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In logic, equivocation ("calling two different things by the same name") is an informal fallacy resulting from the use of a particular word or expression in multiple senses within an argument.^[1]^[2]

It is a type of ambiguity that stems from a phrase having two or more distinct meanings, not from the grammar or structure of the sentence.^[1]

Fallacy of four terms

Equivocation in a syllogism (a chain of reasoning) produces a fallacy of four terms (quaternio terminorum). Below is an example:

Since only man [human] is rational.

And no woman is a man [male].

Therefore, no woman is rational.^[1]

The first instance of "man" implies the entire human species, while the second implies just those who are male.

Motte-and-bailey fallacy

Equivocation can also be used to conflate two positions which share similarities, one modest and easy to defend and one much more controversial. The arguer advances the controversial position, but when challenged, they insist that they are only advancing the more modest position.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c Damer, T. Edward (21 February 2008). Attacking Faulty Reasoning: A Practical Guide to Fallacy-Free Arguments. Cengage Learning. pp. 121–123. ISBN 978-0-495-09506-4.
^ Fischer, D. H. (June 1970), Historians' fallacies: toward a logic of historical thought, Harper torchbooks (first ed.), New York: HarperCollins, p. 274, ISBN 978-0-06-131545-9, OCLC 185446787

External links

The dictionary definition of equivocation at Wiktionary

[Damer2008-1] Damer, T. Edward (21 February 2008). Attacking Faulty Reasoning: A Practical Guide to Fallacy-Free Arguments. Cengage Learning. pp. 121–123. ISBN 978-0-495-09506-4.

[2] Fischer, D. H. (June 1970), Historians' fallacies: toward a logic of historical thought, Harper torchbooks (first ed.), New York: HarperCollins, p. 274, ISBN 978-0-06-131545-9, OCLC 185446787

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-{{short description|Misleading use of a term with more than one meaning or sense}}
+{{Short description|Misleading use of a term with multiple meanings}}
-{{otheruses}}
+{{Otheruses}}
-In [[logic]], '''equivocation''' ('calling two different things by the same name') is an [[informal fallacy]] resulting from the use of a particular word/expression in multiple [[word sense|senses]] within an argument.<ref name="Damer2008">{{cite book|author=Damer, T. Edward|title=Attacking Faulty Reasoning: A Practical Guide to Fallacy-Free Arguments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qZabUx0FmkC|date=21 February 2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=0-495-09506-0|pages=121–123}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title = Historians' fallacies: toward a logic of historical thought |publisher= HarperCollins |isbn= 978-0-06-131545-9 |date=June 1970 |location= New York |oclc= 185446787 |series= Harper torchbooks |edition= first  |first= D. H. |last= Fischer |authorlink= David Hackett Fischer |page= 274 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VIvNG8Ect6gC&pg=305}}</ref>
+In [[logic]], '''equivocation''' ("calling two different things by the same name") is an [[informal fallacy]] resulting from the use of a particular word or expression in multiple [[word sense|senses]] within an argument.<ref name="Damer2008">{{cite book|author=Damer, T. Edward|title=Attacking Faulty Reasoning: A Practical Guide to Fallacy-Free Arguments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qZabUx0FmkC|date=21 February 2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-09506-4|pages=121–123}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title = Historians' fallacies: toward a logic of historical thought |publisher= HarperCollins |isbn= 978-0-06-131545-9 |date=June 1970 |location= New York |oclc= 185446787 |series= Harper torchbooks |edition= first  |first= D. H. |last= Fischer |author-link= David Hackett Fischer |page= 274 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VIvNG8Ect6gC&pg=305}}</ref>
 It is a type of [[semantic ambiguity|ambiguity]] that stems from a phrase having two or more distinct [[Meaning (linguistics)|meanings]], not from the grammar or structure of the sentence.<ref name="Damer2008"/>
+==Fallacy of four terms==
-Below are some examples of equivocation in [[syllogism|syllogisms]] (a logical chain of reasoning):
+{{Main|Fallacy of four terms}}
+Equivocation in a [[syllogism]] (a chain of reasoning) produces a [[fallacy of four terms]] ({{lang|la|quaternio terminorum}}). Below is an example:
-: Since only man [human] is tall.
+: Since only man [human] is rational.
 : And no woman is a man [male].
-: Therefore, no woman is tall.<ref name="Damer2008" />
+: Therefore, no woman is rational.<ref name="Damer2008" />
 The first instance of "man" implies the entire human species, while the second implies just those who are male.
+==Motte-and-bailey fallacy==
-: A feather is light [not heavy].
+{{Main|Motte-and-bailey fallacy}}
-: What is light [bright] cannot be dark.
+[[File:Launceston_Castle_-_geograph.org.uk_-_22242.jpg|thumb|The motte (raised area) and bailey (walled courtyard) defenses at [[Launceston Castle]]]]
-: Therefore, a feather cannot be dark.
+Equivocation can also be used to conflate two positions which share similarities, one modest and easy to defend and one much more controversial. The arguer advances the controversial position, but when challenged, they insist that they are only advancing the more modest position.
-In the above example, distinct meanings of the word "light" are implied in contexts of the first and second statements.
-: All jackasses [male donkey] have long ears.
-: Carl is a jackass [annoying person].
-: Therefore, Carl has long ears.
-Here, the equivocation is the metaphorical use of "jackass" to imply a simple-minded or obnoxious person instead of a male donkey.
 ==See also==
 {{Portal|Philosophy|Psychology}}
+{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
+* [[Antanaclasis]]: A related purposeful rhetorical device
+* [[Circumlocution]]: Phrasing to explain something without saying it
+* [[Organizational information theory#Equivocality|Equivocality: Organizational information theory]]
+* [[Etymological fallacy]]: A kind of linguistic misconception
+* [[Evasion (ethics)]]: Tell the truth while deceiving
+* [[False equivalence]]: Fallacy based on flawed reasoning
+* [[If-by-whiskey]]: An example
+* [[Map-territory relation]]: Concept that words used to describe an underlying reality are arbitrary abstractions not to be confused with the reality itself
+* [[Mental reservation]]: A doctrine in moral theology
+* [[No true Scotsman]]: Changing a definition to exclude a counter-example
+* [[Persuasive definition]]: Skewed definition of term
+* [[Plausible deniability]]: A blame-shifting technique
+* [[Polysemy]]: The property of word or phrase having certain type of multiple meanings
+* [[Principle of explosion]]: One of the fundamental laws in logic
+* [[Syntactic ambiguity]], Amphiboly, Amphibology: Ambiguity of a sentence by its grammatical structure
+* [[When a white horse is not a horse]]: An example
+{{Div col end}}
+==References==
-{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
+{{Reflist}}
-* [[Antanaclasis]]: a related purposeful rhetorical device
-* [[Circumlocution]]: phrasing to explain something without saying it
-* [[Etymological fallacy]]: a kind of linguistic misconception
-* [[Evasion (ethics)]]: tell the truth while deceiving
-* [[Fallacy of four terms]]: an ill form of syllogism
-* [[False equivalence]]: fallacy based on flawed reasoning
-* [[If-by-whiskey]]: an example
-* [[Mental reservation]]: a doctrine in moral theology
-* [[Persuasive definition]]: skewed definition of term
-* [[Plausible deniability]]: a blame shifting technique
-* [[Polysemy]]: the property of word or phrase having certain type of multiple meanings
-* [[Principle of explosion]]: one of the fundamental laws in logic
-* [[Syntactic ambiguity]], Amphiboly, Amphibology: ambiguity of a sentence by its grammatical structure
-* [[When a white horse is not a horse]]: an example
-{{div col end}}
+== External links ==
-==References==
+* {{Wiktionary inline|equivocation}}
-{{reflist}}
 {{Fallacies}}