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{{short description|Ethnic group}}
{{Distinguish|Hutsuls}}

{{Infobox ethnic group
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Utsul, Utsat, Utset, Huihui, Hui or Hainan Cham
| group = Utsul, Utsat, Utset, Huihui, Hui, or Hainan Cham
| image = <!-- image will go here -->
| image = <!-- image will go here -->
| pop = At least 8,500<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Gladney|editor1-first=Dru C.|title=Making Majorities: Constituting the Nation in Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the United States|date=1998|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=9780804730488|page=122}}</ref>
| pop = At least 8,500<ref>{{Cite book |title=Making Majorities: Constituting the Nation in Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the United States |date=1998 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9780804730488 |editor-last=Gladney |editor-first=Dru C. |page=122}}</ref>
| popplace = {{flagdeco|PRC}} [[Sanya]], [[Hainan]]
| popplace = {{flagdeco|PRC}} [[Sanya]], [[Hainan]]
| langs = [[Tsat language|Tsat]] (native)<br>[[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], [[Hainanese]]
| langs = [[Tsat language|Tsat]], [[Standard Chinese]], [[Hainanese]]
| rels = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]]
| rels = Predominantly [[Sunni Islam]]
| related = [[Chams|Cham people]], [[Malay people]] and other [[Austronesian peoples]]
| related = [[Chams]] ([[Laotian Chams]]) and other [[Austronesian peoples]]
}}
}}
{{Islam and China|groups}}
{{Islam and China|groups}}
The '''Utsuls''' ([{{IPA|hu˩ t͡saːn˧˨}}]; {{zh|s=回辉人|t=回輝人|p=Huíhuī rén|first=t}}) or '''Hainan [[Hui people|Hui]]''' ({{zh|c=海南回族|p=Hǎinán huízú|first=t|links=no}}), are a [[Chamic languages|Chamic]]-speaking [[East Asian people|East Asian]] ethnic group which lives on the island of [[Hainan]] and are considered one of the People's Republic of China's [[Unrecognized ethnic groups in China|unrecognized ethnic groups]]. They are found on the southernmost tip of Hainan near the city of [[Sanya]].
The '''Utsuls''' ([{{IPA|hu˩ t͡saːn˧˨}}]; {{zh|s=回辉人|t=回輝人|p=Huíhuīrén|first=t}}) are a [[Chamic languages|Chamic]]-speaking [[East Asian people|East Asian]] ethnic group which lives on the island of [[Hainan]] and are considered one of the People's Republic of China's [[Unrecognized ethnic groups in China|unrecognized ethnic groups]]. They are found on the southernmost tip of Hainan near the city of [[Sanya]].


==History==
==History==
The Utsuls are thought to be descendants of [[Chams|Cham]] [[refugee]]s who fled their homeland of [[Champa]] in what is now modern Central [[Vietnam]] to escape the [[History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars|Vietnamese invasion]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOM8qF34s4YC&q=cham+hainan&pg=PA41|title=An ethnohistorical dictionary of China|author=James Stuart Olson|year=1998|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=41|isbn=0-313-28853-4|access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref> After the Vietnamese completed the conquest of Cham in 1471, sacking Vijaya, the last capital of the Cham kingdom, a Cham prince and some 1,000 followers moved to Hainan, where the [[Ming dynasty]] allowed them to set up a kingdom-in-exile.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzh1fQEEFPAC&q=cham+hainan+prince&pg=PA104|title=Vịêt Nam: borderless histories|author=Nhung Tuyet Tran|year=2006|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|page=104|isbn=0-299-21774-4|access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref> Several Chinese accounts record Cham arriving on Hainan even earlier, from 986, shortly after the Vietnamese captured the earlier Cham capital of Indrapura in 982, while other Cham refugees settled in [[Guangzhou]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH0OAAAAYAAJ&q=This+fall+of+the+capital+in+982+accounts+for+the+refugees+mentioned+in+the+Chinese+dynastic+records+of+986+(History+of+the+Song+Dynasty+(960-1279),+which+records+in+986+the+arrival+of+some+Cham+in+Hainan+from|title=Chamic and beyond: studies in mainland Austronesian languages|author=Anthony Grant, Paul Sidwell, Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics|year=2005|publisher=Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University|page=247|isbn=0-85883-561-4|access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/leavesofsametree0000anda|url-access=registration|quote=cham hainan.|title=Leaves of the same tree: trade and ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka|author=Leonard Y. Andaya|year=2008|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/leavesofsametree0000anda/page/45 45]|isbn=978-0-8248-3189-9|access-date=2010-11-28}}</ref>
The Utsuls are thought to be descendants of [[Chams|Cham]] [[refugee]]s who fled their homeland of [[Champa]] in what is now modern Central [[Vietnam]] to escape the [[History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars|Vietnamese invasion]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Olson |first=James Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IOM8qF34s4YC&q=cham+hainan&pg=PA41 |title=An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=0-313-28853-4 |page=41}}</ref> After the Vietnamese completed the conquest of Cham in 1471, sacking [[Vijaya (Champa)|Vijaya]], the last capital of the Cham kingdom, a Cham prince and about 1,000 followers moved to Hainan, where the [[Ming dynasty]] allowed them to stay.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nhung Tuyet Tran |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tzh1fQEEFPAC&q=cham+hainan+prince&pg=PA104 |title=Vịêt Nam: Borderless Histories |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-299-21774-4 |page=104}}</ref> Several Chinese accounts record Cham arriving on Hainan even earlier, from 986, shortly after the Vietnamese captured the earlier Cham capital of [[Indrapura (Champa)|Indrapura]] in 982, while other Cham refugees settled in [[Guangzhou]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WH0OAAAAYAAJ&q=This+fall+of+the+capital+in+982+accounts+for+the+refugees+mentioned+in+the+Chinese+dynastic+records+of+986+(History+of+the+Song+Dynasty+(960-1279),+which+records+in+986+the+arrival+of+some+Cham+in+Hainan+from |title=Chamic and Beyond: Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=2005 |isbn=0-85883-561-4 |page=247 |doi=10.15144/PL-569 |hdl=1885/146271 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free|editor-last1=Grant |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last2=Sidwell |editor-first2=Paul |last1=<!-- -->|first1=<!-- --> |last2=<!-- -->|first2=<!-- --> |journal=<!-- -->}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Andaya |first=Leonard Y. |url=https://archive.org/details/leavesofsametree0000anda |title=Leaves of the Same Tree: Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8248-3189-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/leavesofsametree0000anda/page/45 45] |quote=cham hainan. |url-access=registration}}</ref>


While most of the Chams who fled [[Champa]] went to neighbouring [[Cambodia]], a small business class fled northwards. How they came to acquire the name Utsul is unknown.
While most of the Chams who fled Champa to [[Cambodia]], a small business class fled northwards. How they came to acquire the name Utsul is unknown.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}


Their population was greatly reduced during [[World War II]] by the Japanese who slaughtered more than 4,000 of them in their massacres of ethnic minorities in Western Hainan and Sanya as Chinese armies were hiding among them from the invading Japanese.<ref>海南岛农业地理 - Volume 51 - Page 44</ref>
Their population was greatly reduced during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] by the Japanese that more than 4,000 Chams were killed in Sanya as Chinese armies were hiding among them from the invading Japanese.<ref>海南岛农业地理 - Volume 51 - Page 44</ref> Hundreds of [[Utsul]] Muslim houses and mosques in [[Sanya]] were destroyed by the Japanese in order to build an airport.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thurgood |first1=Graham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzDnBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |title=A Grammatical Sketch of Hainan Cham: History, Contact, and Phonology |last2=Thurgood |first2=Ela |last3=Li |first3=Fengxiang |date=2014 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-1614516040 |edition=reprint |volume=643 of Pacific Linguistics [PL] |page=20}}</ref>


=== Discrimination ===
=== Discrimination ===
{{See also|Islamophobia in China}}
{{See also|Islamophobia in China}}
In 2020, it was reported that Beijing had started a religious crackdown aimed at the Utsul community as part of their efforts of [[sinicization]]. Restrictions included limiting the size of mosques, requiring a Communist Party member on mosque management committees, forbidding the use of Arabic words on food stalls (such as "[[halal]]"), and forbidding the wearing of [[hijab]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-30|title=Beijing's crackdown on religious minorities takes aim at 10,000 Muslim Utsuls|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200930-beijing-s-crackdown-on-religious-minorities-takes-aim-at-10-000-muslim-utsuls|access-date=2020-10-16|website=France 24|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-28|title=Tiny Muslim community becomes latest target for China's religious crackdown|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3103253/tiny-muslim-community-chinas-far-south-becomes-latest-target|access-date=2020-10-16|website=South China Morning Post|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last1=Bradsher|first1=Keith|last2=Qin|first2=Amy|date=2021-02-14|title=China's Crackdown on Muslims Extends to a Resort Island|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/14/world/asia/china-muslims-sanya-hainan.html|access-date=2021-02-15|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
In 2020, it was reported that Beijing had started a religious crackdown aimed at the Utsul community as part of their political efforts. Restrictions included limiting the size of mosques, requiring a [[Chinese Communist Party]] member on mosque management committees, forbidding the use of Arabic words on food stalls (such as "[[halal]]"), and forbidding the wearing of [[hijab]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seibt |first=Sébastian |date=2020-09-30 |title=Beijing's Crackdown on Religious Minorities Takes Aim at 10,000 Muslim Utsuls |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200930-beijing-s-crackdown-on-religious-minorities-takes-aim-at-10-000-muslim-utsuls |access-date=2020-10-16 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Baptista |first=Eduardo |date=2020-09-28 |title=Tiny Muslim Community Becomes Latest Target for China's Religious Crackdown |language=en |work=South China Morning Post |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3103253/tiny-muslim-community-chinas-far-south-becomes-latest-target |access-date=2020-10-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1=Bradsher |first1=Keith |last2=Qin |first2=Amy |date=2021-02-14 |title=China's Crackdown on Muslims Extends to a Resort Island |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/14/world/asia/china-muslims-sanya-hainan.html |access-date=2021-02-15}}</ref>


==Identity==
==Identity==
Although they are culturally, ethnically and linguistically distinct from the Hui, the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] nevertheless classifies them as Hui due to their Islamic faith. From reports by Hans Stübel, the German ethnographer who made contact with them in the 1930s, however, their language is completely unrelated to any other language spoken in mainland China.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2E_5nR0SoXoC&q=hainan+sanya&pg=PA168|title=The Languages of China|author=S. Robert Ramsey|year=1987|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=168|isbn=0-691-06694-9|access-date=2013-04-20}}</ref> About 3,500 of them are speakers of the [[Tsat language]], which is one of the few [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]] that are [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]]. Whereas other Hui people are Muslims who do not have a distinct mother tongue or language that separates them from the [[Han Chinese|Han]], the Utsuls do have their own language, which is regarded as separate and distinct from Sinitic dialects. As a result, their classification as Hui people is controversial.
Although they are culturally, ethnically and linguistically distinct from the Hui, the [[Government of China|Chinese government]] nevertheless classifies them as Hui due to their Islamic faith. From reports by Hans Stübel, the German ethnographer who made contact with them in the 1930s, however, their language is completely unrelated to any other language spoken in mainland China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ramsey |first=S. Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2E_5nR0SoXoC&q=hainan+sanya&pg=PA168 |title=The Languages of China |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-691-06694-9 |page=168}}</ref>


===Genetics===
==Genetics==
Dongna Li and Chuan-Chao Wang have typed paternal Y chromosome and maternal mitochondrial DNA markers in 102 Utsat people to gain a better understanding of the genetic history of this population. High frequencies of the Y chromosome haplogroup O1a*-M119 and mtDNA lineages D4, F2a, F1b, F1a1, B5a, M8a, M*, D5 and B4a exhibit a pattern similar to that seen in the neighboring indigenous Li ethnic minority. Cluster analyses (principal component analyses and networks) of the Utsat, Cham and other ethnic groups in East Asia indicate that the Utsat are much closer to the Hainan indigenous [[Li people]] than to the Cham and other mainland southeast Asian populations. These findings suggest that the origins of the Utsat likely involved massive assimilation of indigenous ethnic groups. During the assimilation process, the language of Utsat has been structurally changed to a tonal language; their Islamic beliefs may have helped to keep their culture and self-identification.<ref>Li DN*, Wang CC*, Yang K, Qin ZD, Lu Y, Lin XJ, Li H, the Genographic Consortium. Substitution of Hainan indigenous genetic lineage in the Utsat people, exiles of the Champa kingdom. J Syst Evol. 2013, 51(3):287–294.</ref>
A genetic study by Li et al. (2013) suggested that the surviving Utsat were genetically much closer to the indigenous [[Hlai people]] than to the Cham and other mainland southeast Asian populations. The study suggests that there was high assimilation of the indigenous Hlai in the formation of the Utsat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Dong-Na |last2=Wang |first2=Chuan-Chao |last3=Yang |first3=Kun |last4=Qin |first4=Zhen-Dong |last5=Lu |first5=Yan |last6=Lin |first6=Xue-Jing |last7=Li |first7=Hui |last8=the Genographic Consortium |display-authors=3 |date=2013 |title=Substitution of Hainan Indigenous Genetic Lineage in the Utsat People, Exiles of the Champa Kingdom: Genetic Structure of Hainan Utsat People |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |language=en |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=287–294 |doi=10.1111/jse.12000 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


===Family names===
==Family names==
Some common Utsul family names include Chen, Ha, Hai, Jiang, Li, Liu and Pu.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Graham Thurgood|author2=Ela Thurgood|author3=Li Fengxiang|title=A Grammatical Sketch of Hainan Cham: History, Contact, and Phonology|date=2014|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|isbn=9781614516040|page=12|edition=reprint}}</ref>
Some common Utsul family names include Chen, Ha, Hai, Jiang, Li, Liu and Pu.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Thurgood |first1=Graham |title=A Grammatical Sketch of Hainan Cham: History, Contact, and Phonology |last2=Thurgood |first2=Ela |last3=Fengxiang |first3=Li |date=2014 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=9781614516040 |edition=reprint |page=12}}</ref>

==Famous people==
⚫
* [[Abdullah Ahmad Badawi]], 5th [[Prime Minister of Malaysia]]. His maternal grandfather is of Utsul descent.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Choong Kwee Kim |date=22 December 2003 |title=PM Meets Relatives from China |work=The Star |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2003/12/22/pm-meets-relatives-from-china |access-date=2021-04-18}}</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Undistinguished ethnic groups in China]]
* [[Unrecognized ethnic groups in China]]
⚫
* [[Abdullah Ahmad Badawi]], a Malaysian politician of Utsul ancestry<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2003/12/22/pm-meets-relatives-from-china|title=PM meets relatives from China|year=2003|access-date=2021-04-18}}</ref>


==References==
==References==
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{{CEG}}
{{CEG}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Hainan]]
[[Category:Hainan]]
[[Category:Cham]]
[[Category:Cham]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of China]]
[[Category:Muslim communities of China]]
[[Category:Islamophobia in China]]
[[Category:Japanese war crimes in China]]

Latest revision as of 21:42, 20 November 2024

Not to be confused with Hutsuls.
Utsul, Utsat, Utset, Huihui, Hui, or Hainan Cham
Total population
At least 8,500[1]
Regions with significant populations
Sanya, Hainan
Languages
Tsat, Standard Chinese, Hainanese
Religion
Predominantly Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Chams (Laotian Chams) and other Austronesian peoples
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The Utsuls ([hu˩ t͡saːn˧˨]; traditional Chinese: 回輝人; simplified Chinese: 回辉人; pinyin: Huíhuīrén) are a Chamic-speaking East Asian ethnic group which lives on the island of Hainan and are considered one of the People's Republic of China's unrecognized ethnic groups. They are found on the southernmost tip of Hainan near the city of Sanya.

History

[edit]

The Utsuls are thought to be descendants of Cham refugees who fled their homeland of Champa in what is now modern Central Vietnam to escape the Vietnamese invasion.[2] After the Vietnamese completed the conquest of Cham in 1471, sacking Vijaya, the last capital of the Cham kingdom, a Cham prince and about 1,000 followers moved to Hainan, where the Ming dynasty allowed them to stay.[3] Several Chinese accounts record Cham arriving on Hainan even earlier, from 986, shortly after the Vietnamese captured the earlier Cham capital of Indrapura in 982, while other Cham refugees settled in Guangzhou.[4][5]

While most of the Chams who fled Champa to Cambodia, a small business class fled northwards. How they came to acquire the name Utsul is unknown.[citation needed]

Their population was greatly reduced during the Second Sino-Japanese War by the Japanese that more than 4,000 Chams were killed in Sanya as Chinese armies were hiding among them from the invading Japanese.[6] Hundreds of Utsul Muslim houses and mosques in Sanya were destroyed by the Japanese in order to build an airport.[7]

Discrimination

[edit]
See also: Islamophobia in China

In 2020, it was reported that Beijing had started a religious crackdown aimed at the Utsul community as part of their political efforts. Restrictions included limiting the size of mosques, requiring a Chinese Communist Party member on mosque management committees, forbidding the use of Arabic words on food stalls (such as "halal"), and forbidding the wearing of hijab.[8][9][10]

Identity

[edit]

Although they are culturally, ethnically and linguistically distinct from the Hui, the Chinese government nevertheless classifies them as Hui due to their Islamic faith. From reports by Hans Stübel, the German ethnographer who made contact with them in the 1930s, however, their language is completely unrelated to any other language spoken in mainland China.[11]

Genetics

[edit]

A genetic study by Li et al. (2013) suggested that the surviving Utsat were genetically much closer to the indigenous Hlai people than to the Cham and other mainland southeast Asian populations. The study suggests that there was high assimilation of the indigenous Hlai in the formation of the Utsat.[12]

Family names

[edit]

Some common Utsul family names include Chen, Ha, Hai, Jiang, Li, Liu and Pu.[13]

Famous people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Gladney, Dru C., ed. (1998). Making Majorities: Constituting the Nation in Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the United States. Stanford University Press. p. 122. ISBN 9780804730488.
  2. ^ Olson, James Stuart (1998). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of China. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 41. ISBN 0-313-28853-4.
  3. ^ Nhung Tuyet Tran (2006). Vịêt Nam: Borderless Histories. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 104. ISBN 0-299-21774-4.
  4. ^ Grant, Anthony; Sidwell, Paul, eds. (2005). Chamic and Beyond: Studies in Mainland Austronesian Languages. Pacific Linguistics. p. 247. doi:10.15144/PL-569. hdl:1885/146271. ISBN 0-85883-561-4.
  5. ^ Andaya, Leonard Y. (2008). Leaves of the Same Tree: Trade and Ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka. University of Hawaii Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-8248-3189-9. cham hainan.
  6. ^ 海南岛农业地理 - Volume 51 - Page 44
  7. ^ Thurgood, Graham; Thurgood, Ela; Li, Fengxiang (2014). A Grammatical Sketch of Hainan Cham: History, Contact, and Phonology. Vol. 643 of Pacific Linguistics [PL] (reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 20. ISBN 978-1614516040.
  8. ^ Seibt, Sébastian (2020-09-30). "Beijing's Crackdown on Religious Minorities Takes Aim at 10,000 Muslim Utsuls". France 24. Retrieved 2020-10-16.
  9. ^ Baptista, Eduardo (2020-09-28). "Tiny Muslim Community Becomes Latest Target for China's Religious Crackdown". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2020-10-16.
  10. ^ Bradsher, Keith; Qin, Amy (2021-02-14). "China's Crackdown on Muslims Extends to a Resort Island". The New York Times. Retrieved 2021-02-15.
  11. ^ Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. p. 168. ISBN 0-691-06694-9.
  12. ^ Li, Dong-Na; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Yang, Kun; et al. (2013). "Substitution of Hainan Indigenous Genetic Lineage in the Utsat People, Exiles of the Champa Kingdom: Genetic Structure of Hainan Utsat People". Journal of Systematics and Evolution. 51 (3): 287–294. doi:10.1111/jse.12000.
  13. ^ Thurgood, Graham; Thurgood, Ela; Fengxiang, Li (2014). A Grammatical Sketch of Hainan Cham: History, Contact, and Phonology (reprint ed.). De Gruyter Mouton. p. 12. ISBN 9781614516040.
  14. ^ Choong Kwee Kim (22 December 2003). "PM Meets Relatives from China". The Star. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
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