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{{Short description|Seismic fault in Myanmar}} |
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{{Infobox fault|name=Sagaing Fault|country=Myanmar|length=1,400 km|status=Active|movement=Dextral|displacement=18-20 mm/yr (0.71-0.79 in/yr)|cities=[[Yangon]], [[Nay Pyi Taw]], [[Meiktila]], [[Mandalay]], [[Myitkyina]]|coordinates=21°55'06.8"N 95°59'01.6"E|type=[[Transform fault]]|age=[[Miocene|15-22 MYA]]|segments=Southern section: Bago, Pyu, Nay Pyi Taw, Meiktila, Sagaing. Northern section: Tawma, Ban Mauk, Indaw, Mawlu, Shaduzup, Kamaing, Mogang|image= |
{{Infobox fault|name=Sagaing Fault|country=Myanmar|length=1,400 km|status=Active|movement=Dextral|displacement=18-20 mm/yr (0.71-0.79 in/yr)|cities=[[Yangon]], [[Nay Pyi Taw]], [[Meiktila]], [[Mandalay]], [[Myitkyina]]|coordinates=21°55'06.8"N 95°59'01.6"E|type=[[Transform fault]]|age=[[Miocene|15-22 MYA]]|segments=Southern section: Bago, Pyu, Nay Pyi Taw, Meiktila, Sagaing. Northern section: Tawma, Ban Mauk, Indaw, Mawlu, Shaduzup, Kamaing, Mogang|image=SagaingFaultSegments.jpg |
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|image_caption=Sagaing Fault in Myanmar}} |
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The '''Sagaing Fault''' is a major [[Fault (geology)|fault]] in [[ |
The '''Sagaing Fault''' is a major [[Fault (geology)|fault]] in [[Myanmar]], a mainly continental right-lateral [[transform fault]] between the [[Indian plate]] and [[Sunda plate]]. It links the [[divergent boundary]] in the [[Andaman Sea]] with the zone of active [[continental collision]] along the Himalayan front. It passes through the populated cities of [[Mandalay]], [[Yamethin]], [[Pyinmana]], the capital [[Naypyidaw]], [[Toungoo]] and [[Pegu]] before dropping off into the [[Gulf of Martaban]], running for a total length of over 1200 kilometers.<ref name="MMTimes">{{Cite web |last=Win |first=Nilar |date=August 25–31, 2008 |title=Sagaing Fault surveyed to prepare for future quakes |url=http://www.mmtimes.com/no433/n006.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607160548/http://www.mmtimes.com/no433/n006.htm |archive-date=2012-06-07 |access-date=2011-04-04 |website=The Myanmar Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04918.x | volume=185 | title=Earthquakes and slip rate of the southern Sagaing fault: insights from an offset ancient fort wall, lower Burma (Myanmar) | journal=Geophysical Journal International | pages=49–64 | last1 = Wang | first1 = Yu| year=2011 | issue=1 | bibcode=2011GeoJI.185...49W | url=http://authors.library.caltech.edu/23464/1/Wang2011p13370Geophys_J_Int.pdf | doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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==Discovery and early studies== |
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== Geomorphology == |
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A partial visualization of an active fault trace that aligns with the present-day Sagaing Fault trace was recorded by Fritz Noetling, a geologist, in the book ''The Miocene of Burma'' published in 1900. In 1913, Thomas Henry Digges La Touche of the [[Geological Survey of India]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tipper |first1=G. H. |title=Mr. T. H. D. La Touche |journal=Nature |date=7 May 1938 |volume=141 |issue=3575 |pages=819–820 |doi=10.1038/141819a0|doi-access=free |bibcode=1938Natur.141..819T }}</ref> acknowledged the existence of a plate boundary feature along the Shan Plateau's western margin in Mandalay, including the one dividing metamorphic stratas of the Sagaing Hills from the Central Tertiary Basin. While analysing historical earthquakes in Myanmar, Harbans Lal Chhibber (1934) discovered a linear trace when joining their epicenters which he inferred to be along the same fault.<ref name="Chhibber">{{cite book |last1=Chhibber |first1=H. L. |title=The Geology of Burma |date=1934 |publisher=Macmillan & Company |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.474848/page/n105/mode/2up}}</ref> In 1970, Aung Khin and others confirmed the fault's existence using geophysical techniques and a [[Bouguer anomaly|Bouguer gravity investigation]] from [[Taungoo]] to [[Thabeikkyin]]. That same year, Win Swe nomenclated it the "Sagaing Fault". He also made the first description of the fault in ''Rift features at the Sagaing Tagaung Ridge'' at the Fifth Burma Research Congress. He determined the fault running nearly the entire length of Myanmar from south to north had a strike-slip mechanism, and linked it to historical earthquakes. A 1991 study of the fault determined a total displacement of {{cvt|203|km}} and slip rate of {{cvt|22|mm}} per year by analyzing two metamorphic units and assuming the fault's origins in the end Oligocene or early Miocene.<ref name="Tun05">{{cite book |last1=Tun |first1=Soe Thura |title=Sagaing Fault: A desk study report on seismotectonic implications in Myanmar |date=2005 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.4048.6249 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280310695 |publisher=Myanmar Earthquake Committee}}</ref> |
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The Sagaing Fault begins offshore in the Andaman Sea before passing through the [[Geology of Myanmar#Myanmar Central Belt|central Myanmar basin]]. The fault has a relatively low topographical relief for most of its length compared to the [[Shan Scarp Fault]] to the [[Shan Hills|west]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=SOE THURA TUN, WATKINSON|title=The Sagaing Fault|url=https://pure.royalholloway.ac.uk/portal/files/29857365/Soe_Thura_Tun_and_Watkinson_accepted.pdf|journal=Myanmar: Geology, Resources and Tectonics|volume=Geological Society, London, Memoir}}</ref> |
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== Geology == |
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== Slip rate and displacement == |
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[[File:TibetanPlateauTectonics.png|250px|thumb|left|Sagaing Fault represents a boundary of the Burma Microplate (bottom)]] |
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| ⚫ | The total slip rate across the Indian–Sunda |
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The Sagaing Fault begins offshore in the Andaman Sea at a divergent boundary before passing through the [[Geology of Myanmar#Myanmar Central Belt|central Myanmar basin]]. The fault has a relatively low topographical relief for most of its length compared to the [[Shan Scarp Fault]] to the [[Shan Hills|west]].<ref name="Tun & Watkinson" /> Its total length from the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis to the Andaman Sea is {{cvt|1,400|km}}.<ref name="Mon20">{{cite journal |author1=Chit Thet Mon, Xuan Gong, Yun Wen, Mingming Jiang, Qi-Fu Chen, Miao Zhang, Guangbing Hou, Myo Thant, Kyaing Sein, Yumei He |title=Insight into Major Active Faults in Central Myanmar and the Related Geodynamic Sources |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=2020 |volume=47 |issue=8 |doi=10.1029/2019GL086236|bibcode=2020GeoRL..4786236M }}</ref> While the fault runs uninterrupted by large [[Strike-slip tectonics#Stepovers|stepovers]] for most of its length, the northern {{cvt|400|km}} branches outwards in a "horsetail" fashion into individual segments {{cvt|100|km}} in width. |
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| ⚫ | The total slip rate across the Indian–Sunda plate boundary is about 35 mm/yr, of which 18 mm/yr is accommodated by the Sagaing Fault, according to [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] data.<ref name="Tsutsumi_&_Sato_2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Tsutsumi |first1=H. |last2=Sato |first2=T. |date=2009 |title=Tectonic geomorphology of the southernmost Sagaing fault and surface rupture associated with the May 1930 Pegu (Bago) earthquake, Myanmar |journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=2155–2168 |doi=10.1785/0120080113|bibcode=2009BuSSA..99.2155T }}</ref> The measured maximum displacement along the fault is about 100 km, although several authors have proposed between 360 km to 400 km.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Yu|first=Wang|title=Active tectonics and earthquake potential of the Myanmar region|url=https://authors.library.caltech.edu/47518/1/jgrb50602.pdf|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|year=2014|volume=119|issue=4|page=3767|doi=10.1002/2013JB010762|bibcode=2014JGRB..119.3767W|via=Caltech|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yu Wang, Kerry Sieh, Thura Aung, Soe Min, Saw Ngwe Khaing|title=Earthquakes and slip rate of the southern Sagaing fault: insights from an offset ancient fort wall, lower Burma (Myanmar)|journal=Geophysical Journal International|year=2011|volume=185|issue=1|page=49|doi=10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04918.x|bibcode=2011GeoJI.185...49W|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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==Associated seismicity== |
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===Southern section=== |
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[[File:Text6986-6.png|right|thumb|390x390px|A simplified version of the regional geological features in Myanmar]] |
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The southern section comprises, from south to north, the Bago, Pyu, Naypyidaw, Meiktila and Sagaing segments. The {{cvt|170|km}} Bago segment runs from Myanmar's coast, southeast of Yangon, to 18°N, where the fault experiences a sharp bend. The southern termination and offshore section remains uncertain, however, several tens of kilometers offshore, it connects to normal faults striking east–west. Approximately {{cvt|100|km}} of the Bago segment ruptured during a {{M|w}} [[1930 Bago earthquake|7.4 earthquake]] in May 1930 with offsets of at least {{cvt|3|m}}.<ref name=":1" /> |
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The Pyu segment begins where the Bago segment terminated and continues {{cvt|130|km}} to 19.1°N. It runs along the base of the Bago-Yoma range. There lies a [[Terrace (geology)|terrace]] along the central part of the segment east of the fault trace which represents the hanging wall of a reverse fault expressed on the feature's eastern side. This feature is due to a small [[transpression]]al component where the segment experiences crustal compression. A majority of the segment ruptured during a {{M|w}} [[1930 Pyu earthquake|7.3 earthquake]] in December 1930 which originated at its southern limit.<ref name=":1" /> |
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The Naypyidaw segment consists of two parallel strands that branches out at 19.1°N for its entire {{cvt|70|km}}. Both strands cut through channels and alluvial fans. The western strand runs east of Naypyidaw. A damaging but moderate earthquake in close proximity to the segment in August 1929 damaged railroads and bridges {{cvt|40|km}} south of Naypyidaw.<ref name=":1" /> The International Seismological Centre assigned the earthquake {{M|w}} 6.5.<ref name="ISC-GEM" /> |
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The Meiktila segment runs {{cvt|220|km}} through a wide valley from Naypyidaw to Mandalay. This segment does not produce any dip-slip movement, evident from the absence of elevation differences across the fault. At 20°N, the fault offsets a stream by {{cvt|2.4|km}}; the largest observable offset along the segment. Although no major historical earthquake has been clearly associated with the segment, a possible contender is the [[1839 Ava earthquake]] which destroyed the city of [[Inwa]] and caused severe damage to areas east and south of the [[Irrawaddy River]].<ref name=":1" /> |
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The geomorphologic features of the Sagaing segment led to its discovery in 1970. This segment runs relatively linear; it runs west of the Irrawaddy River from 21.9°N to 22.6°N, where it offsets alluvial fans of the post-Pliocene. It cuts through the [[Singu Plateau]] and splits into two segments running east and west of the river. Its western strand to the north is the Tawma segment. In 1946, a {{M|w}} [[1946 Sagaing earthquakes|7.7 earthquake]] was likely associated with the segment's northern two-thirds. This segment also ruptured during a smaller {{M|w}} [[2012 Shwebo earthquake|6.8 earthquake]] in 2012. The remaining portion to the south likely ruptured during the destructive {{M|w}} [[1956 Sagaing earthquake|7.1 earthquake]] in 1956.<ref name=":1" /> |
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===Northern section=== |
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The Sagaing Fault begins to fan outwards in a "horsetail" fashion into four separate fault zones from 23.5°N. The Tawma segment runs along an east-facing scarp and streams display dextral offsets. The western strand of the Sagaing segment extends north and is represented by the Tawma segment. The trace is no longer visible at 24°N where a left stepover leads to the Ban Mauk segment {{cvt|10|km}} west. Between the stepover is a series of northeast–southwest striking faults that cuts through a transpressional ridge. Many are shorter than {{cvt|20|km}} long and some show normal-component in their slip; however their weak expression suggest small slip rates compared to the Sagaing Fault's main branches.<ref name=":1" /> |
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The Ban Mauk segment runs from 23.8°N and continues for {{cvt|150|km}}. Due to the rarity of clear geomorphic offsets associated with this segment, its slip rate is inferred to be low. The segment marks the boundary between the Neogene volcanics of the west and Miocene sedimentary strata of the east. At 25°N, the fault trace disappears, buried by clastic deposits of the [[Taungthonton Volcano]] to the east. At 23.7°N, the in Daw segment branches away from the Tawma segment at the Irrawaddy River's northern bank; continuing its north–northeasternly trace. A {{cvt|3|km}} wide pull-apart basin at 24.25°N separates it from the Mawlu segment where it continues north–northwest for {{cvt|90|km}}. The combined length of both segments is estimated at {{cvt|170|km}}. Geodetic analysis of these segments revealed an annual strain accumulation of about {{cvt|2|cm}}. A {{M|w}} 7.3 [[foreshock]] occurred along the in Daw segment three minutes before the {{M|w}} 7.7 earthquake in 1946.<ref name=":1" /> |
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The fault branches into three segments where the Mawlu segment terminates: the Shaduzup, Kamaing, and Mogang segments. The Shaduzup segment, the westernmost of the three, is not believe to exceed {{cvt|120|km}}. The lack of clear geomorphic features suggest less activity occurs on this segment. The Kamaing segment continues further north into the Naga Hills, beyond 26.7°N. Right-lateral displacements are also well-expressed in drainage channels on the eastern flank of the Naga Hills at its northern termination. The fault continues north and joins a thrust fault system associated with the Assam Valley. the Mogang segment, the most active of the three, though less seismically active than the Kamaing segment, runs in a broad arc from 24.8°N. It ends at 26.8°N where it transforms into a northwest–southeast striking thrust fault. One of these segments produced a {{M|w}} [[1931 Myitkyina earthquake|7.6 earthquake]] in January 1931, though due to the lack of seismic data and isoseismal map its origin segment remains tentative. However, shaking was more intense along the Kamaing segment.<ref name=":1" /> |
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==Seismicity== |
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{{See also|List of earthquakes in Myanmar}} |
{{See also|List of earthquakes in Myanmar}} |
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[[File:Mingun stupa 1839 earthquake damage.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A large fracture on the [[Mingun Pahtodawgyi]] caused by the [[1839 Ava earthquake]]]] |
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In the early 20th century, more than half the length of the Sagaing Fault was involved in significant earthquakes. |
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Damaging earthquakes have been associated with the fault for centuries. The great [[1839 Ava earthquake]] killed hundreds and damaged many cities, including the then imperial capital [[Inwa]].<ref name="NGDC" /> That earthquake is thought to have a moment magnitude of 8.0 or greater. The large magnitude would imply a rupture length of at least 300 km along the fault. |
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=== August 8 1929 === |
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| ⚫ | In the early 20th century, from 1929 to 1931, more than half the length of the Sagaing Fault was involved in significant earthquakes. The first earthquake—which was followed-up by subsequent larger events—struck southwest of Nay Pyi Daw, and east of [[Thayet]]myo in the Pegu Range in August 1929.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M 6.6 – Myanmar|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/iscgem908257/executive|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref> There are insufficient reports of damage caused by this earthquake, although it was said that buildings were swaying and objects were displaced at [[Yamethin Township|Yamethin]], roughly 133.6 km north of the quake epicenter.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Hla Hla Aung|title=Reinterpretation of historical earthquakes during 1929 to 1931, Myanmar|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275354874|journal=Advances in Geosciences|year=2012|volume=31|page=43|doi=10.1142/9789814405775_0005|bibcode=2012aogs...31...43A|isbn=978-981-4405-76-8|via=Researchgate|doi-access=free}}</ref> The magnitude of this earthquake was no greater than 7.0. |
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=== July 18 1930 === |
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| ⚫ | A |
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| ⚫ | On the night of May 5, [[1930 Bago earthquake|a large shock]] registering {{M|w}} 7.5 struck north of the city of [[Bago, Myanmar|Pegu]] resulting in widespread deaths and destruction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M 7.5 – Myanmar|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/iscgem907352/executive|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref> There were no foreshocks that preceded. The earthquake had a maximum intensity of IX to X on the [[Rossi–Forel scale]].<ref name=":1" /> The city of Pegu, [[Yangon|Rangoon]] and several other towns were destroyed. In Pegu, fires erupted, and severe liquefaction caused further damage. Approximately 500 people died in Pegu while 58 were killed in Rangoon. More deaths were recorded in other villages.<ref name=":2" /> It triggered a small [[tsunami]] which inundated villages along the coast.<ref name="NGDC" /> This is the deadliest earthquake in the 1929–1931 sequence. |
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=== May 5 1930 === |
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{{Main|1930 Pegu earthquake}} |
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| ⚫ | Two moderate foreshocks occurred on the night of December 3. The first lasted 5 seconds, generated some panic, and it was felt in [[Pyinmana]] and Rangoon. The other foreshock was described as being stronger than the first, but was not felt as widespread as the first.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=J. COGGIN BROWN AND P. LEICESTER|title=THE PYU EARTHQUAKES of 3RD AND 4TH DECEMBER 1930 AND SUBSEQUENT BURMA EARTHQUAKES UP TO JANUARY 1932|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxpbmRpYXF1YWtlMnxneDo1MjA4MWMzY2NhNjgyYTRi|journal=Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India |volume=LXII}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Event 907776 Myanmar|url=http://www.isc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/web-db-v4?event_id=907776&out_format=IMS1.0&request=COMPREHENSIVE|publisher=International Seismological Centre}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Event 907775 Near south coast of Myanmar|url=http://www.isc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/web-db-v4?event_id=907775&out_format=IMS1.0&request=COMPREHENSIVE|publisher=International Seismological Centre}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | On the night of May 5, a large shock registering {{M|w}}7.5 struck north of the city of [[Bago, Myanmar|Pegu]] resulting in widespread deaths and destruction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=M 7.5 |
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| ⚫ | Violent shaking from an {{M|w}} [[1930 Pyu earthquake|7.3 earthquake]]disrupted the early morning of December 4 in [[Pyu]], [[Taungoo District]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=M 7.4 – Myanmar|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/iscgem907777/executive|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref> The December 4 event occurred further north of the epicenter of the May earthquake, about 6.4 to 9.7 km west southwest of Pyu. Damage was severe, with a railroad being shifted off and twisted, while many buildings in the city collapsed. About 30 people were killed. The maximum intensity was assigned X on the [[Rossi–Forel scale]].<ref name=":3" /> This event is not an aftershock of the May quake because it ruptured a different segment of the Sagaing Fault.<ref name=":1" /> |
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=== December 4 1930 === |
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{{Main|1930 Pyu earthquake}} |
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| ⚫ | A lesser-known earthquake on July 18, 1930, in the [[Ayeyarwady Region]] killed about 50 people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Significant Earthquake: MYANMAR (BURMA): THARRAWADDY|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/struts/results?eq_0=3416&t=101650&s=13&d=22,26,13,12&nd=display|website=NOAA}}</ref> According to the [[National Centers for Environmental Information]] database, there is no magnitude assigned to this event.<ref name="NGDC" /> The book ''Southeast Asia Association of Seismology'' is the only published work mentioning this event.<ref name="Nutalaya">{{cite book |author1=Nutalaya |author2=P.S. Sodsri |author3=E.P. Arnold |title=SEASEE Series on Seismology |date=1985 |publisher=United States Geological Survey |volume=II-Thailand}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | The [[1931 Myitkyina earthquake|largest earthquake]] in the sequence, an {{M|w}} 7.6 quake, struck next to [[Indawgyi Lake]], resulting in large [[landslide]]s and [[Liquefaction|ground failures]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=M 7.6 – Myanmar|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/iscgem906595/executive|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref> There were no casualties in this earthquake. |
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=== January 31 1931 === |
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{{Main|1931 Kamaing earthquake}} |
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| ⚫ | Another violent earthquake of unknown magnitude occurred 146.5 km north of Pyu. It was felt in [[Mandalay]] and [[Thanatpin]].<ref name=":2" /> Six brick buildings sustained damage. On August 19, another tremor caused cracks to appear in buildings in Mandalay and lightly affected [[Kalaw]].<ref name=":3" /> The city was rocked another time, resulting in the collapse of the Shwe Sandaw Pagoda in Taungoo.<ref name=":2" /> |
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| ⚫ | The largest earthquake in the sequence, an {{M|w}}7.6 quake struck next to [[Indawgyi Lake]] resulting in large [[ |
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=== August 10 - 19 1931 === |
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| ⚫ | [[1946 Sagaing earthquakes|Two powerful earthquakes]] north of Mandalay measuring {{M|w}} 7.3 and 7.7 occurred on September 12, 1946.<ref name="ISC-GEM" /> The [[doublet earthquake]] sequence would remain as one of the largest in the country. Not much about this event is known due to sparse records. |
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=== September 23 1931 === |
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Another earthquake in Pyu resulted in the collapse of the Shwe Sandaw Pagoda in Taungoo.<ref name=":2" /> |
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| ⚫ | Looking back at the historical records of earthquakes, the years 1906 and 1908 saw two major events in the northernmost end of the Sagaing Fault.<ref name="Xiong2017">{{cite journal |last1=Xiong, X., B. Shan, Y. M. Zhou, S. J. Wei, Y. D. Li, R. J. Wang, and Y. Zheng |title=Coulomb stress transfer and accumulation on the Sagaing Fault, Myanmar, over the past 110 years and its implications for seismic hazard |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=2017 |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=4781–4789 |doi=10.1002/2017GL072770 |bibcode=2017GeoRL..44.4781X |hdl=10220/46403 |s2cid=55509712 |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017GL072770|hdl-access=free }}</ref> The 1906 Putao earthquake on August 31 had an estimated moment magnitude of 7.0, and the 1908 earthquake measured {{M|w}} 7.5.<ref name="Event 914281 Myanmar-India border region">{{cite web |title=Event 914281 Myanmar-India border region |url=http://www.isc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/web-db-v4?event_id=914281&out_format=IMS1.0&request=COMPREHENSIVE |website=ISC: On-Line Bulletin |publisher=International Seismological Center |access-date=3 March 2021}}</ref><ref name="Event 16958007 Myanmar (1908)">{{cite web |title=Event 16958007 Myanmar |url=http://www.isc.ac.uk/cgi-bin/web-db-v4?event_id=16958007&out_format=IMS1.0&request=COMPREHENSIVE |website=ISC: On-Line Bulletin |publisher=International Seismological Centre |access-date=3 March 2021}}</ref> |
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=== January 5-13 1932 === |
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| ⚫ | The 1908 earthquake resulted in the accumulation of stress towards the south, where the future 1931 quake would take place. Similarly, the 1946 earthquake rupture segments were directly south of the 1931 rupture. The first mainshock in the 1946 doublet sequence then triggered the second mainshock due to the sudden increase in stress levels on the fault. |
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=== September 09 1946=== |
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{{Main|1946 Sagaing earthquakes}} |
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| ⚫ | Ten years later, an {{M|w}} [[1956 Sagaing earthquake|7.1 earthquake near Mandalay]] killed at least 40 people.<ref name="NGDC" /> That earthquake broke a segment south of the 1946 rupture. In 1991, a small seismic gap between the two 1946 ruptures generated an {{M|w}} 7.0 earthquake, partially re-rupturing a small section of the 1946 quakes, killing two.<ref name="M 7.0 – Myanmar">{{cite web |title=M 7.0 – Myanmar |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/usp0004k8g/executive |publisher=USGS-ANSS |access-date=3 March 2021}}</ref> |
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=== July 16 1956 === |
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{{Main|1956 Sagaing earthquake}} |
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This magnitude 7.1 earthquake near the city of Mandalay resulted in the deaths of at least 38 people. |
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The [[2012 Shwebo earthquake]] was the most recent major event on the Sagaing Fault. It had a moment magnitude of 6.8 and ruptured the fault north of Mandalay. A detailed and thorough evaluation of the event suggested the rupture was estimated at 45-km-long. The centroid moment tensor solution suggested the earthquake ruptured a north–south trending and sub-vertical fault that steeply dipped to the east.<ref name="Tun & Watkinson" /> |
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==== Cause ==== |
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| ⚫ | Looking back at the historical records of earthquakes, the years 1906 and 1908 saw two major events in the northernmost end of the Sagaing Fault.<ref name=" |
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| ⚫ | The 1908 earthquake resulted in the accumulation of stress towards the south, where the future 1931 quake would take place. Similarly, the 1946 earthquake rupture segments were directly south of the 1931 rupture. The first mainshock in the 1946 doublet sequence then triggered the second mainshock due to the sudden increase in stress levels on the fault. |
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| ⚫ | Ten years later, an {{M|w}} [[1956 Sagaing earthquake|7.1 earthquake near Mandalay]] killed at least 40 people. That earthquake broke a segment south of the 1946 rupture. In 1991, a small seismic gap between the two 1946 ruptures generated an {{M|w}} 7.0 earthquake, partially re-rupturing a small section of the 1946 quakes, killing two.<ref name="M 7.0 |
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| ⚫ | Although the May and December 1930 earthquakes occurred during this active period, they were separate events, unrelated to the activity in the northern part. The December 1930 earthquake, however, was triggered due to stress transfer from the previous event in May.<ref name=" |
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==Hazard== |
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===Other earthquakes=== |
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The Sagaing Fault was dubbed an "earthquake fault superhighway" for to its potential to promote [[supershear earthquake]]s. Such events occur when an earthquake's rupture velocity exceeds its [[S wave]] velocity and potentially reaching that of the [[P wave]]. Fast-propagating ruptures can inflict trememdous damage. The Sagaing Fault's relatively straight geometry, the longest continuous observed worldwide, could sustain supershear ruptures. Due to the fault's proximity to populated areas, supershear earthquakes can have devastating effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=D.P. |last2=Das |first2=S. |last3=Searle |first3=M.P. |title=Earthquake fault superhighways |journal=Tectonophysics |date=2010 |volume=493 |issue=3–4 |pages=236–243 |doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2010.01.010|bibcode=2010Tectp.493..236R }}</ref> |
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* [[1839 Ava earthquake]]: Powerful quake that destroyed the city of [[Inwa]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Htoo|first=Thant|date=2019-08-07|title=Govt unveils quake preparedness plan|url=https://www.mmtimes.com/news/govt-unveils-quake-preparedness-plan.html|access-date=2020-08-30|website=The Myanmar Times}}</ref> |
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* [[2012 Shwebo earthquake]]: Magnitude 6.8 quake killed 26 people and left 12 missing. |
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The length of fault running {{cvt|260|km}} from 19.2°N to 21.5°N, on the Meiktila segment, is designated a [[seismic gap]] due to the absence of major earthquake ruptures since at least 1897. At least {{cvt|2|m}} of slip has accumulated along the fault corresponding to a magnitude 7.9 earthquake. Another seismic gap running {{cvt|180|km}} lies in the Andaman Sea south of Yangon, potentially generating a magnitude 7.7 earthquake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hurukawa |first1=Nobuo |last2=Maung |first2=Phyo Maung |title=Two seismic gaps on the Sagaing Fault, Myanmar, derived from relocation of historical earthquakes since 1918 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=2011 |volume=38 |issue=L01310 |doi=10.1029/2010GL046099|bibcode=2011GeoRL..38.1310H }}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{reflist| |
{{reflist|refs= |
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<ref name="ISC-GEM">{{citation|title=ISC-GEM Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1900–2012)|url=http://www.isc.ac.uk/iscgem/index.php|author=ISC|year=2016|publisher=[[International Seismological Centre]]|series=Version 3.0}}</ref> |
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<ref name=NGDC>{{citation|title=Significant Earthquake Database|url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/nndc/struts/form?t=101650&s=1&d=1|author=National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS)|publisher=[[National Geophysical Data Center]], [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]]|doi=10.7289/V5TD9V7K|year=1972|type = Data Set}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Tun & Watkinson">{{cite journal |author1=Soe Thura Tun |author2=Ian M. Watkinson |title=Myanmar: Geology, Resources and Tectonics |journal=Geological Society, London, Memoirs |date=2017 |volume=48 |pages=413–441 |doi=10.1144/M48.19|s2cid=134291037 }}</ref>}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121223073524/http://www.earthobservatory.sg/media/news-and-features/295-myanmar-earthquake-of-march-24th-magnitude-68.html Earth Observatory of Singapore: Myanmar earthquake of March 24th |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121223073524/http://www.earthobservatory.sg/media/news-and-features/295-myanmar-earthquake-of-march-24th-magnitude-68.html Earth Observatory of Singapore: Myanmar earthquake of March 24th – Magnitude 6.8 (Regional Tectonics Explained)] |
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* [http://sagaingfault.info In-depth Sagaing Fault Study of 2012 quake] |
* {{dead link|date=October 2024}}[http://sagaingfault.info In-depth Sagaing Fault Study of 2012 quake] |
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{{Indochina plates}} |
{{Indochina plates}} |
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[[Category:Seismic faults of Asia]] |
[[Category:Seismic faults of Asia]] |
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[[Category:Geology of Myanmar]] |
[[Category:Geology of Myanmar]] |
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[[Category:Earthquakes in Myanmar]] |
[[Category:Earthquakes in Myanmar]] |
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[[Category:Strike-slip faults]] |
[[Category:Strike-slip faults]] |
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[[Category:Seismic faults]] |
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[[Category:Geology of Asia]] |
[[Category:Geology of Asia]] |
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[[Category:Active faults]] |
[[Category:Active faults]] |
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Latest revision as of 07:18, 22 November 2024
| Sagaing Fault | |
|---|---|
 Sagaing Fault in Myanmar | |
| Coordinates | 21°55'06.8"N 95°59'01.6"E |
| Country | Myanmar |
| Cities | Yangon, Nay Pyi Taw, Meiktila, Mandalay, Myitkyina |
| Characteristics | |
| Segments | Southern section: Bago, Pyu, Nay Pyi Taw, Meiktila, Sagaing. Northern section: Tawma, Ban Mauk, Indaw, Mawlu, Shaduzup, Kamaing, Mogang |
| Length | 1,400 km |
| Displacement | 18-20 mm/yr (0.71-0.79 in/yr) |
| Tectonics | |
| Status | Active |
| Type | Transform fault |
| Movement | Dextral |
| Age | 15-22 MYA |
The Sagaing Fault is a major fault in Myanmar, a mainly continental right-lateral transform fault between the Indian plate and Sunda plate. It links the divergent boundary in the Andaman Sea with the zone of active continental collision along the Himalayan front. It passes through the populated cities of Mandalay, Yamethin, Pyinmana, the capital Naypyidaw, Toungoo and Pegu before dropping off into the Gulf of Martaban, running for a total length of over 1200 kilometers.[1][2]
Discovery and early studies
[edit]A partial visualization of an active fault trace that aligns with the present-day Sagaing Fault trace was recorded by Fritz Noetling, a geologist, in the book The Miocene of Burma published in 1900. In 1913, Thomas Henry Digges La Touche of the Geological Survey of India[3] acknowledged the existence of a plate boundary feature along the Shan Plateau's western margin in Mandalay, including the one dividing metamorphic stratas of the Sagaing Hills from the Central Tertiary Basin. While analysing historical earthquakes in Myanmar, Harbans Lal Chhibber (1934) discovered a linear trace when joining their epicenters which he inferred to be along the same fault.[4] In 1970, Aung Khin and others confirmed the fault's existence using geophysical techniques and a Bouguer gravity investigation from Taungoo to Thabeikkyin. That same year, Win Swe nomenclated it the "Sagaing Fault". He also made the first description of the fault in Rift features at the Sagaing Tagaung Ridge at the Fifth Burma Research Congress. He determined the fault running nearly the entire length of Myanmar from south to north had a strike-slip mechanism, and linked it to historical earthquakes. A 1991 study of the fault determined a total displacement of 203 km (126 mi) and slip rate of 22 mm (0.87 in) per year by analyzing two metamorphic units and assuming the fault's origins in the end Oligocene or early Miocene.[5]
Geology
[edit]
The Sagaing Fault begins offshore in the Andaman Sea at a divergent boundary before passing through the central Myanmar basin. The fault has a relatively low topographical relief for most of its length compared to the Shan Scarp Fault to the west.[6] Its total length from the Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis to the Andaman Sea is 1,400 km (870 mi).[7] While the fault runs uninterrupted by large stepovers for most of its length, the northern 400 km (250 mi) branches outwards in a "horsetail" fashion into individual segments 100 km (62 mi) in width.
The total slip rate across the Indian–Sunda plate boundary is about 35 mm/yr, of which 18 mm/yr is accommodated by the Sagaing Fault, according to GPS data.[8] The measured maximum displacement along the fault is about 100 km, although several authors have proposed between 360 km to 400 km.[9][10]
Southern section
[edit]
The southern section comprises, from south to north, the Bago, Pyu, Naypyidaw, Meiktila and Sagaing segments. The 170 km (110 mi) Bago segment runs from Myanmar's coast, southeast of Yangon, to 18°N, where the fault experiences a sharp bend. The southern termination and offshore section remains uncertain, however, several tens of kilometers offshore, it connects to normal faults striking east–west. Approximately 100 km (62 mi) of the Bago segment ruptured during a Mw 7.4 earthquake in May 1930 with offsets of at least 3 m (9.8 ft).[9]
The Pyu segment begins where the Bago segment terminated and continues 130 km (81 mi) to 19.1°N. It runs along the base of the Bago-Yoma range. There lies a terrace along the central part of the segment east of the fault trace which represents the hanging wall of a reverse fault expressed on the feature's eastern side. This feature is due to a small transpressional component where the segment experiences crustal compression. A majority of the segment ruptured during a Mw 7.3 earthquake in December 1930 which originated at its southern limit.[9]
The Naypyidaw segment consists of two parallel strands that branches out at 19.1°N for its entire 70 km (43 mi). Both strands cut through channels and alluvial fans. The western strand runs east of Naypyidaw. A damaging but moderate earthquake in close proximity to the segment in August 1929 damaged railroads and bridges 40 km (25 mi) south of Naypyidaw.[9] The International Seismological Centre assigned the earthquake Mw 6.5.[11]
The Meiktila segment runs 220 km (140 mi) through a wide valley from Naypyidaw to Mandalay. This segment does not produce any dip-slip movement, evident from the absence of elevation differences across the fault. At 20°N, the fault offsets a stream by 2.4 km (1.5 mi); the largest observable offset along the segment. Although no major historical earthquake has been clearly associated with the segment, a possible contender is the 1839 Ava earthquake which destroyed the city of Inwa and caused severe damage to areas east and south of the Irrawaddy River.[9]
The geomorphologic features of the Sagaing segment led to its discovery in 1970. This segment runs relatively linear; it runs west of the Irrawaddy River from 21.9°N to 22.6°N, where it offsets alluvial fans of the post-Pliocene. It cuts through the Singu Plateau and splits into two segments running east and west of the river. Its western strand to the north is the Tawma segment. In 1946, a Mw 7.7 earthquake was likely associated with the segment's northern two-thirds. This segment also ruptured during a smaller Mw 6.8 earthquake in 2012. The remaining portion to the south likely ruptured during the destructive Mw 7.1 earthquake in 1956.[9]
Northern section
[edit]The Sagaing Fault begins to fan outwards in a "horsetail" fashion into four separate fault zones from 23.5°N. The Tawma segment runs along an east-facing scarp and streams display dextral offsets. The western strand of the Sagaing segment extends north and is represented by the Tawma segment. The trace is no longer visible at 24°N where a left stepover leads to the Ban Mauk segment 10 km (6.2 mi) west. Between the stepover is a series of northeast–southwest striking faults that cuts through a transpressional ridge. Many are shorter than 20 km (12 mi) long and some show normal-component in their slip; however their weak expression suggest small slip rates compared to the Sagaing Fault's main branches.[9]
The Ban Mauk segment runs from 23.8°N and continues for 150 km (93 mi). Due to the rarity of clear geomorphic offsets associated with this segment, its slip rate is inferred to be low. The segment marks the boundary between the Neogene volcanics of the west and Miocene sedimentary strata of the east. At 25°N, the fault trace disappears, buried by clastic deposits of the Taungthonton Volcano to the east. At 23.7°N, the in Daw segment branches away from the Tawma segment at the Irrawaddy River's northern bank; continuing its north–northeasternly trace. A 3 km (1.9 mi) wide pull-apart basin at 24.25°N separates it from the Mawlu segment where it continues north–northwest for 90 km (56 mi). The combined length of both segments is estimated at 170 km (110 mi). Geodetic analysis of these segments revealed an annual strain accumulation of about 2 cm (0.79 in). A Mw 7.3 foreshock occurred along the in Daw segment three minutes before the Mw 7.7 earthquake in 1946.[9]
The fault branches into three segments where the Mawlu segment terminates: the Shaduzup, Kamaing, and Mogang segments. The Shaduzup segment, the westernmost of the three, is not believe to exceed 120 km (75 mi). The lack of clear geomorphic features suggest less activity occurs on this segment. The Kamaing segment continues further north into the Naga Hills, beyond 26.7°N. Right-lateral displacements are also well-expressed in drainage channels on the eastern flank of the Naga Hills at its northern termination. The fault continues north and joins a thrust fault system associated with the Assam Valley. the Mogang segment, the most active of the three, though less seismically active than the Kamaing segment, runs in a broad arc from 24.8°N. It ends at 26.8°N where it transforms into a northwest–southeast striking thrust fault. One of these segments produced a Mw 7.6 earthquake in January 1931, though due to the lack of seismic data and isoseismal map its origin segment remains tentative. However, shaking was more intense along the Kamaing segment.[9]
Seismicity
[edit]
Damaging earthquakes have been associated with the fault for centuries. The great 1839 Ava earthquake killed hundreds and damaged many cities, including the then imperial capital Inwa.[12] That earthquake is thought to have a moment magnitude of 8.0 or greater. The large magnitude would imply a rupture length of at least 300 km along the fault.
In the early 20th century, from 1929 to 1931, more than half the length of the Sagaing Fault was involved in significant earthquakes. The first earthquake—which was followed-up by subsequent larger events—struck southwest of Nay Pyi Daw, and east of Thayetmyo in the Pegu Range in August 1929.[13] There are insufficient reports of damage caused by this earthquake, although it was said that buildings were swaying and objects were displaced at Yamethin, roughly 133.6 km north of the quake epicenter.[14] The magnitude of this earthquake was no greater than 7.0.
On the night of May 5, a large shock registering Mw 7.5 struck north of the city of Pegu resulting in widespread deaths and destruction.[15] There were no foreshocks that preceded. The earthquake had a maximum intensity of IX to X on the Rossi–Forel scale.[9] The city of Pegu, Rangoon and several other towns were destroyed. In Pegu, fires erupted, and severe liquefaction caused further damage. Approximately 500 people died in Pegu while 58 were killed in Rangoon. More deaths were recorded in other villages.[14] It triggered a small tsunami which inundated villages along the coast.[12] This is the deadliest earthquake in the 1929–1931 sequence.
Two moderate foreshocks occurred on the night of December 3. The first lasted 5 seconds, generated some panic, and it was felt in Pyinmana and Rangoon. The other foreshock was described as being stronger than the first, but was not felt as widespread as the first.[16][17][18]
Violent shaking from an Mw 7.3 earthquakedisrupted the early morning of December 4 in Pyu, Taungoo District.[19] The December 4 event occurred further north of the epicenter of the May earthquake, about 6.4 to 9.7 km west southwest of Pyu. Damage was severe, with a railroad being shifted off and twisted, while many buildings in the city collapsed. About 30 people were killed. The maximum intensity was assigned X on the Rossi–Forel scale.[16] This event is not an aftershock of the May quake because it ruptured a different segment of the Sagaing Fault.[9]
Although the May and December 1930 earthquakes occurred during this active period, they were separate events, unrelated to the activity in the northern part. The December 1930 earthquake, however, was triggered due to stress transfer from the previous event in May.[20]
A lesser-known earthquake on July 18, 1930, in the Ayeyarwady Region killed about 50 people.[21] According to the National Centers for Environmental Information database, there is no magnitude assigned to this event.[12] The book Southeast Asia Association of Seismology is the only published work mentioning this event.[22]
The largest earthquake in the sequence, an Mw 7.6 quake, struck next to Indawgyi Lake, resulting in large landslides and ground failures.[14][23] There were no casualties in this earthquake.
Another violent earthquake of unknown magnitude occurred 146.5 km north of Pyu. It was felt in Mandalay and Thanatpin.[14] Six brick buildings sustained damage. On August 19, another tremor caused cracks to appear in buildings in Mandalay and lightly affected Kalaw.[16] The city was rocked another time, resulting in the collapse of the Shwe Sandaw Pagoda in Taungoo.[14]
Several short tremors woke people up in Taungoo, Pyuntaza and Nangyun.[16]
Two powerful earthquakes north of Mandalay measuring Mw 7.3 and 7.7 occurred on September 12, 1946.[11] The doublet earthquake sequence would remain as one of the largest in the country. Not much about this event is known due to sparse records.
Looking back at the historical records of earthquakes, the years 1906 and 1908 saw two major events in the northernmost end of the Sagaing Fault.[20] The 1906 Putao earthquake on August 31 had an estimated moment magnitude of 7.0, and the 1908 earthquake measured Mw 7.5.[24][25]
The 1908 earthquake resulted in the accumulation of stress towards the south, where the future 1931 quake would take place. Similarly, the 1946 earthquake rupture segments were directly south of the 1931 rupture. The first mainshock in the 1946 doublet sequence then triggered the second mainshock due to the sudden increase in stress levels on the fault.
Ten years later, an Mw 7.1 earthquake near Mandalay killed at least 40 people.[12] That earthquake broke a segment south of the 1946 rupture. In 1991, a small seismic gap between the two 1946 ruptures generated an Mw 7.0 earthquake, partially re-rupturing a small section of the 1946 quakes, killing two.[26]
The 2012 Shwebo earthquake was the most recent major event on the Sagaing Fault. It had a moment magnitude of 6.8 and ruptured the fault north of Mandalay. A detailed and thorough evaluation of the event suggested the rupture was estimated at 45-km-long. The centroid moment tensor solution suggested the earthquake ruptured a north–south trending and sub-vertical fault that steeply dipped to the east.[6]
Hazard
[edit]The Sagaing Fault was dubbed an "earthquake fault superhighway" for to its potential to promote supershear earthquakes. Such events occur when an earthquake's rupture velocity exceeds its S wave velocity and potentially reaching that of the P wave. Fast-propagating ruptures can inflict trememdous damage. The Sagaing Fault's relatively straight geometry, the longest continuous observed worldwide, could sustain supershear ruptures. Due to the fault's proximity to populated areas, supershear earthquakes can have devastating effects.[27]
The length of fault running 260 km (160 mi) from 19.2°N to 21.5°N, on the Meiktila segment, is designated a seismic gap due to the absence of major earthquake ruptures since at least 1897. At least 2 m (6 ft 7 in) of slip has accumulated along the fault corresponding to a magnitude 7.9 earthquake. Another seismic gap running 180 km (110 mi) lies in the Andaman Sea south of Yangon, potentially generating a magnitude 7.7 earthquake.[28]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Win, Nilar (August 25–31, 2008). "Sagaing Fault surveyed to prepare for future quakes". The Myanmar Times. Archived from the original on 2012-06-07. Retrieved 2011-04-04.
- ^ Wang, Yu (2011). "Earthquakes and slip rate of the southern Sagaing fault: insights from an offset ancient fort wall, lower Burma (Myanmar)" (PDF). Geophysical Journal International. 185 (1): 49–64. Bibcode:2011GeoJI.185...49W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04918.x.
- ^ Tipper, G. H. (7 May 1938). "Mr. T. H. D. La Touche". Nature. 141 (3575): 819–820. Bibcode:1938Natur.141..819T. doi:10.1038/141819a0.
- ^ Chhibber, H. L. (1934). The Geology of Burma. Macmillan & Company.
- ^ Tun, Soe Thura (2005). Sagaing Fault: A desk study report on seismotectonic implications in Myanmar. Myanmar Earthquake Committee. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.4048.6249.
- ^ a b Soe Thura Tun; Ian M. Watkinson (2017). "Myanmar: Geology, Resources and Tectonics". Geological Society, London, Memoirs. 48: 413–441. doi:10.1144/M48.19. S2CID 134291037.
- ^ Chit Thet Mon, Xuan Gong, Yun Wen, Mingming Jiang, Qi-Fu Chen, Miao Zhang, Guangbing Hou, Myo Thant, Kyaing Sein, Yumei He (2020). "Insight into Major Active Faults in Central Myanmar and the Related Geodynamic Sources". Geophysical Research Letters. 47 (8). Bibcode:2020GeoRL..4786236M. doi:10.1029/2019GL086236.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Tsutsumi, H.; Sato, T. (2009). "Tectonic geomorphology of the southernmost Sagaing fault and surface rupture associated with the May 1930 Pegu (Bago) earthquake, Myanmar". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 99 (4): 2155–2168. Bibcode:2009BuSSA..99.2155T. doi:10.1785/0120080113.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Yu, Wang (2014). "Active tectonics and earthquake potential of the Myanmar region" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 119 (4): 3767. Bibcode:2014JGRB..119.3767W. doi:10.1002/2013JB010762 – via Caltech.
- ^ Yu Wang, Kerry Sieh, Thura Aung, Soe Min, Saw Ngwe Khaing (2011). "Earthquakes and slip rate of the southern Sagaing fault: insights from an offset ancient fort wall, lower Burma (Myanmar)". Geophysical Journal International. 185 (1): 49. Bibcode:2011GeoJI.185...49W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04918.x.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b ISC (2016), ISC-GEM Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1900–2012), Version 3.0, International Seismological Centre
- ^ a b c d National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS) (1972), Significant Earthquake Database (Data Set), National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K
- ^ "M 6.6 – Myanmar". United States Geological Survey.
- ^ a b c d e Hla Hla Aung (2012). "Reinterpretation of historical earthquakes during 1929 to 1931, Myanmar". Advances in Geosciences. 31: 43. Bibcode:2012aogs...31...43A. doi:10.1142/9789814405775_0005. ISBN 978-981-4405-76-8 – via Researchgate.
- ^ "M 7.5 – Myanmar". United States Geological Survey.
- ^ a b c d J. COGGIN BROWN AND P. LEICESTER. "THE PYU EARTHQUAKES of 3RD AND 4TH DECEMBER 1930 AND SUBSEQUENT BURMA EARTHQUAKES UP TO JANUARY 1932". Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. LXII.
- ^ "Event 907776 Myanmar". International Seismological Centre.
- ^ "Event 907775 Near south coast of Myanmar". International Seismological Centre.
- ^ "M 7.4 – Myanmar". United States Geological Survey.
- ^ a b Xiong, X., B. Shan, Y. M. Zhou, S. J. Wei, Y. D. Li, R. J. Wang, and Y. Zheng (2017). "Coulomb stress transfer and accumulation on the Sagaing Fault, Myanmar, over the past 110 years and its implications for seismic hazard". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (10): 4781–4789. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.4781X. doi:10.1002/2017GL072770. hdl:10220/46403. S2CID 55509712.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Significant Earthquake: MYANMAR (BURMA): THARRAWADDY". NOAA.
- ^ Nutalaya; P.S. Sodsri; E.P. Arnold (1985). SEASEE Series on Seismology. Vol. II–Thailand. United States Geological Survey.
- ^ "M 7.6 – Myanmar". United States Geological Survey.
- ^ "Event 914281 Myanmar-India border region". ISC: On-Line Bulletin. International Seismological Center. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ "Event 16958007 Myanmar". ISC: On-Line Bulletin. International Seismological Centre. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ "M 7.0 – Myanmar". USGS-ANSS. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ Robinson, D.P.; Das, S.; Searle, M.P. (2010). "Earthquake fault superhighways". Tectonophysics. 493 (3–4): 236–243. Bibcode:2010Tectp.493..236R. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2010.01.010.
- ^ Hurukawa, Nobuo; Maung, Phyo Maung (2011). "Two seismic gaps on the Sagaing Fault, Myanmar, derived from relocation of historical earthquakes since 1918". Geophysical Research Letters. 38 (L01310). Bibcode:2011GeoRL..38.1310H. doi:10.1029/2010GL046099.
