the new moon, and a 13th&nbsp;[[Intercalation (timekeeping)|intercalary]] month was added every two and a half years to align the lunations with the solar year.
+The Coligny Calendar reconciles the cycles of the moon and sun. The Coligny calendar considers the phases of the moon to be important, and each month always begins with the same moon phase. The calendar uses a mathematical arrangement to keep a normal 12&nbsp;month calendar in sync with the moon and keeps the whole system in sync by adding an [[intercalary month]] every {{frac|2|1|2}}&nbsp;years. The Coligny calendar registers a five-year cycle of 62&nbsp;[[lunar month]]s, divided into a "bright" and a "dark" fortnight (or half a moon cycle) each. The internal notations show that the months began with the first quarter moon, and a 13th&nbsp;[[Intercalation (timekeeping)|intercalary]] month was added every two and a half years to align the lunations with the solar year.
-The astronomical format of the calendar year that the Coligny calendar represents may well be far older, as [[calendar]]s are usually even more conservative than rites and [[cult (religion)|cult]]s. The date of its inception is unknown, but correspondences of [[Insular Celtic]] and [[Continental Celtic]] calendars suggest that some early form may date to [[Proto-Celtic]] times, roughly 800&nbsp;B.C. The Coligny calendar achieves a complex synchronisation of the solar and lunar months. Whether it does this for philosophical or practical reasons, it points to a considerable degree of sophistication.
+The astronomical format of the calendar year that the Coligny calendar represents may well be far older, as [[calendar]]s are usually even more conservative than rites and [[cult (religion)|cult]]s. The date of its inception is unknown, but correspondences of [[Insular Celtic]] and [[Continental Celtic]] calendars suggest that some early form may date to the earlier [[Iron Age]]. The Coligny calendar achieves a complex synchronisation of the solar and lunar months. Whether it does this for philosophical or practical reasons, it points to a considerable degree of sophistication.
 ==Medieval Irish and Welsh calendars==
 {{Further|Gaelic calendar|Welsh holidays}}
+[[File:Comparative seasons wheel.jpg|thumb|Diagram comparing the Celtic, astronomical and meteorological calendars]]
 Among the [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celts]], the year was divided into a light half and a dark half. As the day was seen as beginning at sunset, so the year was seen as beginning with the arrival of the darkness, at [[Calan Gaeaf]] / [[Samhain]] (around 1&nbsp;November in the modern calendar).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lyle |first=Emily B. |date=1994 |title=The starting-points in the Coligny Calendar |journal=Études celtiques |volume=30 |pages=285–289|doi=10.3406/ecelt.1994.2050 }}</ref> The light half of the year started at [[Calan Mai|Calan Haf]]/[[Bealtaine]] (around 1&nbsp;May, modern calendar). This observance of festivals beginning the evening before the festival day is still seen in the celebrations and folkloric practices among the [[Gaels]], such as the traditions of ''[[Samhain|Oíche Shamhna]]'' (Samhain Eve) among the Irish and ''Oidhche Shamhna'' among the [[Scottish people|Scots]].<ref name="Danaher">{{Cite book |last=Danaher, Kevin |url=https://archive.org/details/yearinireland00kevi/page/200 |title=The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs |publisher=Mercier |year=1972 |isbn=1-85635-093-2 |location=Dublin |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yearinireland00kevi/page/200 200–229] |author-link=Kevin Danaher}}</ref><ref name="McNeill">{{Cite book |last=McNeill, F. Marian |title=The Silver Bough |publisher=William MacLellan |year=1961 |volume=3 |location=Glasgow |pages=11–42 |author-link=F. Marian McNeill}}</ref>
@@ Line 37: / Line 38: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Day / 24-hour period
-|*latjo-
+|*latyo-
 |lat (abbreviation, [[Coligny Calendar]])
 |{{lang|sga|la(i)the}}
@@ Line 43: / Line 44: @@
 |{{lang|gd|là, latha}}
 |{{lang|gv|laa}}
+|
-|{{lang|cy|golau}} go + lau = very bright; golau = light
 |
 |
 |- align="center"
 |Day
-|*dij-
+|*dīy(w)o-
 |(sin)diu "(to)day"
 |{{lang|sga|día}}; indiu "today"
 |{{lang|ga|dia}}, dé; inniu, inniubh, inniugh "today"
 |{{lang|gd|dia}}; andiu "today"
-|{{lang|gv|jee}}; joo "today"
+|{{lang|gv|jee}}; jiu "today"
 |{{lang|cy|dydd}}; heddiw "today"; diwrnod "24-hour day period"
 |{{lang|kw|dydh}}; hidhyw "today"
@@ Line 59: / Line 60: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Night
-|*noxt-, *ad-akʷi-(?)
+|*noχt-, *ad-akʷi-(?)
-|(tri)nox {{nowrap|"(3)-night"}}, (decam)noct- "(10)-night"
+|(decam)noct- "(10)-night"
 |{{lang|sga|nocht, adaig}}
 |{{lang|ga|nocht, oíche}}
@@ Line 70: / Line 71: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Week (eight nights/days)
-|*oktu-noxt- / *oktu-dij-
+|*oχtu-noχt- / *oχtu-dīy(w)o-
 |
 |
@@ Line 81: / Line 82: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Fortnight
-|*kʷenkʷe-decam-noxt-
+|*kʷenkʷe-dekam-noχt-
 |
 |{{lang|sga|cóicthiges "15-(days)"}}
@@ Line 103: / Line 104: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Year
+|*blēdā- / *blēdanī
-|*bl(e)id-anī-
 |b[l]is (abbreviation, [[Coligny Calendar]])
 |{{lang|sga|bliadain}}
@@ Line 114: / Line 115: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Season, Period of Time
-|*ammn, *ammn-stero-, *ratio-, *pritu-
+|*am-n-, *amsterā-, *ratyo-, *kʷritu-
 |amman
 |{{lang|sga|amm, aimser, ráithe}}
-|{{lang|ga|aimsir, ráithe}}
+|{{lang|ga|am, aimsir, ráithe}}
 |{{lang|gd|àm, aimsir, ràith}}
-|{{lang|gv|imbagh, emsher}}
+|{{lang|gv|imbagh, emshyr, emshir}}
 |{{lang|cy|amser, pryd}}
 |{{lang|kw|amser}}
@@ Line 125: / Line 126: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Winter
-|*gijamo-
+|*gyemo-
 |giamo-
 |{{lang|sga|gem, gemred}}
@@ Line 136: / Line 137: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Spring
-|*ers-āko- "end (of winter)" (alt. *wesr-āko- "spring[time]"), *wes-ant-ein-, *ɸro-bertjā ("torrent, inundation")
+|*wesr-āko- "spring[time]", *wesn-tēno-, *ɸro-bertyā ("torrent, inundation")
 |
 |{{lang|sga|earrach, robarta}}
@@ Line 158: / Line 159: @@
 |- align="center"
 |Autumn
-|*uφo-gijam-r- "under wintertime", *kintu-gijamo- "beginning of winter", *sito-[...] "deer-"[...]
+|*uφo-gyemo-ro- "under wintertime", *kintu-gyemo- "beginning of winter", *sido-[...] "deer-"[...]
 |
 |{{lang|sga|fogamur}}
@@ Line 169: / Line 170: @@
 |- align="center"
 | May, May&nbsp;Day
-|*kintu-sam?n-<ref name="indeterminate_vowel">In the reconstructed Proto-Celtic words for the beginning of summer, "kintu-sam?n", and mid-summer, "medio-sam?n", the character "?" represents an indeterminate vowel.</ref> "beginning of summer"
+|*kintu-samo-n-<ref name="indeterminate_vowel">In the reconstructed Proto-Celtic words for the beginning of summer, "kintu-sam?n", and mid-summer, "medio-sam?n", the character "?" represents an indeterminate vowel.</ref> "beginning of summer"
 |
 |{{lang|sga|Cétamain}}
-|
-|{{lang|gd|Cèitean}}
 |{{lang|ga|Céideamhain<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.teanglann.ie/ga/fgb/mayday |title=mayday |website=www.teanglann.ie}}</ref>}}
+|{{lang|gd|Cèitean}}
+|
 |{{lang|cy|Cyntefin}}
 |
@@ Line 180: / Line 181: @@
 |- align="center"
 | June, [[Midsummer]]
-|*medio-sam?n-<ref name=indeterminate_vowel/> "mid-summer"
+|*medyo-samo-n-<ref name=indeterminate_vowel/> "mid-summer"
 |
 |{{lang|sga|Mithem(on)}}
@@ Line 209: / Line 210: @@
 ==See also==
 *[[Coligny calendar]]
-*[[Gaelic calendar]] (Irish calendar)
+*[[Irish calendar]] (Gaelic calendar)
 *[[Welsh holidays]]
@@ Line 218: / Line 219: @@
 * {{Cite book |last=Brennan, Martin |title=The Stones of Time: Calendars, Sundials, and Stone Chambers of Ancient Ireland |publisher=Inner Traditions |year=1994 |location=Rochester, VT}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Brunaux, Jean-Louis |title=Les Gaulois: Sanctuaires et Rites |publisher=Editions Errance |year=1986 |location=Paris |trans-title=The Gauls: Sanctuaries and ceremonies}}
-* {{Cite book |title=Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises (R.I.G.) |editor-last=Duval, Paul-Marie |volume=3 |chapter=The calendars of Coligny (73 fragments) and Villards d'Heria (8 fragments) |editor-last2=Pinault, Georges}}
+* {{Cite book |title=[[Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises]] (R.I.G.) |editor-last=Duval, Paul-Marie |volume=3 |chapter=The calendars of Coligny (73 fragments) and Villards d'Heria (8 fragments) |editor-last2=Pinault, Georges}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Delamarre, Xavier |title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise|location=Paris |publisher=Editions Errance |year=2003 |trans-title=Dictionary of the Gaulish Language}}
 * {{Cite book |title=[[Dictionary of the Irish language]] |location=Dublin|publisher=Royal Irish Academy |year=1983 |chapter=online edition |chapter-url=http://www.dil.ie/}}
@@ Line 241: / Line 242: @@
 [[Category:Celtic art|Calendar]]
 [[Category:Celtic mythology|Calendar]]
-[[Category:Irish culture]]
+[[Category:Culture of Ireland]]
 [[Category:Specific calendars]]