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{{short description|Poisonous substance produced within living cells or organisms}}
{{Short description|Naturally occurring organic poison}}
{{about|the class of poisonous substances}}
{{about|naturally occurring organic poisons|toxic substances that can be artificial or natural|Toxicant}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
[[File:Amanita-muscaria-mushroom20151014-1336-ex6cst.jpg|thumb|336x336px|The ''[[Amanita muscaria]]'' mushroom, an iconic toxic mushroom.]]
A '''toxin''' is a harmful substance produced within living cells or organisms;<ref>{{DorlandsDict|eight/000109718|toxin}}</ref><ref name="urltoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/toxin |title=toxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref> "A toxin is any poisonous substance of microbial (bacteria or other tiny plants or animals), vegetable, or synthetic chemical origin that reacts with specific cellular components to kill cells, alter growth or development, or kill the organism."<ref>Module 1: Introduction to Toxicology. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/es/training/toxicology_curriculum/modules/1/module-1.pdf]</ref> [https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-toxin-and-toxicant/ The term Toxicant should be used if the alien item is man-made and therefore not organic. This signifies that the hazardous material was created by man and is therefore not generated biologically]. However, the human and scientific genetic assembly of a natural-based toxin should be considered a toxin as it is identical to its natural counterpart. The debate is one of the [[Semantics|linguistic semantics]]. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919)<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWhqhK1cE-gC&pg=PA6|title=Endotoxin in Health and Disease|first=Helmut|last=Brade|year=1999|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0824719449}}</ref> and is derived from the word [[toxic]].<ref>{{OEtymD|toxin}}</ref>


A '''toxin''' is a [[naturally occurring]] [[poison]]<ref>{{OEtymD|toxin}}</ref> produced by [[Metabolism|metabolic activities]] of [[Life|living]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s or [[organism]]s.<ref name="urltoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/toxin |title=toxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref> They occur especially as [[Protein|proteins]], often [[Conjugated protein|conjugated]].<ref>{{DorlandsDict|eight/000109718|toxin}}</ref> The term was first used by [[organic chemist]] [[Ludwig Brieger]] (1849–1919),<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oWhqhK1cE-gC&pg=PA6|title=Endotoxin in Health and Disease|first=Helmut|last=Brade|year=1999|publisher=CRC Press|oclc=41299257|isbn=9780824719449}}</ref> derived from ''[[toxic]]''.
⚫
Toxins can be [[small molecule]]s, [[peptide]]s, or [[protein]]s that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by [[Biological tissue|body tissues]] interacting with biological [[macromolecule]]s such as [[enzyme]]s or [[Receptor (biochemistry)|cellular receptors]]. Toxins vary greatly in their [[toxicity]], ranging from usually minor (such as a [[bee]] [[Stinger|sting]]) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses (such as [[botulinum toxin]]).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128132135/illustrated-toxicology|title=Illustrated Toxicology with Study Questions|first=PK|last=Gupta|year=2018|publisher=Elsevier Inc.|isbn=978-0-12-813213-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-07 |title=Diagnosis and Treatment {{!}} Botulism {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/botulism/testing-treatment.html |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref> Toxins are largely [[secondary metabolites]], which are organic compounds that are not directly involved in an organism's growth, development, or reproduction, instead often aiding it in matters of defense.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

⚫
Toxins can be [[small molecule]]s, [[peptide]]s, or [[protein]]s that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by [[Biological tissue|body tissues]] interacting with biological [[macromolecule]]s such as [[enzyme]]s or [[Receptor (biochemistry)|cellular receptors]]. They vary greatly in their [[toxicity]], ranging from usually minor (such as a [[bee]] [[Stinger|sting]]) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses (such as [[botulinum toxin]]).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128132135/illustrated-toxicology|title=Illustrated Toxicology with Study Questions|first=PK|last=Gupta|year=2018|publisher=Elsevier Inc.|isbn=978-0-12-813213-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-01 |title=Diagnosis and Treatment {{!}} Botulism |url=https://www.cdc.gov/botulism/testing-treatment.html |access-date=2022-04-12 |website=CDC |language=en-us |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412162744/https://www.cdc.gov/botulism/testing-treatment.html |archive-date= 2022-04-12 }}</ref>


==Terminology==
==Terminology==
Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents due to their biological origin.
Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents strictly based on their biological origin.<ref>{{cite journal|title= Are Some Fungal Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Mycotoxins?|first1= Joan W |last1= Bennett|first2= Arati A |last2=Inamdar |journal= Toxins |location= Basel |year= 2015 |volume= 7|issue= 9 | pages= 3785–3804 | doi=10.3390/toxins7093785 |doi-access=free |pmid= 26402705 |pmc= 4591661 }}</ref>


Less strict understandings embrace naturally occurring [[inorganic]] toxins, such as [[arsenic]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Arsenic in Food: FAQ |first1=Brenda |last1=Goodman |url= https://www.webmd.com/diet/features/arsenic-food-faq | work = WebMD | access-date=20 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2012/11/arsenic-in-your-food/index.htm |title=Arsenic in your food - Our findings show a real need for federal standards for this toxin |work= [[Consumer Reports]]| year=2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title= Keeping arsenic out of rice |first= Carolyn |last= Beans |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |year= 2021 |volume= 118 |issue= 33 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.2113071118|pmid= 34380741 |pmc= 8379988 |bibcode= 2021PNAS..11813071B |s2cid= 236989837 |doi-access= free }}</ref> Other understandings embrace synthetic analogs of naturally occurring organic poisons as toxins,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/178 |title=U.S. Code |access-date=20 May 2022|quote=the term "toxin" means the toxic material or product of plants, animals, microorganisms ...or a recombinant or synthesized molecule...}}</ref> and may<ref>{{cite web | title=Module 1: Introduction to Toxicology |work=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |url = https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/es/training/toxicology_curriculum/modules/1/module-1.pdf|access-date=20 May 2022| quote= arsenic, a toxic metal, may occur as a natural contaminant ... or ... as a by-product of industrial activities. If the second case is true, such toxic substances are referred to as toxicants, rather than toxins.}}</ref> or may not<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/57jnpa.htm | title = The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview | date = 30 June 1997|access-date=20 May 2022 | first=Jozef | last=Goldblat | quote="The Convention applies to all natural or artificially created toxins, "whatever their origin or method of production" (Article I). It thus covers toxins produced biologically, as well as those produced by chemical synthesis"}}</ref> embrace naturally occurring [[inorganic]] poisons. It is important to confirm usage if a common understanding is critical.
According to an [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] review of the [[Biological Weapons Convention]], "Toxins are poisonous products of organisms; unlike biological agents, they are inanimate and not capable of reproducing themselves", and "Since the signing of the Constitution, there have been no disputes among the parties regarding the definition of biological agents or toxins".<ref name="urlThe Biological Weapons Convention – An overview">{{cite web |url=http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/html/57JNPA |title=The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref>


Toxins are a subset of [[toxicant]]s. The term toxicant is preferred when the poison is [[xenobiotic|man-made]] and therefore artificial.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-toxin-and-toxicant | title = Difference Between Toxin and Toxicant (With Table)| date = 31 October 2021}}</ref> The human and scientific genetic assembly of a natural-based toxin should be considered a toxin as it is identical to its natural counterpart.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Genetic assembly and selective toxicity of diphtheria-toxin-related polypeptide hormone fusion proteins | year = 1987| pmid = 2847744| url = https://europepmc.org/article/med/2847744| last1 = Murphy| first1 = J. R.| last2 = Bishai| first2 = W.| last3 = Williams| first3 = D.| last4 = Bacha| first4 = P.| last5 = Borowski| first5 = M.| last6 = Parker| first6 = K.| last7 = Boyd| first7 = J.| last8 = Waters| first8 = C.| last9 = Strom| first9 = T. B.| journal = Biochemical Society Symposium| volume = 53| pages = 9–23}}</ref> The debate is one of [[Semantics|linguistic semantics]].
According to [[Title 18 of the United States Code]], "... the term "toxin" means the [[Toxicity|toxic]] material or product of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[microorganism]]s (including, but not limited to, [[bacteria]], [[virus]]es, [[fungi]], [[rickettsiae]] or [[protozoa]]), or infectious substances, or a [[Recombinant DNA|recombinant]] or synthesized molecule, whatever their origin and method of production..."<ref name="urlU.S. Code">{{cite web |url=http://law2.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+235+1++()%20%20AND%20((18)%20ADJ%20USC)%3ACITE%20AND%20(USC%20w/10%20(209))%3ACITE |title=U.S. Code |access-date=13 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721042611/http://law2.house.gov/uscode-cgi/fastweb.exe?getdoc+uscview+t17t20+235+1++%28%29%20%20AND%20%28%2818%29%20ADJ%20USC%29%3ACITE%20AND%20%28USC%20w%2F10%20%28209%29%29%3ACITE |archive-date=21 July 2011 }}</ref>


The word toxin does not specify method of delivery (as opposed to [[venom]], a toxin delivered via a bite, sting, etc.). [[Poison]] is a related but broader term that encompasses both toxins and toxicants; poisons may enter the body through any means - typically inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. Toxin, toxicant, and poison are often used interchangeably despite these subtle differences in definition. The term [[toxungen]] has also been proposed to refer to toxins that are delivered onto the body surface of another organism without an accompanying wound.[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/brv.12062#:~:text=We%20also%20introduce%20a%20new,and%20venoms%2C%20delivered%20to%20internal]
The word toxin does not specify method of delivery (as opposed to [[venom]], a toxin delivered via a bite, sting, etc.). [[Poison]] is a related but broader term that encompasses both toxins and toxicants; poisons may enter the body through any means - typically [[inhalation]], [[ingestion]], or [[Absorption (skin)|skin absorption]]. Toxin, toxicant, and poison are often used interchangeably despite these subtle differences in definition. The term [[toxungen]] has also been proposed to refer to toxins that are delivered onto the body surface of another organism without an accompanying [[wound]].<ref name="10.1111/brv.12062">{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/brv.12062 | title=Poisons, toxungens, and venoms: Redefining and classifying toxic biological secretions and the organisms that employ them | year=2014 | last1=Nelsen | first1=David R. | last2=Nisani | first2=Zia | last3=Cooper | first3=Allen M. | last4=Fox | first4=Gerad A. | last5=Gren | first5=Eric C. K. | last6=Corbit | first6=Aaron G. | last7=Hayes | first7=William K. | journal=Biological Reviews | volume=89 | issue=2 | pages=450–465 | pmid=24102715 | s2cid=207101679 }}</ref>


A rather informal terminology of individual toxins relates them to the anatomical location where their effects are most notable:
A rather informal terminology of individual toxins relates them to the anatomical location where their effects are most notable:
* [[Genitotoxin]], damages the [[Urinary system|urinary organs]] or the reproductive organs
* [[Hemotoxin]], causes destruction of [[red blood cells]] ([[hemolysis]])
* [[Hemotoxin]], causes destruction of [[red blood cells]] ([[hemolysis]])
* [[Phototoxin]], causes dangerous photosensitivity
* [[Phototoxin]], causes dangerous photosensitivity
* [[Hepatotoxin]]s affect the liver
* [[Hepatotoxin]]s affect the [[liver]]
* [[Neurotoxin]]s affect the nervous system
* [[Neurotoxin]]s affect the [[nervous system]]


On a broader scale, toxins may be classified as either [[exotoxin]]s, excreted by an organism, or [[endotoxin]]s, which are released mainly when bacteria are [[lysis|lysed]].
On a broader scale, toxins may be classified as either [[exotoxin]]s, excreted by an organism, or [[endotoxin]]s, which are released mainly when bacteria are [[lysis|lysed]].


== Biotoxins ==
== Biological ==
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2021}}
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2021}}
The term "biotoxin" is sometimes used to explicitly confirm the biological origin.<ref name="urlbiotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biotoxin |title=biotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{DorlandsDict|one/000012874|biotoxin}}</ref> Biotoxins can be further classified, for example, as [[mycotoxin|fungal biotoxins]], [[microbial toxin]]s, [[phytotoxin|plant biotoxins]], or animal biotoxins.
The term "biotoxin" is sometimes used to explicitly confirm the biological origin as opposed to environmental or anthropogenic origins.<ref name="urlbiotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/biotoxin |title=biotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |access-date=13 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{DorlandsDict|one/000012874|biotoxin}}</ref> Biotoxins can be classified by their mechanism of delivery as [[poison]]s (passively transferred via ingestion, inhalation, or absorption across the skin), [[toxungen]]s (actively transferred to the target's surface by spitting, spraying, or smearing), or [[venom]]s (delivered through a wound generated by a bite, sting, or other such action).<ref name="10.1111/brv.12062"/> They can also be classified by their source, such as [[mycotoxin|fungal biotoxins]], [[microbial toxin]]s, [[phytotoxin|plant biotoxins]], or animal biotoxins.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Biotoxins: What are Biotoxins? |url=https://www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk/exhibit/whatare.html |access-date=2023-07-06 |website=www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk}}</ref>


Toxins produced by [[microorganism]]s are important [[virulence]] determinants responsible for microbial [[pathogenicity]] and/or evasion of the host [[immune response]].<ref name= ProftT>{{cite book |veditors = Proft T | year=2009 |title=Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends | publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 978-1-904455-44-8}}</ref>
Toxins produced by [[microorganism]]s are important [[virulence]] determinants responsible for microbial [[pathogenicity]] and/or evasion of the host [[immune response]].<ref name= ProftT>{{cite book |veditors = Proft T | year=2009 |title=Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends | publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 978-1-904455-44-8}}</ref>
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Biotoxins in nature have two primary functions:
Biotoxins in nature have two primary functions:
* [[Predation]], such as in the [[spider]], [[snake]], [[scorpion]], [[jellyfish]], and [[wasp]]
* [[Predation]], such as in the [[spider]], [[snake]], [[scorpion]], [[jellyfish]], and [[wasp]]
* Defense as in the [[bee]], [[ant]], [[termite]], [[honey bee]], [[wasp]], and [[poison dart frog]]
* Defense as in the [[bee]], [[ant]], [[termite]], [[honey bee]], [[wasp]], [[poison dart frog]] and [[Phytotoxin#Toxins_produced_by_plants|plants producing toxins]]
** The toxins used as defense in species among the [[poison dart frog]] can also be used for medicinal purposes


Some of the more well known types of biotoxins include:
Some of the more well known types of biotoxins include:
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** [[Hemotoxin]], from [[viper]]s
** [[Hemotoxin]], from [[viper]]s


=== Biotoxins as Bioweapons ===
=== Weaponry ===
Many living organisms employ toxins offensively or defensively. A relatively small number of toxins are known to have the potential to cause widespread sickness or casualties, but these may be appealing to those who would use them nefariously for several reasons. They are often inexpensive and easily available; they may even be able to be refined outside of a laboratory.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Janik |first1=Edyta |last2=Ceremuga |first2=Michal |last3=Saluk-Bijak |first3=Joanna |last4=Bijak |first4=Michal |date=2019-03-08 |title=Biological Toxins as the Potential Tools for Bioterrorism |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=1181 |doi=10.3390/ijms20051181 |issn=1422-0067 |pmc=6429496 |pmid=30857127|doi-access=free }}</ref> They often act quickly and are highly toxic even at low doses, so may be considered more efficient than chemical agents.<ref name=":1" /> Biotoxin used as a weapon of terror is considered to be the most harmful use for such substances.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Editorial |first=Team |title=Toxins: Venom within Living Cells or Organisms |url=https://www.unrevealedfiles.com/toxins-venom-within-living-cells-or-organisms/ |access-date=2021-07-17 |website=Unrevealed Files |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Biotoxins: Bioweapons|url=http://www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk/exhibit/bioweapons.html|access-date=2021-07-17|website=www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk}}</ref> Therefore it is thought that awareness of the potential for biotoxins to be used as weapons, awareness of potential clinical symptoms of biotoxin poisoning, and the development of effective countermeasures including rapid investigation, response, and treatment are vital.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Płusa|first=Tadeusz|date=September 2015|title=[Toxins as a biological weapon]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26449572/#:~:text=Toxins%20list%20is%20extensive,%20but,include%20tetrodotoxin,%20brevetoxin%20and%20saxitoxin.|journal=Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski|volume=39|issue=231|pages=131–133|issn=1426-9686|pmid=26449572}}</ref> <ref name=":1" />
Many living organisms employ toxins offensively or defensively. A relatively small number of toxins are known to have the potential to cause widespread sickness or casualties. They are often inexpensive and easily available, and in some cases it is possible to refine them outside the laboratory.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Janik |first1=Edyta |last2=Ceremuga |first2=Michal |last3=Saluk-Bijak |first3=Joanna |last4=Bijak |first4=Michal |date=2019-03-08 |title=Biological Toxins as the Potential Tools for Bioterrorism |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=1181 |doi=10.3390/ijms20051181 |issn=1422-0067 |pmc=6429496 |pmid=30857127|doi-access=free }}</ref> As biotoxins act quickly, and are highly toxic even at low doses, they can be more efficient than chemical agents.<ref name=":1" />
Due to these factors, it is vital to raise awareness of the clinical symptoms of biotoxin poisoning, and to develop effective countermeasures including rapid investigation, response, and treatment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Editorial |first=Team |title=Toxins: Venom within Living Cells or Organisms |url=https://www.unrevealedfiles.com/toxins-venom-within-living-cells-or-organisms/ |access-date=2021-07-17 |website=Unrevealed Files |date=24 May 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Płusa|first=Tadeusz|date=September 2015|title=[Toxins as a biological weapon]|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26449572/#:~:text=Toxins%20list%20is%20extensive,%20but,include%20tetrodotoxin,%20brevetoxin%20and%20saxitoxin.|journal=Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski|volume=39|issue=231|pages=131–133|issn=1426-9686|pmid=26449572}}</ref><ref name=":1" />


==Environmental toxins==
==Environmental==
{{See also|Environmental toxicology}}
{{See also|Environmental toxicology}}
The term "environmental toxin" can sometimes explicitly include synthetic contaminants<ref name="pmid14977703">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grigg J | title = Environmental toxins; their impact on children's health | journal = Archives of Disease in Childhood | volume = 89 | issue = 3 | pages = 244–50 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14977703 | pmc = 1719840 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2002.022202 }}</ref> such as industrial [[pollutant]]s and other artificially made [[Toxicity|toxic]] substances. As this contradicts most formal definitions of the term "toxin", it is important to confirm what the researcher means when encountering the term outside of microbiological contexts.
The term "environmental toxin" can sometimes explicitly include synthetic contaminants<ref name="pmid14977703">{{cite journal | vauthors = Grigg J | title = Environmental toxins; their impact on children's health | journal = Archives of Disease in Childhood | volume = 89 | issue = 3 | pages = 244–50 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14977703 | pmc = 1719840 | doi = 10.1136/adc.2002.022202 }}</ref> such as industrial [[pollutant]]s and other artificially made [[Toxicity|toxic]] substances. As this contradicts most formal definitions of the term "toxin", it is important to confirm what the researcher means when encountering the term outside of microbiological contexts.


Environmental toxins from [[food chain]]s that may be dangerous to human health include:
Environmental toxins from [[food chain]]s that may be dangerous to human health include:
* [[Paralytic shellfish poisoning]] (PSP)<ref name=iviv>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vale C, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Romarís XM, Arévalo F, Botana AM, Botana LM | title = In vitro and in vivo evaluation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin potency and the influence of the pH of extraction | journal = Analytical Chemistry | volume = 80 | issue = 5 | pages = 1770–6 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18232710 | doi = 10.1021/ac7022266 }}</ref><ref name=dlpsp>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Oikawa H, Fujita T, Saito K, Satomi M, Yano Y| title = Difference in the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin accumulation between the crabs Telmessus acutidens and Charybdis japonica collected in Onahama, Fukushima Prefecture | journal = Fisheries Science | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 395–403 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1111/j.1444-2906.2007.01347.x| s2cid = 22926782 }}</ref><ref name=psptp>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abouabdellah R, Taleb H, Bennouna A, Erler K, Chafik A, Moukrim A | title = Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin profile of mussels Perna perna from southern Atlantic coasts of Morocco | journal = Toxicon | volume = 51 | issue = 5 | pages = 780–6 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18237757 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.004 }}</ref>
* [[Paralytic shellfish poisoning]] (PSP)<ref name=iviv>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vale C, Alfonso A, Vieytes MR, Romarís XM, Arévalo F, Botana AM, Botana LM | title = In vitro and in vivo evaluation of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin potency and the influence of the pH of extraction | journal = Analytical Chemistry | volume = 80 | issue = 5 | pages = 1770–6 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18232710 | doi = 10.1021/ac7022266 }}</ref><ref name=dlpsp>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Oikawa H, Fujita T, Saito K, Satomi M, Yano Y| title = Difference in the level of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin accumulation between the crabs Telmessus acutidens and Charybdis japonica collected in Onahama, Fukushima Prefecture | journal = Fisheries Science | volume = 73 | issue = 2 | pages = 395–403 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1111/j.1444-2906.2007.01347.x| s2cid = 22926782 }}</ref><ref name=psptp>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abouabdellah R, Taleb H, Bennouna A, Erler K, Chafik A, Moukrim A | title = Paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin profile of mussels Perna perna from southern Atlantic coasts of Morocco | journal = Toxicon | volume = 51 | issue = 5 | pages = 780–6 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18237757 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.12.004 | bibcode = 2008Txcn...51..780A }}</ref>
* [[Amnesic shellfish poisoning]] (ASP)<ref name=aspt>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Liang XF, Zhang WB, Mai KS, Huang Y, Shen D | title = Amnesic shellfish poisoning toxin stimulates the transcription of CYP1A possibly through AHR and ARNT in the liver of red sea bream Pagrus major | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 58 | issue = 11 | pages = 1643–8 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19665739 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.07.004 }}</ref><ref name=ocfl>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Vaquero E, Leão JM, Gogo-Martínez A, Rodríguez Vázquez JA | title = Optimization of conditions for the liquid chromatographic-electrospray lonization-mass spectrometric analysis of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins | journal = [[Chromatographia]] | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = S231–35 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1007/BF02490333| s2cid = 97937094 }}</ref>
* [[Amnesic shellfish poisoning]] (ASP)<ref name=aspt>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Liang XF, Zhang WB, Mai KS, Huang Y, Shen D | title = Amnesic shellfish poisoning toxin stimulates the transcription of CYP1A possibly through AHR and ARNT in the liver of red sea bream Pagrus major | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 58 | issue = 11 | pages = 1643–8 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19665739 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.07.004 | bibcode = 2009MarPB..58.1643W }}</ref><ref name=ocfl>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Vaquero E, Leão JM, Gogo-Martínez A, Rodríguez Vázquez JA | title = Optimization of conditions for the liquid chromatographic-electrospray lonization-mass spectrometric analysis of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins | journal = [[Chromatographia]] | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = S231–35 | year = 2001 | doi = 10.1007/BF02490333| s2cid = 97937094 }}</ref>
* [[Diarrheal shellfish poisoning]] (DSP)<ref name=dmto>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mouratidou T, Kaniou-Grigoriadou I, Samara C, Kouimtzis T | title = Detection of the marine toxin okadaic acid in mussels during a diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) episode in Thermaikos Gulf, Greece, using biological, chemical and immunological methods | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 366 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 894–904 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16815531 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.03.002 | bibcode = 2006ScTEn.366..894M }}</ref><ref name=ehed>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doucet E, Ross NN, Quilliam MA | title = Enzymatic hydrolysis of esterified diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins and pectenotoxins | journal = Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry | volume = 389 | issue = 1 | pages = 335–42 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17661021 | doi = 10.1007/s00216-007-1489-3 | s2cid = 21971745 }}</ref>
* [[Diarrheal shellfish poisoning]] (DSP)<ref name=dmto>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mouratidou T, Kaniou-Grigoriadou I, Samara C, Kouimtzis T | title = Detection of the marine toxin okadaic acid in mussels during a diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) episode in Thermaikos Gulf, Greece, using biological, chemical and immunological methods | journal = The Science of the Total Environment | volume = 366 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 894–904 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16815531 | doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.03.002 | bibcode = 2006ScTEn.366..894M }}</ref><ref name=ehed>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doucet E, Ross NN, Quilliam MA | title = Enzymatic hydrolysis of esterified diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins and pectenotoxins | journal = Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry | volume = 389 | issue = 1 | pages = 335–42 | date = September 2007 | pmid = 17661021 | doi = 10.1007/s00216-007-1489-3 | s2cid = 21971745 }}</ref>
* [[Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning]] (NSP)<ref name=nspb>{{cite journal | vauthors = Poli MA, Musser SM, Dickey RW, Eilers PP, Hall S | title = Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and brevetoxin metabolites: a case study from Florida | journal = Toxicon | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 981–93 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10728835 | doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00191-9 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259725 }}</ref><ref name=bnba>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Murata K, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Yasumoto T| title = Brevetoxin B3, a new brevetoxin nalog isolated from the greenshell mussel perna canaliculus involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in new zealand | journal = [[Tetrahedron Letters]] | volume = 36 | issue = 49 | pages = 8995–98 | year = 1995 | doi = 10.1016/0040-4039(95)01969-O}}</ref><ref name=bigm>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T | title = Brevetoxin B4 isolated from greenshell mussels Perna canaliculus, the major toxin involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand | journal = Natural Toxins | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 45–8 | date = 1999 | pmid = 10495465 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1522-7189(199903/04)7:2<45::AID-NT34>3.0.CO;2-H }}</ref>
* [[Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning]] (NSP)<ref name=nspb>{{cite journal | vauthors = Poli MA, Musser SM, Dickey RW, Eilers PP, Hall S | title = Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and brevetoxin metabolites: a case study from Florida | journal = Toxicon | volume = 38 | issue = 7 | pages = 981–93 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10728835 | doi = 10.1016/S0041-0101(99)00191-9 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1259725 }}</ref><ref name=bnba>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Murata K, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Yasumoto T| title = Brevetoxin B3, a new brevetoxin nalog isolated from the greenshell mussel perna canaliculus involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in new zealand | journal = [[Tetrahedron Letters]] | volume = 36 | issue = 49 | pages = 8995–98 | year = 1995 | doi = 10.1016/0040-4039(95)01969-O}}</ref><ref name=bigm>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morohashi A, Satake M, Naoki H, Kaspar HF, Oshima Y, Yasumoto T | title = Brevetoxin B4 isolated from greenshell mussels Perna canaliculus, the major toxin involved in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in New Zealand | journal = Natural Toxins | volume = 7 | issue = 2 | pages = 45–8 | date = 1999 | pmid = 10495465 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1522-7189(199903/04)7:2<45::AID-NT34>3.0.CO;2-H }}</ref>


==Research==
==Finding information about toxins==
In general, when scientists determine the amount of a substance that may be hazardous for humans, animals and/or the environment they determine the amount of the substance likely to trigger effects and if possible establish a safe level. In Europe, the [[European Food Safety Authority]] produced risk assessments for more than 4,000 substances in over 1,600 scientific opinions and they provide open access summaries of human health, animal health and ecological hazard assessments in their: OpenFoodTox<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/data/chemical-hazards-data|title=Chemical hazards data - OpenFoodTox|website=European Food Safety Authority|language=en|access-date=2019-10-27}}</ref> database.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dorne JL, Richardson J, Kass G, Georgiadis N, Monguidi M, Pasinato L, Cappe S, Verhagen H, Robinson T | title = OpenFoodTox: EFSA's open source toxicological database on chemical hazards in food and feed. | journal = EFSA Journal | date = January 2017 | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = e15011 | doi = 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.e15011 | pmid = 32625280 | pmc = 7009813 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid31325634">{{cite journal | vauthors = Reilly L, Serafimova R, Partosch F, Gundert-Remy U, Cortiñas Abrahantes J, Dorne JM, Kass GE | title = Testing the thresholds of toxicological concern values using a new database for food-related substances | journal = Toxicology Letters | volume = 314 | pages = 117–123 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31325634 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.07.019 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The OpenFoodTox database can be used to screen potential new foods for toxicity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearce JM, Khaksari M, Denkenberger D | title = Preliminary Automated Determination of Edibility of Alternative Foods: Non-Targeted Screening for Toxins in Red Maple Leaf Concentrate | journal = Plants | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 110 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 31027336 | pmc = 6571818 | doi = 10.3390/plants8050110 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
In general, when scientists determine the amount of a substance that may be hazardous for humans, animals and/or the environment they determine the amount of the substance likely to trigger effects and if possible establish a safe level. In Europe, the [[European Food Safety Authority]] produced risk assessments for more than 4,000 substances in over 1,600 scientific opinions and they provide open access summaries of human health, animal health and ecological hazard assessments in their OpenFoodTox<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/data/chemical-hazards-data|title=Chemical hazards data - OpenFoodTox|website=European Food Safety Authority|language=en|access-date=2019-10-27}}</ref> database.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dorne JL, Richardson J, Kass G, Georgiadis N, Monguidi M, Pasinato L, Cappe S, Verhagen H, Robinson T | title = OpenFoodTox: EFSA's open source toxicological database on chemical hazards in food and feed. | journal = EFSA Journal | date = January 2017 | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = e15011 | doi = 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.e15011 | pmid = 32625280 | pmc = 7009813 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid31325634">{{cite journal | vauthors = Reilly L, Serafimova R, Partosch F, Gundert-Remy U, Cortiñas Abrahantes J, Dorne JM, Kass GE | title = Testing the thresholds of toxicological concern values using a new database for food-related substances | journal = Toxicology Letters | volume = 314 | pages = 117–123 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31325634 | doi = 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.07.019 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The OpenFoodTox database can be used to screen potential new foods for toxicity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pearce JM, Khaksari M, Denkenberger D | title = Preliminary Automated Determination of Edibility of Alternative Foods: Non-Targeted Screening for Toxins in Red Maple Leaf Concentrate | journal = Plants | volume = 8 | issue = 5 | pages = 110 | date = April 2019 | pmid = 31027336 | pmc = 6571818 | doi = 10.3390/plants8050110 | doi-access = free }}</ref>


The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html|title=Environmental Health and Toxicology Information | work = National Library of Medicine }}</ref> at the [[United States National Library of Medicine]] (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to toxins-related resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations.<ref name="Fonger_2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fonger GC, Stroup D, Thomas PL, Wexler P | title = TOXNET: A computerized collection of toxicological and environmental health information | journal = Toxicology and Industrial Health | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–6 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10798381 | doi = 10.1177/074823370001600101 | s2cid = 34029729 }}</ref> This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ |title=TOXNET |website=toxnet.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=29 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514171418/https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ |archive-date=14 May 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web.
The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html|title=Environmental Health and Toxicology Information|work=National Library of Medicine|access-date=29 September 2010|archive-date=1 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901172235/https://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> at the [[United States National Library of Medicine]] (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to toxins-related resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations.<ref name="Fonger_2000">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fonger GC, Stroup D, Thomas PL, Wexler P | title = TOXNET: A computerized collection of toxicological and environmental health information | journal = Toxicology and Industrial Health | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–6 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10798381 | doi = 10.1177/074823370001600101 | bibcode = 2000ToxIH..16....4F | s2cid = 34029729 }}</ref> This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ |title=TOXNET |website=toxnet.nlm.nih.gov |access-date=29 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514171418/https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/ |archive-date=14 May 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref> an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web.


[[TOXMAP]] is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hochstein C, Szczur M | title = TOXMAP: a GIS-based gateway to environmental health resources | journal = Medical Reference Services Quarterly | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 13–31 | date = 2006-07-24 | pmid = 16893844 | pmc = 2703818 | doi = 10.1300/J115v25n03_02 }}</ref> TOXMAP uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]'s (EPA) [[Toxics Release Inventory]] and [[Superfund Basic Research Program]]s.
[[TOXMAP]] is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hochstein C, Szczur M | title = TOXMAP: a GIS-based gateway to environmental health resources | journal = Medical Reference Services Quarterly | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 13–31 | date = 2006-07-24 | pmid = 16893844 | pmc = 2703818 | doi = 10.1300/J115v25n03_02 }}</ref> TOXMAP uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]'s (EPA) [[Toxics Release Inventory]] and [[Superfund Basic Research Program]]s.

==Misuse of the term==
In the context of [[quackery]] and [[alternative medicine]], the term "toxin" is used to refer to any substance alleged to cause ill health. This could range from trace amounts of potentially dangerous [[pesticide]]s, to supposedly harmful substances produced in the body by intestinal fermentation ([[Colon cleansing|auto-intoxication]]), to food ingredients such as [[White sugar|table sugar]], [[monosodium glutamate]] (MSG), and [[aspartame]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.quackwatch.com/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/detox_overview.html | title = "Detoxification" Schemes and Scams | date = 8 June 2011 | publisher = [[Quackwatch]]}}</ref>

The use of ''detoxification'' or ''detox'' as justification for treatments such as [[infrared sauna]]s, diets,{{R|Diet}} or [[chiropractic]] treatments{{R|Chiro}}, is often called the ''toxin gambit'', referring to a marketing technique which can frighten the public into seeking treatments that claim to remove unspecified toxins.{{R|Novella1}} These claims can be harmful financially and physically. Healthy [[kidney]]s and [[liver]] are all that most people need to remove almost anything potentially toxic that would be ingested.{{R|Novella}}


== See also ==
== See also ==
Line 95: Line 95:
* [[Cangitoxin]]
* [[Cangitoxin]]
* [[Detoxification (alternative medicine)]]
* [[Detoxification (alternative medicine)]]
* [[Dose–response relationship]]
* [[Excitotoxicity]]
* [[Excitotoxicity]]
* [[Environment and health]]
* [[Exposome]]
* [[Insect toxin]]
* [[Insect toxin]]
* [[List of highly toxic gases]]
* [[List of highly toxic gases]]
* [[List of poisonous plants]]
* [[List of poisonous plants]]
* [[Pollution]]
* [[Secondary metabolite]]
* [[Secondary metabolite]]
* [[Toxalbumin]]
* [[Toxalbumin]]
Line 106: Line 110:


== References ==
== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
{{reflist|30em}}
<ref name="Novella1">{{Cite web|last=Novella|first=Stephen|date=17 February 2021|title=Infrared Saunas for "Detoxification"|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/infrared-saunas-for-detoxification/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217130441/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/infrared-saunas-for-detoxification/|archive-date=17 February 2021|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

<ref name="Diet">{{Cite web|last=Gavura|first=Scott|date=22 February 2018|title=Are we all contaminated with chemical toxins?|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/are-we-all-contaminated-with-chemical-toxins/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318045752/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/are-we-all-contaminated-with-chemical-toxins/|archive-date=18 March 2018|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

<ref name="Chiro">{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Clay|date=22 September 2017|title=Maximized Living: "5 Essentials" of Chiropractic Marketing Propaganda|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/maximized-living-5-essentials-of-chiropractic-marketing-propaganda/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009181937/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/maximized-living-5-essentials-of-chiropractic-marketing-propaganda/|archive-date=9 October 2017|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

<ref name="Novella">{{Cite web|last=Novella|first=Stephen|date=4 January 2017|title=Detox Scams are Worthless and Potentially Dangerous|url=https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/detox-scams-are-worthless-and-potentially-dangerous/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105001128/https://sciencebasedmedicine.org/detox-scams-are-worthless-and-potentially-dangerous/|archive-date=5 January 2017|access-date=17 February 2021|website=Science-Based Medicine}}</ref>

}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Toxins}}
{{Commons category|Toxins}}
*[http://www.t3db.org/ T3DB: Toxin-target database]
*[http://www.t3db.org/ T3DB: Toxin-target database]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080820090609/http://protchem.hunnu.edu.cn/toxin ATDB: Animal toxin database]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080820090609/http://protchem.hunnu.edu.cn/toxin ATDB: Animal toxin database]

Latest revision as of 02:11, 22 November 2024

This article is about naturally occurring organic poisons. For toxic substances that can be artificial or natural, see Toxicant.

The Amanita muscaria mushroom, an iconic toxic mushroom.

A toxin is a naturally occurring poison[1] produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms.[2] They occur especially as proteins, often conjugated.[3] The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919),[4] derived from toxic.

Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues interacting with biological macromolecules such as enzymes or cellular receptors. They vary greatly in their toxicity, ranging from usually minor (such as a bee sting) to potentially fatal even at extremely low doses (such as botulinum toxin).[5][6]

Terminology

[edit]

Toxins are often distinguished from other chemical agents strictly based on their biological origin.[7]

Less strict understandings embrace naturally occurring inorganic toxins, such as arsenic.[8][9][10] Other understandings embrace synthetic analogs of naturally occurring organic poisons as toxins,[11] and may[12] or may not[13] embrace naturally occurring inorganic poisons. It is important to confirm usage if a common understanding is critical.

Toxins are a subset of toxicants. The term toxicant is preferred when the poison is man-made and therefore artificial.[14] The human and scientific genetic assembly of a natural-based toxin should be considered a toxin as it is identical to its natural counterpart.[15] The debate is one of linguistic semantics.

The word toxin does not specify method of delivery (as opposed to venom, a toxin delivered via a bite, sting, etc.). Poison is a related but broader term that encompasses both toxins and toxicants; poisons may enter the body through any means - typically inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. Toxin, toxicant, and poison are often used interchangeably despite these subtle differences in definition. The term toxungen has also been proposed to refer to toxins that are delivered onto the body surface of another organism without an accompanying wound.[16]

A rather informal terminology of individual toxins relates them to the anatomical location where their effects are most notable:

On a broader scale, toxins may be classified as either exotoxins, excreted by an organism, or endotoxins, which are released mainly when bacteria are lysed.

Biological

[edit]

The term "biotoxin" is sometimes used to explicitly confirm the biological origin as opposed to environmental or anthropogenic origins.[17][18] Biotoxins can be classified by their mechanism of delivery as poisons (passively transferred via ingestion, inhalation, or absorption across the skin), toxungens (actively transferred to the target's surface by spitting, spraying, or smearing), or venoms (delivered through a wound generated by a bite, sting, or other such action).[16] They can also be classified by their source, such as fungal biotoxins, microbial toxins, plant biotoxins, or animal biotoxins.[19][20]

Toxins produced by microorganisms are important virulence determinants responsible for microbial pathogenicity and/or evasion of the host immune response.[21]

Biotoxins vary greatly in purpose and mechanism, and can be highly complex (the venom of the cone snail can contain over 100 unique peptides, which target specific nerve channels or receptors).[22]

Biotoxins in nature have two primary functions:

Some of the more well known types of biotoxins include:

Weaponry

[edit]

Many living organisms employ toxins offensively or defensively. A relatively small number of toxins are known to have the potential to cause widespread sickness or casualties. They are often inexpensive and easily available, and in some cases it is possible to refine them outside the laboratory.[24] As biotoxins act quickly, and are highly toxic even at low doses, they can be more efficient than chemical agents.[24] Due to these factors, it is vital to raise awareness of the clinical symptoms of biotoxin poisoning, and to develop effective countermeasures including rapid investigation, response, and treatment.[19][25][24]

Environmental

[edit]
See also: Environmental toxicology

The term "environmental toxin" can sometimes explicitly include synthetic contaminants[26] such as industrial pollutants and other artificially made toxic substances. As this contradicts most formal definitions of the term "toxin", it is important to confirm what the researcher means when encountering the term outside of microbiological contexts.

Environmental toxins from food chains that may be dangerous to human health include:

Research

[edit]

In general, when scientists determine the amount of a substance that may be hazardous for humans, animals and/or the environment they determine the amount of the substance likely to trigger effects and if possible establish a safe level. In Europe, the European Food Safety Authority produced risk assessments for more than 4,000 substances in over 1,600 scientific opinions and they provide open access summaries of human health, animal health and ecological hazard assessments in their OpenFoodTox[37] database.[38][39] The OpenFoodTox database can be used to screen potential new foods for toxicity.[40]

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[41] at the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes access to toxins-related resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and organizations.[42] This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),[43] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge on the web.

TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET.[44] TOXMAP uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Harper, Douglas. "toxin". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  2. ^ "toxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Retrieved 13 December 2008.
  3. ^ "toxin" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  4. ^ Brade, Helmut (1999). Endotoxin in Health and Disease. CRC Press. ISBN 9780824719449. OCLC 41299257.
  5. ^ Gupta, PK (2018). Illustrated Toxicology with Study Questions. Elsevier Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-813213-5.
  6. ^ "Diagnosis and Treatment | Botulism". CDC. 1 June 2021. Archived from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  7. ^ Bennett, Joan W; Inamdar, Arati A (2015). "Are Some Fungal Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Mycotoxins?". Toxins. 7 (9). Basel: 3785–3804. doi:10.3390/toxins7093785. PMC 4591661. PMID 26402705.
  8. ^ Goodman, Brenda. "Arsenic in Food: FAQ". WebMD. Retrieved 20 May 2022.
  9. ^ "Arsenic in your food - Our findings show a real need for federal standards for this toxin". Consumer Reports. 2012.
  10. ^ Beans, Carolyn (2021). "Keeping arsenic out of rice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 118 (33). Bibcode:2021PNAS..11813071B. doi:10.1073/pnas.2113071118. PMC 8379988. PMID 34380741. S2CID 236989837.
  11. ^ "U.S. Code". Retrieved 20 May 2022. the term "toxin" means the toxic material or product of plants, animals, microorganisms ...or a recombinant or synthesized molecule...
  12. ^ "Module 1: Introduction to Toxicology" (PDF). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Retrieved 20 May 2022. arsenic, a toxic metal, may occur as a natural contaminant ... or ... as a by-product of industrial activities. If the second case is true, such toxic substances are referred to as toxicants, rather than toxins.
  13. ^ Goldblat, Jozef (30 June 1997). "The Biological Weapons Convention – An overview". Retrieved 20 May 2022. The Convention applies to all natural or artificially created toxins, "whatever their origin or method of production" (Article I). It thus covers toxins produced biologically, as well as those produced by chemical synthesis
  14. ^ "Difference Between Toxin and Toxicant (With Table)". 31 October 2021.
  15. ^ Murphy, J. R.; Bishai, W.; Williams, D.; Bacha, P.; Borowski, M.; Parker, K.; Boyd, J.; Waters, C.; Strom, T. B. (1987). "Genetic assembly and selective toxicity of diphtheria-toxin-related polypeptide hormone fusion proteins". Biochemical Society Symposium. 53: 9–23. PMID 2847744.
  16. ^ a b Nelsen, David R.; Nisani, Zia; Cooper, Allen M.; Fox, Gerad A.; Gren, Eric C. K.; Corbit, Aaron G.; Hayes, William K. (2014). "Poisons, toxungens, and venoms: Redefining and classifying toxic biological secretions and the organisms that employ them". Biological Reviews. 89 (2): 450–465. doi:10.1111/brv.12062. PMID 24102715. S2CID 207101679.
  17. ^ "biotoxin – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Retrieved 13 December 2008.
  18. ^ "biotoxin" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  19. ^ a b Editorial, Team (24 May 2021). "Toxins: Venom within Living Cells or Organisms". Unrevealed Files. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
  20. ^ "Biotoxins: What are Biotoxins?". www.biosciences-labs.bham.ac.uk. Retrieved 6 July 2023.
  21. ^ Proft T, ed. (2009). Microbial Toxins: Current Research and Future Trends. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-44-8.
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