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{{short description|Provisional government}}
{{Short description|Provisional government based in Ankara}}
{{Infobox country
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = State of Turkey
| conventional_long_name = State of Turkey
| native_name = ''Türkiye Devleti''
| native_name = {{lang|tr|Türkiye Devleti}}
| common_name = Ankara Government
| common_name = Ankara Government
| era = {{nowrap|[[Turkish War of Independence|War of Independence]]}}
| era = {{nowrap|[[Turkish War of Independence|War of Independence]]}}
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| flag = Flag of Turkey
| flag = Flag of Turkey
| symbol_type = Government Seal
| symbol_type = Government Seal
| national_motto = ''Ya istiklâl ya ölüm!''<br />{{small|"Independence or death!"}}
| national_motto = [[Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the Nation|''Hâkimiyet bilâ kaydü şart milletindir'']]<br>"Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the nation"
| national_anthem = <br />{{lang|tr|[[İstiklal Marşı]]}}<br />"Independence March"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:IstiklalMarsi-2013 (version 2).oga]]}}
| image_map = Treaty of Sèvres 1920.svg
| image_map = Treaty of Sèvres 1920.svg
| image_map_caption = De Jure Situation in the Ottoman Empire following the [[Treaty of Sèvres]].
| image_map_caption = De Jure Situation in the Ottoman Empire following the [[Treaty of Sèvres]].
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| deputy4 = [[Fethi Okyar|Ali Fethi]]
| deputy4 = [[Fethi Okyar|Ali Fethi]]
| year_deputy4 = 1923
| year_deputy4 = 1923
| title_representative = [[Caliph]]
| representative1 = [[Abdülmecid II]]
| year_representative1 = 1922–1923
| legislature = {{nowrap|[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]}}
| legislature = {{nowrap|[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]}}
| stat_pop1 = 6–7 million<ref>''Belgelerle Türk tarihi dergisi'', Edition 18, Menteş Kitabevi, 1986, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DWhpAAAAMAAJ&q=%22t%C3%BCrkiye'deki+rumlarla+beraber,+en+az%22 page 72]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref>
| stat_pop1 = 6–7 million<ref>''Belgelerle Türk tarihi dergisi'', Edition 18, Menteş Kitabevi, 1986, [https://books.google.com/books?id=DWhpAAAAMAAJ&q=%22t%C3%BCrkiye'deki+rumlarla+beraber,+en+az%22 page 72]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref>
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| date_start = 23 April
| date_start = 23 April
| year_start = 1920
| year_start = 1920
| event1 = [[1st cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey|1st cabinet]]
| event1 = [[1st cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey|Cabinet established]]
| date_event1 = 3 May 1920
| date_event1 = 3 May 1920
| event2 = {{nowrap|[[Turkish Constitution of 1921|Constitution adopted]]}}
| event2 = [[Turkish Constitution of 1921|Constitution adopted]]
| date_event2 = 20 January 1921
| date_event2 = 20 January 1921
| event3 = [[Armistice of Mudanya|Armistice signed]]
| event3 = [[Armistice of Mudanya]]
| date_event3 = 11 October 1922
| date_event3 = 11 October 1922
| event4 = [[Abolishment of the Ottoman Sultanate|Sultanate abolished]]
| event4 = [[Abolishment of the Ottoman Sultanate|Sultanate abolished]]
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| HDI_year =
| HDI_year =
}}
}}
The '''Government of the Grand National Assembly''' ({{lang-tr|Büyük Millet Meclisi Hükûmeti}}), self-identified as the '''State of Turkey''' ({{lang|tr|Türkiye Devleti}}) or '''[[Turkey]]''' ({{lang|tr|Türkiye}}),<ref>{{cite book|title=Eternal Dawn: Turkey in the Age of Atatürk|page=86|year=2019|author=Ryan Gingeras}}</ref> commonly known as the '''Ankara Government''' ({{lang|tr|Ankara Hükûmeti}}),<ref>Esra Yakut: ''Şeyhülislâmlık: yenileşme döneminde devlet ve din'', Kitap Yayınevi Ltd., 2005, {{ISBN|9789758704941}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8xkQ5Ye5fVMC&q=%22ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti%22&pg=PA198 page 198,199]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>Pars Tuğlacı: ''Çağdaş Türkiye'', Cem Yayınevi, 1987, Turkey [https://books.google.com/books?ei=xinOUMT2MuWD4gS7rIHICQ&hl=de&id=il9pAAAAMAAJ&dq=ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti&q=%22Ankara+H%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti+kabul%22 page 358]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>Hakan Alan, Avni Alan: ''İstanbul Şehir Rehberi'', ASBOOK, 2007, {{ISBN|9750114701}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IlGEuAKilQgC&dq=%22ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti%22&pg=PA12 page 12]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>Yahya Kemal: ''Eğil Dağlar'', Kubbealtı Publishing, 1966, {{ISBN|9757618519}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=41MWF9vWFkYC&dq=%22ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti%22&pg=PA93 pages 13, 92-93, 138, 155, 170, 188, 204-205, 232, 302, 338]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>William Hale: ''Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000'', Routledge, 2012, {{ISBN|0415599865}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PlcpRNvsM4cC&q=%22ankara+government%22&pg=PA37 pages 36, 37, 38, 50, 265].</ref><ref>Kemal Kirişci, Gareth M. Winrow: ''The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict'', Routledge, 1997, {{ISBN|0714647462}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=34yogVZh9oUC&q=%22ankara+government%22&pg=PA71 pages 71-75, 77-79, 80, 82-84].</ref> or archaically the '''Angora Government''', was the provisional and revolutionary Turkish government based in [[Ankara]] (then known as Angora<!--{{Cite web |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/ |title=Istanbul, not Constantinople |last=Society |date=2014-03-04 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en |access-date=2019-03-28 |df=dmy-all}}-->) during the [[Turkish War of Independence]] (1919–1923) and during the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|final years]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. It was led by the [[Turkish National Movement]], as opposed to the crumbling ''[[Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)|Constantinople Government/Istanbul Government]]'', which was led by the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Sultan]].
The '''Government of the Grand National Assembly''' ({{langx|tr|Büyük Millet Meclisi Hükûmeti}}), self-identified as the '''State of Turkey''' ({{lang|tr|Türkiye Devleti}}) or '''[[Turkey]]''' ({{lang|tr|Türkiye}}),<ref>{{cite book|title=Eternal Dawn: Turkey in the Age of Atatürk|page=86|year=2019|author=Ryan Gingeras}}</ref> commonly known as the '''Ankara Government''' ({{lang|tr|Ankara Hükûmeti}}),<ref>Esra Yakut: ''Şeyhülislâmlık: yenileşme döneminde devlet ve din'', Kitap Yayınevi Ltd., 2005, {{ISBN|9789758704941}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8xkQ5Ye5fVMC&q=%22ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti%22&pg=PA198 page 198,199]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>Pars Tuğlacı: ''Çağdaş Türkiye'', Cem Yayınevi, 1987, Turkey [https://books.google.com/books?ei=xinOUMT2MuWD4gS7rIHICQ&hl=de&id=il9pAAAAMAAJ&dq=ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti&q=%22Ankara+H%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti+kabul%22 page 358]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>Hakan Alan, Avni Alan: ''İstanbul Şehir Rehberi'', ASBOOK, 2007, {{ISBN|9750114701}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=IlGEuAKilQgC&dq=%22ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti%22&pg=PA12 page 12]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>Yahya Kemal: ''Eğil Dağlar'', Kubbealtı Publishing, 1966, {{ISBN|9757618519}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=41MWF9vWFkYC&dq=%22ankara+h%C3%BCk%C3%BCmeti%22&pg=PA93 pages 13, 92-93, 138, 155, 170, 188, 204-205, 232, 302, 338]. {{in lang|tr}}</ref><ref>William Hale: ''Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000'', Routledge, 2012, {{ISBN|0415599865}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=PlcpRNvsM4cC&q=%22ankara+government%22&pg=PA37 pages 36, 37, 38, 50, 265].</ref><ref>Kemal Kirişci, Gareth M. Winrow: ''The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict'', Routledge, 1997, {{ISBN|0714647462}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=34yogVZh9oUC&q=%22ankara+government%22&pg=PA71 pages 71-75, 77-79, 80, 82-84].</ref> or archaically the '''Angora Government''', was the provisional and revolutionary Turkish government based in [[Ankara]] (then known as Angora<!--{{Cite web |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/ |title=Istanbul, not Constantinople |last=Society |date=2014-03-04 |website=National Geographic Society |language=en |access-date=2019-03-28 |df=dmy-all}}-->) during the [[Turkish War of Independence]] (1919–1923) and during the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|final years]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. It was led by the [[Turkish National Movement]], as opposed to the crumbling ''[[Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)|Constantinople Government/Istanbul Government]]'', which was led by the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Sultan]].


During the War of Independence, the Government of the Grand National Assembly commanded the army known as [[Kuva-yi Milliye]] ("National Forces"). After the war and victory over the [[monarchist]] Constantinople Government, the republican Ankara Government declared the end of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the creation of the [[Republic of Turkey]] from its ashes in 1923. The [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] is today the parliamentary body of Turkey.
During the War of Independence, the Government of the Grand National Assembly commanded the army known as [[Kuva-yi Milliye]] ("National Forces"). After the war and victory over the [[monarchist]] Constantinople Government, the republican Ankara Government declared the end of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the creation of the [[Republic of Turkey]] from its ashes in 1923. The [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] is today the parliamentary body of Turkey.
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==Background==
==Background==
{{Main|Turkish War of Independence}}
{{Main|Turkish War of Independence}}
At the time the Ankara Government was proclaimed, there existed another Turkish government in the [[Allies of World War I|Allied]]-occupied [[Constantinople]] (now [[Istanbul]]), namely the [[Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)|Imperial Ottoman Government]], often known as the "''Constantinople Government''" (as opposed to the nationalist Ankara Government). Once the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] was established, on 23 April 1920, without rejecting at first the legitimacy of the [[Ottoman Sultan]]ate, the new parliament in Ankara formed its own government within the Assembly. The Ministers were called "''Vekil''" (Acting) instead of the conventional "''Nazır''", to keep with the provisional nature of the government.
At the time the Ankara Government was proclaimed, there existed another Turkish government in the [[Allies of World War I|Allied]]-occupied [[Constantinople]] (now [[Istanbul]]), namely the [[Imperial Government (Ottoman Empire)|Imperial Ottoman Government]], often known as the "''Constantinople Government''" (as opposed to the nationalist Ankara Government) and another Turkish parliament as the [[Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)|Chamber of Deputies]]. On 12 November 1918, Constantinople was [[Occupation of Istanbul | occupied]] by the Allied forces led by the British. However, the occupying forces did not touch the Parliament and government buildings. On 21 December 1918, the parliament was dissolved by Sultan Vahdettin to hold new elections. As a result of the elections, the last parliament held its first meeting on 12 January 1920. The newly elected Ottoman parliament in Istanbul did not recognize the occupation; they developed a [[Misak-ı Millî | National Pact]] (Misak-ı Milli). The British, disturbed by the declaration of the National Pact, decided to completely occupy the city with the Allied military forces and seize the government buildings. Following the military occupation of Istanbul on 16 March 1920, the parliament was officially closed on 11 April 1920, under pressure from the occupying forces, in violation of the constitution. While some deputies were arrested, most fled to Anatolia to join the [[Turkish War of Independence | resistance]]. The new parliament opened in Ankara as a joint effort of these fugitive deputies and the resistance structure in Anatolia, opened on 23 April 1920, shortly after the old parliament was forcibly closed. The new parliament in Ankara declared itself to be the continuation of the parliament closed in Istanbul on 11 April stated that it was loyal to the National Pact and began its work by holding the last meeting of the old parliament as its first meeting. The Ankara Government was officially loyal to the Ottoman Sultan and the Caliphate. The Ankara Government never claimed that it was a new or different state. However, it declared that the Istanbul Government could not govern the country and had no validity due to the occupation of Istanbul. For this reason, it did not use the title "nazır" (minister) for its own cabinet members. Instead, it used the title ''vekil'' (acting minister).


The Ankara Government was founded to represent [[Turkey]] because the ''de jure'' capital, Constantinople, [[Occupation of Constantinople|was under occupation]]. The president of the GNA (renamed the ''[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]'' after 8 February 1921) and later of the Republic of Turkey, was [[Mustafa Kemal Pasha]]. Once the [[Armistice of Mudanya]] was signed, replacing the [[Armistice of Mondros|Armistice of Mundros]] (signed by the Ottoman Empire in 1918 at the end of [[World War I]]) and ending the [[Turkish War of Independence]], the GNA [[Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate|abolished the imperial Sultanate]], which was accused of collaborating with the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] during the occupation of Turkey.
The Ankara Government was founded to represent [[Turkey]] because the ''de jure'' capital, Constantinople, [[Occupation of Constantinople|was under occupation]]. The president of the GNA (renamed the ''[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]'' after 8 February 1921) and later of the Republic of Turkey, was [[Mustafa Kemal Pasha]]. Once the [[Armistice of Mudanya]] was signed, replacing the [[Armistice of Mondros|Armistice of Mundros]] (signed by the Ottoman Empire in 1918 at the end of [[World War I]]) and ending the [[Turkish War of Independence]], the GNA [[Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate|abolished the imperial Sultanate]], which was accused of collaborating with the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] during the occupation of Turkey.
[[File:The Angora Government and its Claims.jpg|thumb|400px|The map published by ''[[The Sphere (newspaper)|The Sphere]]'' on 1–5 March 1921:<br />''The Angora Government and its Claims''<br />''The Kemalists or Nationalists control more or less effectively the area shaded. They have been driven away from the Aegean by the Greeks, but claim Thrace, Smyrna, Armenia, and all Mesopotamia down to the Persian Gulf'']]


The Constantinople Government, representing the Ottoman sultanate and the old imperial and monarchical order, initially refused to recognize the [[Turkish national movement]] and the Government of the Grand National Assembly in Ankara, holding that it alone was the legitimate government of the Ottoman Empire. It attempted to militarily defeat the Ankara Government using its [[Kuva-yi Inzibatiye]], i.e. the "Forces of Order", commonly known as the "Army of the Caliphate" (as opposed to the GNA's forces, the [[Kuva-yi Milliye]], the "Army of the Nation"), but failed to do so. In 1921, diplomatic teams from both the monarchist Constantinople Government and the republican Ankara Government appeared at the [[Conference of London]]. In a surprising move, however, the Ottoman diplomatic team led by [[Ahmet Tevfik Pasha]] gave in and allowed the Turkish diplomatic team led by [[Bekir Sami Kunduh]] to be the sole representatives of the country at the conference. The [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed on 24 July 1923, between the representatives of the Allies and of Ankara, thus officially recognizing the government of Ankara as the legitimate Turkish government.
The Constantinople Government, representing the Ottoman sultanate and the old imperial and monarchical order, initially refused to recognize the [[Turkish national movement]] and the Government of the Grand National Assembly in Ankara, holding that it alone was the legitimate government of the Ottoman Empire. It attempted to militarily defeat the Ankara Government using its [[Kuva-yi Inzibatiye]], i.e. the "Forces of Order", commonly known as the "Army of the Caliphate" (as opposed to the GNA's forces, the [[Kuva-yi Milliye]], the "Army of the Nation"), but failed to do so. In 1921, diplomatic teams from both the monarchist Constantinople Government and the republican Ankara Government appeared at the [[Conference of London]]. In a surprising move, however, the Ottoman diplomatic team led by [[Ahmet Tevfik Pasha]] gave in and allowed the Turkish diplomatic team led by [[Bekir Sami Kunduh]] to be the sole representatives of the country at the conference. The [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed on 24 July 1923, between the representatives of the Allies and of Ankara, thus officially recognizing the government of Ankara as the legitimate Turkish government.


On 29 October, the National Assembly declared the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].
On 29 October, the National Assembly declared the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].

== Government and politics ==
[[File:Atatürk_TBMM’nin_balkonundan_halkı_selamlarken,_Ankara,_28_Mayıs_1922.png|thumb|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] and the Cabinet of the Executive Ministers salute people from the [[War of Independence Museum|Grand National Assembly]] balcony, 28 May 1922]]
The provisional government was a [[parliamentary republic]] where the unicameral parliament, the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]], practiced both executive and legislative powers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Özbudun |first=Ergin |date=2024-11-20 |title=Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Hükûmetinin Hukukî Niteliği |url=https://atamdergi.gov.tr/tam-metin-pdf/346/tur |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi}}</ref> As the main purpose of the government was to salvage the Ottoman Empire, and they in reality still recognized the Sultan, despite the capital was [[Occupation of Istanbul|under occupation]], there was no designated head of state position.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aslan |first=Yavuz |date=2010-02-21 |title=I. Dönem TBMM'de "İcra Vekilleri Heyeti Riyaseti (Hükümet Başkanlığı)"nın Statüsü ve "TBMM Reisi"nin İcra ile İlgili Yetki ve Sorumluluğu |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/26035 |journal=Atatürk Dergisi |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=1 |via=DergiPark}}</ref>

=== Executive branch ===
Two days after the proclamation of the Grand National Assembly, the Temporary Executive Council ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Muvakkat İcra Encümeni) was established under Mustafa Kemal's leadership to handle transition matters until the composition of an organized government. The council was disbanded by Law No. 3 following the first election on 3 May 1920.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Salim |first=Muammer |title=İcra Vekilleri Heyeti Programlarına Yansıyan Sosyal Politika Söylemleri (3 Mayıs 1920-29 Ekim 1923) |url=https://www.academia.edu/44803411/%C4%B0CRA_VEK%C4%B0LLER%C4%B0_HEYET%C4%B0_PROGRAMLARINA_YANSIYAN_SOSYAL_POL%C4%B0T%C4%B0KA_S%C3%96YLEMLER%C4%B0_3_MAYIS_1920_29_EK%C4%B0M_1923_ |journal=International Marmara Social Sciences Congress |pages=170 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>

The executive branch was a combination of military and civilian administrations. For instance, both the National Defense and the Chief of Staff were designated as ministries.<ref name=":1" /> The Cabinet of the Executive Ministers was composed of eleven ministries, as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Title
!Title in [[Ottoman Turkish]] (romanized)
!Description
|-
|Sharia and Foundations
|Şer'iye ve Evkaf
|
|-
|Health and Social Welfare
|Sıhhiye ve Muavenet-i İçtimaiye
|The ministry was in charge of handling nationwide cooperation between military, civilian, and local health centers. It operated two [[Hospital train|hospital trains]] during the [[Greek Summer Offensive]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Karavar |first=Hilal |date=2022-11-29 |title=Activities of the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare during the Turkish National Struggle |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2387799 |journal=Journal of Recent Period Turkish Studies |issue=42 |pages=56 |via=DergiPark}}</ref> and established more than 20 stational and mobile hospitals. After the [[Government of the late Ottoman Empire|Constantinople government]] ban on vaccines and medical equipment supplies to Anatolia, the ministry focused on vaccine production and combating diseases.<ref name=":2" />
|-
|Economy
|İktisat
|
|-
|Education
|Maarif
|At the time of the proclamation of the Ankara Government, most schools were underfunded and the already few existing teachers were resigning to seek public service jobs.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Sarı |first=Muhammed |date=2014-03-28 |title=Yeni Türk Devletinin İlk Maarif Vekâleti (Kuruluşu ve Çalışmaları 1920-1923) |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/618732 |journal=Atatürk Yolu Dergisi |volume=14 |issue=54 |pages=175 |via=DergiPark}}</ref> The First Education Congress ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Birinci Maarif Kongresi) held in 1921 adjusted the national order in education: Elementary education was decreased from 6 to 4 years; many high schools were converted to vocational schools; the Copyright and Translation Council was founded to safeguard national heritage and commence first studies on the [[Turkish alphabet reform|Alphabet Revolution]].<ref name=":3" /> As there was no university in Anatolia, some professors from Constantinople voluntarily taught at high schools, and the ministry offered bachelor's degrees. Schools of foreign origin were also forced into audit by the central government.<ref name=":3" />
|-
|Judiciary
|Adliye
|
|-
|Finance and Customs
|Maliye ve Rüsumat
|
|-
|Public Works
|Nafia
|
|-
|Interior
|Dahiliye
|
* Provincial administration
* Law enforcement ([[General Directorate of Security (Turkey)|Emniyet-i Umumiye]])
* Postal and telegraph service ([[PTT (Turkey)|PTT]])
|-
|National Defense
|Müdafaa-ı Milliye
|
* Internal security forces<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Küsmez |first=Abdullah Cüneyt |date=2023-09-26 |title=Atatürk Dönemi, Eşkıya ile Mücadele Harekâtında Jandarma |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/3348153 |journal=Korkut Ata Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi |volume=1 |issue=12 |pages=1339 |via=DergiPark}}</ref> ([[Gendarmerie General Command|Umum Jandarma Kumandanlığı]])
|-
|Foreign Affairs
|Hariciye
|
|-
|Chief of Staff
|Erkân-ı Harbiye
|
|}

=== Administrative divisions ===
Even though the [[Turkish Constitution of 1921|Constitution of 1921]] had emphasized decentralization through expanding local administrators' powers, it was a [[unitary state]]. The administrative order was composed of ''[[Vilayet|vilayets]]'', integrated ''[[Sanjak|livas]]'', independent ''livas'', and ''[[Kaza|kazas]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Tavukçu |first=İbrahim |date=2024-06-20 |title=Milli Mücadele Döneminde TBMM Hükümetlerinin İdari Taksimat Alanında Yaptığı Düzenlemeler |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1160678 |journal=Tarih ve Gelecek Dergisi |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=5, 6 |via=DergiPark}}</ref>

Shortly after the [[Armistice of Mudros|Armistice of Mundros]], there were 15 vilayets, 35 integrated livas, 17 independent livas, and 392 kazas.<ref name=":0" /> Vilayets had autonomy to some extent<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gözler |first=Kemal |date=1921-02-07 |title=Teşkilâtı Esasiye Kanunu |url=https://www.anayasa.gen.tr/1921-tek-orijinal.pdf |access-date=2024-11-20 |website=anayasa.gen.tr}}</ref> through local councils ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''vilâyet şurası'') that were elected by the people and were allowed to amend and execute local laws, as long as they were compliant with the laws released by the central government.<ref name=":0" /> Vilayets had [[Wali (administrative title)|governors]] appointed by the Grand National Assembly for the representation and audit of vilayets, while [[Kaymakam|kaymakams]] were responsible for lower divisions.


==The governments==
==The governments==
[[File:The Angora Government and its Claims.jpg|thumb|304x304px|The map published by ''[[The Sphere (newspaper)|The Sphere]]'' on 1–5 March 1921:<br />''The Angora Government and its Claims''<br />''The Kemalists or Nationalists control more or less effectively the area shaded. They have been driven away from the Aegean by the Greeks, but claim Thrace, Smyrna, Armenia, and all Mesopotamia down to the Persian Gulf'']]The governments prior to the Republic were used to be called "Executive ministers of Turkey." They were:
The governments prior to the Republic were used to be called "Executive ministers of Turkey." They were:
*[[1st cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey]]
*[[1st cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey]]
*[[2nd cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey]]
*[[2nd cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey]]
Line 95: Line 166:
* [[Armistice of Mudanya]]
* [[Armistice of Mudanya]]
* [[Turkish War of Independence]]
* [[Turkish War of Independence]]
** [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]]
* [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate]]
* [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate]]
* [[Occupation of Istanbul]]
* [[Kuva-yi Milliye]]


==References==
==References==

Latest revision as of 17:00, 21 November 2024

State of Turkey
Türkiye Devleti
1920–1923
Flag of Ankara Government
Motto: Hâkimiyet bilâ kaydü şart milletindir
"Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the nation"
Anthem: 
İstiklal Marşı
"Independence March"
De Jure Situation in the Ottoman Empire following the Treaty of Sèvres.
De Jure Situation in the Ottoman Empire following the Treaty of Sèvres.
CapitalAnkara (de facto)
Official languagesTurkish[1]
Religion
Islam (official)[1]
GovernmentProvisional government under a parliamentary republic
Speaker 
• 1920–1923
Mustafa Kemalab
Caliph 
• 1922–1923
Abdülmecid II
Prime Minister 
• 1920–1921
Mustafa Kemal
• 1921–1922
Mustafa Fevzi
• 1922–1923
Hüseyin Rauf
• 1923
Ali Fethi
LegislatureGrand National Assembly
Historical eraWar of Independence
23 April 1920
3 May 1920
20 January 1921
11 October 1922
1 November 1922
24 July 1923
29 October 1923
Population
• 
6–7 million[2]
CurrencyOttoman lira
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Ottoman Empire
Armenia
Zone of Smyrna
Occupied Istanbul
Democratic Republic of Georgia
Republic of Turkey
Today part ofTurkey
^a As "Speaker of the Grand National Assembly"
^b As "Commander-in-chief of Army of the Grand National Assembly" after 1921.

The Government of the Grand National Assembly (Turkish: Büyük Millet Meclisi Hükûmeti), self-identified as the State of Turkey (Türkiye Devleti) or Turkey (Türkiye),[3] commonly known as the Ankara Government (Ankara Hükûmeti),[4][5][6][7][8][9] or archaically the Angora Government, was the provisional and revolutionary Turkish government based in Ankara (then known as Angora) during the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) and during the final years of the Ottoman Empire. It was led by the Turkish National Movement, as opposed to the crumbling Constantinople Government/Istanbul Government, which was led by the Ottoman Sultan.

During the War of Independence, the Government of the Grand National Assembly commanded the army known as Kuva-yi Milliye ("National Forces"). After the war and victory over the monarchist Constantinople Government, the republican Ankara Government declared the end of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the Republic of Turkey from its ashes in 1923. The Grand National Assembly is today the parliamentary body of Turkey.

Background

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At the time the Ankara Government was proclaimed, there existed another Turkish government in the Allied-occupied Constantinople (now Istanbul), namely the Imperial Ottoman Government, often known as the "Constantinople Government" (as opposed to the nationalist Ankara Government) and another Turkish parliament as the Chamber of Deputies. On 12 November 1918, Constantinople was occupied by the Allied forces led by the British. However, the occupying forces did not touch the Parliament and government buildings. On 21 December 1918, the parliament was dissolved by Sultan Vahdettin to hold new elections. As a result of the elections, the last parliament held its first meeting on 12 January 1920. The newly elected Ottoman parliament in Istanbul did not recognize the occupation; they developed a National Pact (Misak-ı Milli). The British, disturbed by the declaration of the National Pact, decided to completely occupy the city with the Allied military forces and seize the government buildings. Following the military occupation of Istanbul on 16 March 1920, the parliament was officially closed on 11 April 1920, under pressure from the occupying forces, in violation of the constitution. While some deputies were arrested, most fled to Anatolia to join the resistance. The new parliament opened in Ankara as a joint effort of these fugitive deputies and the resistance structure in Anatolia, opened on 23 April 1920, shortly after the old parliament was forcibly closed. The new parliament in Ankara declared itself to be the continuation of the parliament closed in Istanbul on 11 April stated that it was loyal to the National Pact and began its work by holding the last meeting of the old parliament as its first meeting. The Ankara Government was officially loyal to the Ottoman Sultan and the Caliphate. The Ankara Government never claimed that it was a new or different state. However, it declared that the Istanbul Government could not govern the country and had no validity due to the occupation of Istanbul. For this reason, it did not use the title "nazır" (minister) for its own cabinet members. Instead, it used the title vekil (acting minister).

The Ankara Government was founded to represent Turkey because the de jure capital, Constantinople, was under occupation. The president of the GNA (renamed the Grand National Assembly of Turkey after 8 February 1921) and later of the Republic of Turkey, was Mustafa Kemal Pasha. Once the Armistice of Mudanya was signed, replacing the Armistice of Mundros (signed by the Ottoman Empire in 1918 at the end of World War I) and ending the Turkish War of Independence, the GNA abolished the imperial Sultanate, which was accused of collaborating with the Allies during the occupation of Turkey.

The Constantinople Government, representing the Ottoman sultanate and the old imperial and monarchical order, initially refused to recognize the Turkish national movement and the Government of the Grand National Assembly in Ankara, holding that it alone was the legitimate government of the Ottoman Empire. It attempted to militarily defeat the Ankara Government using its Kuva-yi Inzibatiye, i.e. the "Forces of Order", commonly known as the "Army of the Caliphate" (as opposed to the GNA's forces, the Kuva-yi Milliye, the "Army of the Nation"), but failed to do so. In 1921, diplomatic teams from both the monarchist Constantinople Government and the republican Ankara Government appeared at the Conference of London. In a surprising move, however, the Ottoman diplomatic team led by Ahmet Tevfik Pasha gave in and allowed the Turkish diplomatic team led by Bekir Sami Kunduh to be the sole representatives of the country at the conference. The Treaty of Lausanne was signed on 24 July 1923, between the representatives of the Allies and of Ankara, thus officially recognizing the government of Ankara as the legitimate Turkish government.

On 29 October, the National Assembly declared the Republic of Turkey.

Government and politics

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Mustafa Kemal and the Cabinet of the Executive Ministers salute people from the Grand National Assembly balcony, 28 May 1922

The provisional government was a parliamentary republic where the unicameral parliament, the Grand National Assembly, practiced both executive and legislative powers.[10] As the main purpose of the government was to salvage the Ottoman Empire, and they in reality still recognized the Sultan, despite the capital was under occupation, there was no designated head of state position.[11]

Executive branch

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Two days after the proclamation of the Grand National Assembly, the Temporary Executive Council (Turkish: Muvakkat İcra Encümeni) was established under Mustafa Kemal's leadership to handle transition matters until the composition of an organized government. The council was disbanded by Law No. 3 following the first election on 3 May 1920.[12]

The executive branch was a combination of military and civilian administrations. For instance, both the National Defense and the Chief of Staff were designated as ministries.[12] The Cabinet of the Executive Ministers was composed of eleven ministries, as follows:

Title Title in Ottoman Turkish (romanized) Description
Sharia and Foundations Şer'iye ve Evkaf
Health and Social Welfare Sıhhiye ve Muavenet-i İçtimaiye The ministry was in charge of handling nationwide cooperation between military, civilian, and local health centers. It operated two hospital trains during the Greek Summer Offensive[13] and established more than 20 stational and mobile hospitals. After the Constantinople government ban on vaccines and medical equipment supplies to Anatolia, the ministry focused on vaccine production and combating diseases.[13]
Economy İktisat
Education Maarif At the time of the proclamation of the Ankara Government, most schools were underfunded and the already few existing teachers were resigning to seek public service jobs.[14] The First Education Congress (Turkish: Birinci Maarif Kongresi) held in 1921 adjusted the national order in education: Elementary education was decreased from 6 to 4 years; many high schools were converted to vocational schools; the Copyright and Translation Council was founded to safeguard national heritage and commence first studies on the Alphabet Revolution.[14] As there was no university in Anatolia, some professors from Constantinople voluntarily taught at high schools, and the ministry offered bachelor's degrees. Schools of foreign origin were also forced into audit by the central government.[14]
Judiciary Adliye
Finance and Customs Maliye ve Rüsumat
Public Works Nafia
Interior Dahiliye
National Defense Müdafaa-ı Milliye
Foreign Affairs Hariciye
Chief of Staff Erkân-ı Harbiye

Administrative divisions

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Even though the Constitution of 1921 had emphasized decentralization through expanding local administrators' powers, it was a unitary state. The administrative order was composed of vilayets, integrated livas, independent livas, and kazas.[16]

Shortly after the Armistice of Mundros, there were 15 vilayets, 35 integrated livas, 17 independent livas, and 392 kazas.[16] Vilayets had autonomy to some extent[17] through local councils (Turkish: vilâyet şurası) that were elected by the people and were allowed to amend and execute local laws, as long as they were compliant with the laws released by the central government.[16] Vilayets had governors appointed by the Grand National Assembly for the representation and audit of vilayets, while kaymakams were responsible for lower divisions.

The governments

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The map published by The Sphere on 1–5 March 1921:
The Angora Government and its Claims
The Kemalists or Nationalists control more or less effectively the area shaded. They have been driven away from the Aegean by the Greeks, but claim Thrace, Smyrna, Armenia, and all Mesopotamia down to the Persian Gulf

The governments prior to the Republic were used to be called "Executive ministers of Turkey." They were:

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b [1] TEŞKİLÂTI ESASİYE KANUNU
  2. ^ Belgelerle Türk tarihi dergisi, Edition 18, Menteş Kitabevi, 1986, page 72. (in Turkish)
  3. ^ Ryan Gingeras (2019). Eternal Dawn: Turkey in the Age of Atatürk. p. 86.
  4. ^ Esra Yakut: Şeyhülislâmlık: yenileşme döneminde devlet ve din, Kitap Yayınevi Ltd., 2005, ISBN 9789758704941, page 198,199. (in Turkish)
  5. ^ Pars Tuğlacı: Çağdaş Türkiye, Cem Yayınevi, 1987, Turkey page 358. (in Turkish)
  6. ^ Hakan Alan, Avni Alan: İstanbul Şehir Rehberi, ASBOOK, 2007, ISBN 9750114701, page 12. (in Turkish)
  7. ^ Yahya Kemal: Eğil Dağlar, Kubbealtı Publishing, 1966, ISBN 9757618519, pages 13, 92-93, 138, 155, 170, 188, 204-205, 232, 302, 338. (in Turkish)
  8. ^ William Hale: Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000, Routledge, 2012, ISBN 0415599865, pages 36, 37, 38, 50, 265.
  9. ^ Kemal Kirişci, Gareth M. Winrow: The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-State Ethnic Conflict, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0714647462, pages 71-75, 77-79, 80, 82-84.
  10. ^ Özbudun, Ergin (2024-11-20). "Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Hükûmetinin Hukukî Niteliği". Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi. Retrieved 2024-11-20.
  11. ^ Aslan, Yavuz (2010-02-21). "I. Dönem TBMM'de "İcra Vekilleri Heyeti Riyaseti (Hükümet Başkanlığı)"nın Statüsü ve "TBMM Reisi"nin İcra ile İlgili Yetki ve Sorumluluğu". Atatürk Dergisi. 3 (1): 1 – via DergiPark.
  12. ^ a b Salim, Muammer. "İcra Vekilleri Heyeti Programlarına Yansıyan Sosyal Politika Söylemleri (3 Mayıs 1920-29 Ekim 1923)". International Marmara Social Sciences Congress: 170 – via Academia.edu.
  13. ^ a b Karavar, Hilal (2022-11-29). "Activities of the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare during the Turkish National Struggle". Journal of Recent Period Turkish Studies (42): 56 – via DergiPark.
  14. ^ a b c Sarı, Muhammed (2014-03-28). "Yeni Türk Devletinin İlk Maarif Vekâleti (Kuruluşu ve Çalışmaları 1920-1923)". Atatürk Yolu Dergisi. 14 (54): 175 – via DergiPark.
  15. ^ Küsmez, Abdullah Cüneyt (2023-09-26). "Atatürk Dönemi, Eşkıya ile Mücadele Harekâtında Jandarma". Korkut Ata Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi. 1 (12): 1339 – via DergiPark.
  16. ^ a b c Tavukçu, İbrahim (2024-06-20). "Milli Mücadele Döneminde TBMM Hükümetlerinin İdari Taksimat Alanında Yaptığı Düzenlemeler". Tarih ve Gelecek Dergisi. 6 (2): 5, 6 – via DergiPark.
  17. ^ Gözler, Kemal (1921-02-07). "Teşkilâtı Esasiye Kanunu" (PDF). anayasa.gen.tr. Retrieved 2024-11-20.
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