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{{Short description|Events in the Netherlands during the First World War}}
'''The Kingdom of the Netherlands''' was neutral during [[World War I]]. This was part of a strict policy of [[Neutrality (international relations)|neutrality]] in international affairs that started in 1830 with the secession of [[Belgium]], or the Southern Netherlands, from the north. It would end with the German invasion of 10 May 1940. In World War I the Netherlands would be in a tight spot as the country was relatively close to the Western Front and geographically positioned in between the [[German Empire]], German-occupied [[Belgium]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. Both warring factions would regularly intimidate the Netherlands and put demands on it.[[File:Monument voor 300 Scheveningse visser.JPG|thumb|Monument commemorating 300 dead fishermen of Scheveningen. ]]
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The [[Netherlands]] remained neutral during [[World War I]], a stance that arose partly from a strict policy of [[neutrality (international relations)|neutrality]] in international affairs that started in 1830, with the [[Belgian Revolution|secession of Belgium]] from the Netherlands. Dutch neutrality was not guaranteed by the major powers in Europe and was not part of the [[Dutch constitution]]. The country's neutrality was based on the belief that its strategic position between the [[German Empire]], [[German occupation of Belgium during World War I|German-occupied Belgium]], and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] guaranteed its safety.<ref name=wwienc/>
==Position prior to World War I==
Prior to the First World War, the Netherlands hosted two major international peace conferences in [[The Hague]]. [[First Hague Conference|The First Hague Conference]] was held in May 1899 on the initiative of the Russian [[Tsar Nicholas II]]. Representatives of twenty-six nations conferred on the limitation of certain types of weapons, including [[poison gas]], hollow point bullets and aerial bombardment from hot air balloons. The conference was a surprising success and agreements were made on the laws of war and subsequent [[war crimes]].
In 1907, there was a [[Second Hague Conference]] at the instigation of the American president, [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. It had been planned for 1904 but had to be postponed because of the Russo-Japanese War. The second conference is generally considered a failure. The philanthropic American steel magnate [[Andrew Carnegie]] financed the building of the [[Peace Palace]] in The Hague to house the [[International Court of Justice]]. Today The Hague still is a centre of international law.


The [[Royal Netherlands Army]] was mobilized throughout the conflict, as belligerents regularly attempted to intimidate the Netherlands and to place demands on it. In addition to providing a credible deterrence, the army had to house refugees, guard [[internment camp]]s for captured soldiers, and prevent smuggling.
==Dutch Politics==
===Royal House===
The head of state of the Netherlands was [[Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands|Queen Wilhelmina]]. She was known as fiercely patriotic and strong-willed. Queen Wilhelmina leaned towards sympathy for [[France]] and Belgium, but only in private. In public she remained purely neutral. Her husband, the German prince-consort [[Prince Henry, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin|Henry Duke zu Mecklenburg-Schwerin]], was openly pro-German. The army of his nephew, [[Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin|Frederick Francis IV Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin]], was part of the German army.<ref>Fasseur, Cees. ''Wilhelmina. De jonge koningin''. Amsterdam: Balans, 1998, p. 508-510.</ref> Within the Prussian army there was the 'Husaren-Regiment Königin Wilhelmina der Niederlande (Hannoversches) Nr. 15', a Prussian cavalry regiment named after Wilhelmina of which she was honorary commander.


The government also restricted the free movement of people, monitored spies, and took other wartime measures.
===Government===
On 29 August 1913 a centrist liberal [[minority cabinet]] was appointed under leadership of [[prime minister]] [[Pieter Cort van der Linden|Pieter W.A. Cort van der Linden]], an independent liberal MP. His cabinet would reign until 9 September 1918, an unusual long period for a Dutch cabinet. During this period the important post of minister of Foreign Affairs was taken by Jonkheer [[John Loudon (politician)|John Loudon]]. Minister of War was former general Nicolaas Bosboom (until 15 May 1917). Although the government as a whole was strictly neutral, the individual members had their preferences. Some ministers were in favour of France, but prime minister Cort van der Linden was privately seen as ‘German friendly’ and nicknamed ‘Kurt unter der Linden’ after Berlin’s main boulevard.<ref>Ruis, Edwin. ''Spynest. British and German Espionage from Neutral Holland 1914-1918 '. Briscombe: The History Press, 2016, p. 149.</ref>


==Background==
===Declaration of neutrality===
Before the First World War, the Netherlands hosted two major international peace conferences. The first, the [[First Hague Conference]], was held in May 1899 on the initiative of Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hag99-01.asp|title=The Hague peace conferences of 1899 and 1907|website=avalon.law.yale.edu}}</ref> Representatives of 26 nations conferred on the limitation of certain types of weapons, including [[poison gas]], hollow point bullets and aerial bombardment from hot air balloons.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hEH7KcpN-OcC&pg=PT34|title=The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir|author=Telford Taylor|date=1 November 1993|publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]]|isbn=0-3168-3400-9|access-date=20 June 2013}}</ref> The conference was a surprising success, and agreements were reached on the laws of war and on war crimes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/final99.asp|title=The Avalon Project : Laws of War - Final Act of the International Peace Conference; July 29, 1899|website=avalon.law.yale.edu|access-date=2019-05-24}}</ref>
After the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] declared war on the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] in the aftermath of the assassination of [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassination|Archduke Franz Ferdinand]] and his wife [[Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg|Sophie]], the Netherlands declared themselves neutral on 30 July 1914. According to international law neutrality had to be declared in each instance of a war declaration between two [[Sovereign nation|sovereign nations]]. During the month of August many the Dutch declaration of neutrality had to be repeated regularly. The declaration consisted of eighteen articles. The most important were that hostilities were not allowed within the territory and waters of the [[Dutch Empire]]; that it was not allowed to use said territory and waters as a base for military operations; and that foreign soldiers whom, for whatever reason, crossed into Dutch territory would be interned in [[POW camp|POW camps]] for the duration of the war.<ref>Moeyes, Paul. ''Buiten schot ''. Amsterdam: De Arbeiderspers, 2014, p. 54.</ref>


==The military==
==Politics==
[[File:Queen Wilhelmina & Juliana.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Queen Wilhelmina and her daughter [[Juliana of the Netherlands|Juliana]], circa 1914]]
On 31 July, the Dutch government ordered a full military mobilisation of its 200,000 man-strong [[conscript]] armed forces, including reserves and regional militias. The [[chief of staff]] lieutenant-general [[Cornelis Snijders]] was promoted to full general and supreme commander, a function that only existed in war time.
The Dutch Queen, [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands|Wilhelmina]], was known for her fierce patriotism and strong-willed nature. She leaned towards sympathy for [[French Third Republic|France]] and [[Belgium]] but only in private and evinced a neutral stance in public. Her German husband, the prince-consort [[Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin]], was openly pro-German. His nephew, [[Frederick Francis IV]], served in the German Army.<ref>Fasseur, Cees. ''Wilhelmina. De Jonge Koningin''. Amsterdam: Balans, 1998, pp. 508–510.</ref>


On 29 August 1913, a centrist liberal minority cabinet was appointed under the leadership of the independent liberal [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Prime Minister]] [[Pieter Cort van der Linden]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Minderaa|first=J.T.|title=Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland|url=http://www.inghist.nl/Onderzoek/Projecten/BWN/lemmata/bwn1/linden|volume=1|year=1979|contribution=Linden, Pieter Wilhelm Adrianus Cort van der (1846–1935)|access-date=2008-03-13}}</ref> His cabinet governed until 9 September 1918, an unusually-long period for a Dutch cabinet. During that period, the important post of [[Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands|Minister of Foreign Affairs]] was taken by [[John Loudon (politician)|John Loudon]].<ref name="obit">{{cite news|url=https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0710F93A5E127A93C1A8178AD95F418585F9|title=Dr. John Loudon, A Dutch Diplomat|date=November 13, 1955|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=2014-01-11|quote=John Loudon, former Netherlands Foreign Minister, died today after a long illness.}}</ref>
The Dutch military strategy was purely defensive and rested on three pillars. First there was the ‘Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie’ ([[Hollandic Water Line|New Holland Waterline]]), a defensive ring of rivers and lowland surrounding [[Holland]] proper that would be [[Inundation|inundated]]. An older version had existed since the sixteenth century. A second line of defence was formed by a circle of nineteenth-century fortresses and further inundations surrounding the capital [[Amsterdam]], called the Vesting van Amsterdam ([[Stelling van Amsterdam|Fortress of Amsterdam]]). The third pillar was the Veldleger, or mobile field army, that would operate outside the Waterline in the rural eastern and southern provinces. In August 1914 the field army had an operational strength of 88,770 soldiers.<ref>Abbenhuis, Maartje M. ''The Art of Staying Neutral. The Netherlands in the First World War, 1914-1918''. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006, p. 47</ref>


Although the government as a whole was strictly neutral, each member maintained individual preferences. Some ministers were in favour of France, and Prime Minister Cort van der Linden was privately seen as German-friendly and nicknamed "Kurt Unter der Linden," after Berlin's [[Unter den Linden]] boulevard.{{sfn|Ruis|2016|p=149}}
The main weapons were the Männlicher rifle and the Schwarzlose machine gun, both manufactured in Austria. Artillery was often out-dated, especially the artillery in the fortifications.<ref>Abbenhuis, p. 50-51.</ref> At the start of the war there was no air force, only a starting aviation department within the army. It had a couple of Farman planes build in license. Later during the war foreign planes who had crashed into Dutch territory would be repaired to serve in the aviation department.


During the war, the Dutch people were generally sympathetic towards the Allies.<ref>{{Aut|S.J. de Groot}}, Het ‘Baralong-voorval’, 19 August 1915. Misdaad en straf volgens het Britse zeerecht, in ''Tijdschrift voor Zeegeschiedenis'' 14 (1995), p. 123.</ref> However, in Dutch Protestant or [[Neo-Calvinist]] circles, there was sympathy for the German cause, which was partly inspired by the memory of the [[Second Boer War]] (1899-1902), in [[South Africa]].{{sfn|Moeyes|2001|p=372-}}{{Page needed|date=September 2022}}
During the war, militarily sensitive border areas and places essential to the national defence would be declared in ‘[[state of siege]]’, a phase preceding the ‘state of war’. There, military authorities would rule under martial law and non-residents could only go there with a special permit. These prohibited border areas would expand during the war in order to fight espionage and expel suspect individuals.


In September 1918, a new Dutch government rose under [[Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck]]. Noting that Allied victory appeared imminent and fearing revolutionary stirrings at home, the new administration immediately began negotiations with the Allies, concluding an agreement on 25 November 1918, two weeks after the end of the war.<ref name=wwienc/>
Some Dutchmen did volunteer for service in the French, British and German or Austro-Hungarian armies, but exact numbers are unknown. An example is adventurer [[Louis Grondijs]] who served in the [[French Foreign Legion]]. The German army did not accept foreign volunteers, unless they possessed German nationality as well. Foreign volunteers were often directed to allied armies such as the Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian or Ottoman.


==Neutrality==
==Prisoners of war==
In the aftermath of the [[assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand]], [[Austria-Hungary]] declared war on the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] at 11&nbsp;a.m. on 28 July 1914.{{sfn|Fischer|1967|p=73}} The Dutch declared themselves neutral on 30 July. According to international law, neutrality had to be declared in each instance of a war declaration between two [[sovereign nation]]s. During August, the Dutch declaration of neutrality had to be repeated regularly.
According to international law soldiers of the warring nations who entered a neutral country had to be interned for the duration of the war. Of the soldiers who entered the Netherlands on purpose or by mistake, 33,105 were Belgian, 1,751 British, 1,461 German, 8 French and 4 American. Among these were also pilots who had flown into Dutch airspace and crashed.<ref>Roodt, Evelyn de. ''Oorlogsgasten. Vluchtelingen en krijgsgevangenen in Nederland tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog''. Zaltbommel, 2000, p. 16, 139-140, 173</ref>
[[File:Amersfoort Belgenmonument 200901.jpg|thumb|Monument build by Belgian POW's near Amersfoort.]]
Most Belgian and British POW's had fled to the Netherlands after the [[fall of Antwerp]]. The Belgians were held captive in Kamp Amersfoort. After a revolt resulted in the death of 7 Belgians, the camp regime was softened. Often their wifes and kids would seek accommodation in the vicinity.


The declaration consisted of 18 articles. The most important article stated that hostilities were not allowed within the territory and the waters of the [[Dutch Empire]]; no nation was allowed to use the territory and the waters as a base for military operations; and that foreign soldiers who, for whatever reason, crossed into Dutch territory would be interned in [[prisoner-of-war camp]]s for the duration of the war.{{sfn|Moeyes|2001|p=54}}{{Verify source|date=September 2018}}
Most British were members of the [[First Naval Brigade]]. They were interned in [[Groningen (city), Netherlands|Groningen City]], where they were held captive under a mild regime, allowing for trips into the city. Some British soldiers formed a cabaret group named 'The Timbertown Follies' with which they toured throughout the country. The proceeds were donated to charities. Others would knit jumpers and socks for the British navy.<ref>Internet, retrieved 10 May 2016 (in Dutch): http://www.wereldoorlog1418.nl/engelsekamp/engelsekamp-deel-05.html</ref>


===Violations===
Many German soldiers entered the Netherlands by mistake, especially at the beginning of the war, as the border between the Netherlands and Belgium can be confusing. German patrols were arrested. The German prisoner of war camp was at [[Bergen, North Holland|Bergen]] in the province of [[North-Holland]].
At the beginning of the war, the German Army marched near the Dutch–Belgian border in the province of [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]. For a stretch of {{convert|500|m|yd}} between border markers 42 and 43, the road was half Belgian and half Dutch territory. Dutch border guards made clear which part of the road was Dutch territory, and as a consequence, the German Army avoided it on its westward march. However, the Dutch were falsely accused by Belgian and French newspapers at the time of supporting the German invasion of Belgium.{{sfn|Moeyes|2001|p=88-97}}{{better source needed|date=September 2018}}


Both Allied and German military aircraft violated Dutch airspace. On several occasions, Allied and German pilots mistakenly dropped bombs on Dutch towns. The deadliest incident occurred on 30 April 1917, when a [[Royal Naval Air Service]] pilot mistakenly dropped eight bombs on the town of [[Zierikzee]], damaged several houses and killed a family of three. After initially denying the incident, the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] apologized and agreed to compensate the Dutch for damage and loss of life.{{sfn|Van Lith|2001|p=91-95}} A total of 107 Allied and German airplanes and 24 seaplanes landed in the Netherlands, and 220 crewmen were taken prisoner. Of the crashed planes, 67 were repaired and added to the army's air department.<ref>Starink, Dirk. ''De Jonge Jaren van Luchtmacht''. Amsterdam: Boom, 2013, p. 95.</ref>
===Deserters===
[[Deserter|Deserters]] were not considered foreign soldiers when they entered neutral territory if they were unarmed, took of badges from their uniform and proclaimed themselves deserter to the proper authorities. Most deserters by far were German. As deserters had no rights to hand-outs like free accommodation or food, some of them would be voluntarily interned in POW-camps.


German [[Zeppelin]]s carrying out bombing raids against the UK frequently violated Dutch airspace because of weather conditions such as wind or fog. It is unclear whether Dutch fire was responsible for the downing of the [[Zeppelin LZ 54]], which came down in the North Sea and led to the [[Zeppelin LZ 54#King Stephen incident|''King Stephen'' incident]], in which the captain of the British [[fishing trawler]] ''King Stephen'', William Martin, refused to rescue the crew of ''LZ 54'', resulting in them drowning.{{fact|date=September 2024}}
==Refugee's==
After the German invasion of Belgium on 4 August 1914 a total of one million of seven million Belgians fled their country into the Netherlands. The first wave consisted of Belgian Germans, German-speaking East Europeans and Jews who fell victim to the Belgian public’s outrage directly after the invasion. Their businesses and homes were often raided by angry mobs.


===Dutch merchant shipping===
The second wave was caused by the German army’s onslaught and war crimes against civilians. Between August and October 1914, a total of one million Belgians would flee to the Netherlands. Most of those refugees would return when the war concentrated itself around the Western Front. Others would move on to England and France. On average 100,000 Belgians stayed in refugee camps during the war. The largest refugee camp was in Nunspeet.
<gallery heights="150" widths="300">
File:Monument voor 300 Scheveningse visser.JPG|Monument commemorating the dead fishermen of Scheveningen
File:Tubantia cartoon.jpg|Dutch artist [[Piet van der Hem]]'s [[editorial cartoon]] decrying the sinking of ''Tubantia''
File:USS Rijndam (ID 2505).jpg|The [[Transatlantic crossing|transatlantic]] [[ocean liner]] {{USS|Rijndam||2}} was one of the ships that the US seized in March 1918
</gallery>


A key aspect of Dutch neutrality was maritime trade. The Netherlands were not included in [[Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)|the allied blockade of Germany]], and thus offered a conduit to overseas trade for the Central Powers. The Dutch imported goods from countries such as the US and exported domestic produce to Germany, netting a profit and becoming Germany's biggest food supplier. In the first half of 1916, Dutch food export to Germany was worth around 5 million [[German mark (1871)|goldmarks]] per day. The British negotiated with Dutch representatives in the Netherlands Oversea Trust Company (NOT) to attempt to reduce this, by offering to buy a share of Dutch agricultural product, to initially mixed success.<ref name=Frey>{{cite journal|title=Trade, Ships and the Neutrality of the Netherlands in the First World War|last=Frey|first=Marc|year=1997|journal=The International History Review|volume=19|number=3|pages=541–562 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1997.9640796 |jstor=40107865 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40107865}}</ref> The Dutch agreed that vessels bound to the Netherlands would first dock in Britain and submit to an inspection. Large amounts of smuggling and fraud meant much goods reached Germany regardless.<ref name=wwienc>{{cite web|title=The Netherlands|url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/the-netherlands/|website=1914-1918 Online|date = 8 October 2014|author1 = Samuël Kruizinga|author2= Paul Moeyes |author3= Wim Klinkert}}</ref>
Apart from Belgian civilians there were political refugees from Germany such as the German-American socialist [[Carl Minster]], Germans who escaped conscription into the army and from German camps escaped POW's, mostly Russians.


Dutch vessels used a channel from their coast via the [[Dogger Bank]] to the [[North Sea]], which both the British and Germans pledged to keep safe. Nevertheless, Dutch sailors suffered from war-related incidents and neutrality violations. While both the initial German submarine campaign and the British did not formally target neutral trade, several Dutch ships were damaged or sunk by German [[U-boat]]s and occasional stray Allied sea mines. 220 ships, 1189 sailors and fishermen were lost overall.{{sfn|Abbenhuis|2006|p=127-28}} The fishing town of [[Scheveningen]] lost 300 fishermen, out of a total of 862 Dutch fishermen lost and 96 to 175 fishing boats sunk. The majority was due to German attacks, with around 150<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uboat.net/wwi/ships_hit/|title=Ships hit by U-boats during WWI|website=Uboat.net}}</ref> merchant and fishing ships sunk by U-boats, the largest being the passenger steamer {{SS|Tubantia}} on 16 March 1916. Sea mines accounted for 19 deaths in Dutch waters,{{sfn|Abbenhuis|2006|p=127-28}} with some sea mines washing ashore and killing civilians or military specialists tasked with disarming them.{{sfn|Van Lith|2001|p=176–177}}
==Incidents==
Dutch shipping and sailors suffered most from war related incidents, as their ships were torpedoed by German [[U-boat|U-boats]] or sunk by British sea mines. The fishing town of [[Scheveningen]] would loose 300 fishermen this way. Some sea mines would wash ashore and kill incautious bystanders or explosive specialists tasked with securing the sea mines. Both Allied and German air planes violated Dutch airspace. The only deadly incident occurred on 30 April 1917 when a lost British pilot dropped 6 bombs on a single house in the town of [[Zierikzee]], killing a family of 3 people. After initial denial, the British government apologised and agreed to compensate for damage and loss of life.


In February 1917 the Germans announced [[U-boat_campaign#1917:_Resumption_of_unrestricted_submarine_warfare|a renewed campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare]] with neutral ships bound for Britain now deliberately targeted. This meant that Dutch vessels proceeding to British ports for inspection were now under threat. As a result the majority of Dutch shipping was left idle in port while the NOT attempted to negotiate with the Allies to relax the inspection requirement and allow their trade to bypass the German danger zone. In April 1917 the [[United States in World War I#War declared|USA declared war against the Central Powers]]. The US adopted a hard line, [[Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917|restricting its own exports]] to neutrals. By June 1917, US authorities were detaining Dutch merchant ships in US ports. The Allies demanded the confiscation of such vessels in allied ports in return for loosening trade restrictions.{{sfn|Abbenhuis|2006|p=132-134}}<ref name=wwienc/>
==Espionage==


After lengthy negotiations the Dutch allowed an Allied ultimatum to lapse on 18 March 1918.<ref name=Frey/> The [[United States Customs Service]] seized 89 Dutch ships under [[angary]],<ref name=DANFS>{{cite web |url= https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/r/rijndam.html |title=Rijndam |work=[[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships|DANFS]] |publisher=[[Naval History and Heritage Command]] |date=29 September 2005 |access-date=15 May 2023}}</ref> including 46 in [[Port of New York and New Jersey|New York]].<ref>{{cite news |url= https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/159390703 |title=Dutch steamers seized in New York harbour |newspaper=[[Daily Cargo News|Daily Commercial News and Shipping List]] |page=2 |date=25 March 1918 |via=[[Trove]] |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref>


31 of the ships that the US seized were commissioned into the [[United States Navy]].<ref name=DANFS/> Most were [[cargo ship]]s, but they also included the [[ocean liner]]s {{USS|Rijndam||2}}, {{SS|Koningin der Nederlanden||2}}, and {{USS|Zeelandia||2}}, which the USA converted into [[troopship]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.marhisdata.nl/schip&id=5630 |title=Ryndam – ID 5630 |work=Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank |lang=nl |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.marhisdata.nl/schip&id=3489 |title=Koningin der Nederlanden – ID 3489 |work=Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank |lang=nl |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.marhisdata.nl/schip&id=7457 |title=Zeelandia – ID 7457 |work=Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank |lang=nl |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref> Other Dutch cargo ships were taken over by the [[United States Shipping Board]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.marhisdata.nl/schip&id=566 |title=Arakan – ID 566 |work=Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank |lang=nl |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref>
==Aftermath==


The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] also seized Dutch merchant ships, including ''[[SS Costa Rica|Prinses Juliana]]'' and {{SS|Goentoer||2}}, which were converted into troopships.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.marhisdata.nl/schip&id=8509 |title=Prinses Juliana – ID 8509 |work=Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank |lang=nl |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.marhisdata.nl/schip&id=2518 |title=Goentoer – ID 2518 |work=Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank |language=nl |access-date=9 July 2023}}</ref> In total the Allies requisitioned 132 ships, and they were returned in spring 1919. As punishment for allowing the seizure of the vessels, German leader [[Erich Ludendorff]] compelled the Dutch to allow the use of their railways and canals as "military highway".<ref name=Frey/> The Allies agreed to be more lenient towards the Netherlands while Germany declared that it would no longer recognise the neutrality of Dutch ships, and would sink them even outside the war zone.{{sfn|Abbenhuis|2006|p=132-134}}
==Bibliography==

===Espionage===
Its geographical significance and its international connections made the Netherlands become a hotbed of espionage.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Klinkert |first1=Wim |title=Intelligence and Espionage (The Netherlands) {{!}} International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1) |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/intelligence_and_espionage_the_netherlands |website=1914-1918-Online |access-date=24 October 2018}}</ref> The country's neutrality allowed citizens of belligerent countries to travel freely to or from the Netherlands. Most spy agencies had operatives in the country. [[MI6]] had a station in [[Rotterdam]] under the command of [[Richard B. Tinsley]], who handled several important spy networks in Belgium, such as [[Dame Blanche (resistance)|''La Dame Blanche'']]. The networks provided the Allies with intelligence concerning German troops behind the Western Front.

The German secret services also used Rotterdam as a base for espionage in Britain. From Rotterdam, spies were sent by ferry to spy on the [[Royal Navy]].

Dutch citizens were in demand as spies, as they could travel freely throughout Europe. Some of the spies were executed for espionage. [[Haicke Janssen]] and [[Willem Roos]], two unemployed Dutch sailors, were executed in 1915. The exotic dancer and courtesan [[Mata Hari]], convicted of spying for Germany in France, was executed in 1917. In total, seven Dutch citizens were executed by the British, French and Germans, and many more were imprisoned.{{sfn|Ruis|2016}}{{Page needed|date=September 2022}}

==Armed forces==
[[File:Legeroefening op de Maas, gezicht op Rotterdam, objectnr 61566-A-B (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright 1.4|right|[[Oil painting]] of a military exercise during the war]]
On 31 July 1914, the Dutch government ordered the full mobilization of its conscript armed forces of 200,000 men, including reserves and regional militias. The chief of staff, Lieutenant-General [[Cornelis Jacobus Snijders|Cornelis Snijders]], was promoted to full general and commander-in-chief, a position that existed only in wartime. Snijders was the first non-aristocratic Dutch general to become commander-in-chief, which until then had been reserved for senior princes of the [[House of Orange]].

The Dutch military strategy was purely defensive and rested on three pillars. First, there was the [[Dutch Water Line]], a defensive ring of rivers and lowland surrounding the core Dutch region of [[Holland]] that could be inundated. An older version had existed since the 16th century. The second line of defence was formed by a circle of 19th-century fortresses and further inundations around the capital of [[Amsterdam]]. The third pillar was the ''Veldleger'', or mobile field army, which would operate outside the Waterline in the rural eastern and southern provinces. In August 1914, the field army had an operational strength of 88,770 soldiers.{{sfn|Abbenhuis|2006|p=47}}

During the war, militarily sensitive border areas and places considered essential to national defense were declared to be in a [[state of siege]], a status immediately below a state of war. There, military authorities ruled under martial law, and non-residents could travel there only with a special permit. The prohibited border areas were expanded during the war to fight espionage and to restrict the access of suspect individuals.

The main weapons used by the Dutch army were the [[Geweer M. 95|Männlicher]] rifle and the [[Schwarzlose machine gun]], both of which were manufactured in Austria-Hungary. Artillery weaponry was German and French but mostly outdated. The fortifications were also outdated.{{sfn|Abbenhuis|2006|p=50-51}}

At the start of the war, there was no air force, only a small aviation department within the army. During the war, foreign planes that crashed in Dutch territory were repaired to serve in the aviation department.

==Volunteers in foreign armies==
Some Dutchmen volunteered for service in the [[French Army|French]], [[British Army|British]], German or [[Austro-Hungarian Army|Austro-Hungarian]] armies, but exact numbers are unknown. The [[Imperial German Army]] did not accept foreign volunteers unless they had German nationality, and they were often directed to the Austro-Hungarian, [[Bulgarian Land Forces|Bulgarian]] or [[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Ottoman]] armies. Some immigrants from the Netherlands to Canada and a few who lived in the United States served with various regiments of the [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]]. About 80 of those who served have been identified through the personnel records of the First World War that are held at [[Library and Archives Canada]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/military-heritage/first-world-war/personnel-records/Pages/personnel-records.aspx|title=Personnel Records of the First World War|last=Canada|first=Library and Archives|date=2016-06-15|website=www.bac-lac.gc.ca|access-date=2019-09-23}}</ref>{{full short|date=May 2019}}

==Refugees==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
After the [[German invasion of Belgium (1914)|German invasion of Belgium]] on 4 August 1914, one million Belgians out of a total population of six million fled their country to the Netherlands. The first wave consisted of Belgians of German descent, German-speaking East Europeans, and Jews, who fell victim to the Belgian public's outrage directly after the invasion. Many chose to leave because their businesses and homes were raided by angry mobs.

The second wave was caused by the German Army's invasion and [[war crimes]] against civilians. Most of these refugees returned when the focus of military action became concentrated on the Western Front, but others moved on to the UK or France. An estimated 100,000 Belgians stayed in refugee camps during the war, the largest of the camps being in [[Nunspeet]]. The Dutch-German border was eventually blocked by the German-built [[Wire of Death]].

As well as Belgian civilians, there were political refugees from Germany, such as the German-American socialist Carl Minster; Germans escaping conscription into the army; and [[prisoners-of-war]] who had escaped from German camps, mostly Russians, Ukrainians, and Poles.

==Foreign soldiers==
===Prisoners-of-war===
[[File:Amersfoort Belgenmonument 200901.jpg|thumb|Commemorative monument to interned Belgian POWs]]
According to international law, soldiers of the warring nations who entered a neutral country were to be interned for the duration of the war. Of the soldiers who entered the Netherlands on purpose or by mistake, 33,105 were Belgians, 1,751 British, 1,461 Germans, 8 French and 4 Americans. Among the prisoners were pilots who had flown into Dutch airspace and crashed.<ref>Roodt, Evelyn de. ''Oorlogsgasten. Vluchtelingen en krijgsgevangenen in Nederland tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog''. Zaltbommel, 2000, pp. 16, 139–140, 173</ref>

Most Belgian and British internees had fled to the Netherlands after the [[Siege of Antwerp (1914)|fall of Antwerp]] in 1914. Belgian prisoners were held captive in a camp in [[Amersfoort]]. The camp initially had a very strict regime, but after a revolt that resulted in the death of seven Belgians, the rules softened. As the prisoners would not be released until the end of the war, their wives and children often sought accommodation in the vicinity.

Most British prisoners-of-war were members of the [[1st Royal Naval Brigade]]. They were interned in [[Groningen]], where they were held captive under a mild regime, which allowed for trips into the city. Some British soldiers formed a [[cabaret]] group, named the Timbertown Follies, which toured throughout the country. The proceeds were donated to charities.

Many German soldiers entered the Netherlands by mistake, which occurred most frequently at the beginning of the war, as the border between the Netherlands and Belgium was confusing. The German prisoner-of-war camp was at [[Bergen, North Holland|Bergen]], in the province of [[North Holland]].

Deserters were not considered foreign soldiers when they entered neutral territory if they were unarmed, removed badges from their uniforms, and proclaimed themselves deserters to the proper authorities. Numbers are unknown, but most deserters by far were German. As deserters had no right to free accommodation or food, some of them were voluntarily interned in prisoner-of-war camps.

===Edith Cavell===
From 1914 to 1915, English nurse [[Edith Cavell]], who was based in German-occupied Belgium, helped 200 Allied soldiers escape from Belgian soil to the Netherlands. Wounded Allied soldiers as well as Belgian and French civilians of military age were hidden from German occupational troops and provided with false papers by [[House of Croÿ|Prince Réginald de Croÿ]] at [[Bellignies]], his [[château]] near [[Mons, Belgium]]. From there, they were conducted by various guides to the houses of Cavell and others in [[Brussels]], where their hosts furnished them with money to reach the Belgium-Netherlands border and provide them with guides.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica|1922}} With their false papers, the soldiers were able to evade the Dutch authorities and avoid being interned, and several eventually made their way to Britain. On 3 August 1915, Cavell was arrested by the Germans and court-martialed and sentenced to death for violating [[German military law]], and was [[Execution by firing squad|executed by firing squad]] on 12 October. Her execution provoked outrage among both the Allies and neutral countries, and was represented as an act of German barbarism and moral depravity in [[British propaganda during World War I|British propaganda]].{{sfn|Hoehling|1957}}{{sfn|Scovil|1915}}

==Economic consequences==
It has been argued that the Netherlands overall profited from its neutral position during the war. Estimates of per-capita, inflation adjusted [[economic growth]] between 1913 and 1921 are 2.4 percent, higher than the western Allies, Germany, and most neutral powers, but not the US. War conditions, however, did disrupt the Netherlands' food imports (due to U-boat attacks and Allied embargos) and the failure of authorities to prevent food producers from prioritizing the lucrative export trade over domestic consumption led to further shortages.<ref name=wwienc/>

A number of food riots occurred. In June-July 1917 there were [[1917 Potato riots|food riots in Amsterdam]]. Rioters broke into warehouses and took potatoes that were intended to be exported to the UK. Two thousand soldiers were called in to break up the riot. The revolt was ended when soldiers opened fire on the crowd. In total 9 were killed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aardappeloproer |url=http://amsterdam-eerstewereldoorlog.nl/item/394-2/ |website=Amsterdam en de Eerste Wereldoorlog |publisher=Stadsarchief Amsterdam |language=Dutch|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210925161802/http://amsterdam-eerstewereldoorlog.nl/item/394-2/|archive-date = 25 September 2021}}</ref> Later, fearing a revolution led by socialist leader [[Pieter Jelles Troelstra]], Dutch would adopt a strongly pro-Allied policy under the September 1918 Beerenbrouck government. The Allies permitted the export to the Dutch of large quantities of grain, relieving the food issue.<ref name=wwienc/>

==See also==
*[[Netherlands in World War II]]


==References==
==References==
{{More footnotes|date=September 2022}}
===Citations===
{{reflist|30em}}
=== Works cited===
*{{Cite book|last=Abbenhuis|first=Maartje|title=The Art of Staying Neutral. The Netherlands in the First World War, 1914–1918|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|location=Amsterdam|year=2006}}
* {{Cite EB1922
| wstitle = Cavell, Edith
| ref = {{sfnref|Encyclopædia Britannica|1922}}
}}
* {{cite book |last=Fischer |first=Fritz |date=1967 |title=Germany's Aims in the First World War |url=https://archive.org/details/germanysaimsinfi0000fisc|url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton |isbn=978-0-393-09798-6 |author-link=Fritz Fischer (historian) }}
* {{cite journal
| last = Hoehling
| first = A A
| date = Oct 1957
| title = The Story of Edith Cavell
| journal = The American Journal of Nursing
| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
| volume = 57
| issue = 10
| pages = 1320–22
| doi = 10.2307/3461516
| jstor = 3461516
| pmid = 13469875
}}
* Linden, Henk van der. ''The Live Bait Squadron: three mass graves off the Dutch coast, 22 September 1914''. Soesterberg: Aspekt, 2014.
*{{Cite book|last=Van Lith|first=Hans|title=Plotseling een vreselijke knal|publisher=Europese Bibliotheek|location=Zaltbommel|year=2001}}
*{{Cite book|last=Moeyes|first=Paul|year=2001|title=Buiten schot: Nederland tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog: 1914-1918|publisher=De Arbeiderspers|location=Amsterdam}}
*{{Cite book|last=Ruis|first=Edwin|title=Spynest. British and German Espionage from Neutral Holland 1914–1918|publisher=Briscombe: The History Press|year=2016}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Scovil
| first = Elisabeth Robinson
| author-link = Elisabeth Robinson Scovil
| date = Nov 1915
| title = An Heroic Nurse
| journal = The American Journal of Nursing
| publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
| volume = 16
| issue = 2
| pages = 118–21
| doi = 10.2307/3406248
| jstor = 3406248
}}
* Tuyll van Serooskerken, Hubert P. van. ''The Netherlands and World War I. Espionage, Diplomacy and Survival''. Leiden: Brill, 2001.

{{WWI history by nation|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Netherlands}}

[[Category:History of the Netherlands by period|World War I]]
[[Category:World War I by country]]

Latest revision as of 11:46, 22 November 2024

The Netherlands remained neutral during World War I, a stance that arose partly from a strict policy of neutrality in international affairs that started in 1830, with the secession of Belgium from the Netherlands. Dutch neutrality was not guaranteed by the major powers in Europe and was not part of the Dutch constitution. The country's neutrality was based on the belief that its strategic position between the German Empire, German-occupied Belgium, and the British guaranteed its safety.[1]

The Royal Netherlands Army was mobilized throughout the conflict, as belligerents regularly attempted to intimidate the Netherlands and to place demands on it. In addition to providing a credible deterrence, the army had to house refugees, guard internment camps for captured soldiers, and prevent smuggling.

The government also restricted the free movement of people, monitored spies, and took other wartime measures.

Background

[edit]

Before the First World War, the Netherlands hosted two major international peace conferences. The first, the First Hague Conference, was held in May 1899 on the initiative of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.[2] Representatives of 26 nations conferred on the limitation of certain types of weapons, including poison gas, hollow point bullets and aerial bombardment from hot air balloons.[3] The conference was a surprising success, and agreements were reached on the laws of war and on war crimes.[4]

Politics

[edit]
Queen Wilhelmina and her daughter Juliana, circa 1914

The Dutch Queen, Wilhelmina, was known for her fierce patriotism and strong-willed nature. She leaned towards sympathy for France and Belgium but only in private and evinced a neutral stance in public. Her German husband, the prince-consort Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was openly pro-German. His nephew, Frederick Francis IV, served in the German Army.[5]

On 29 August 1913, a centrist liberal minority cabinet was appointed under the leadership of the independent liberal Prime Minister Pieter Cort van der Linden.[6] His cabinet governed until 9 September 1918, an unusually-long period for a Dutch cabinet. During that period, the important post of Minister of Foreign Affairs was taken by John Loudon.[7]

Although the government as a whole was strictly neutral, each member maintained individual preferences. Some ministers were in favour of France, and Prime Minister Cort van der Linden was privately seen as German-friendly and nicknamed "Kurt Unter der Linden," after Berlin's Unter den Linden boulevard.[8]

During the war, the Dutch people were generally sympathetic towards the Allies.[9] However, in Dutch Protestant or Neo-Calvinist circles, there was sympathy for the German cause, which was partly inspired by the memory of the Second Boer War (1899-1902), in South Africa.[10][page needed]

In September 1918, a new Dutch government rose under Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck. Noting that Allied victory appeared imminent and fearing revolutionary stirrings at home, the new administration immediately began negotiations with the Allies, concluding an agreement on 25 November 1918, two weeks after the end of the war.[1]

Neutrality

[edit]

In the aftermath of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary declared war on the Kingdom of Serbia at 11 a.m. on 28 July 1914.[11] The Dutch declared themselves neutral on 30 July. According to international law, neutrality had to be declared in each instance of a war declaration between two sovereign nations. During August, the Dutch declaration of neutrality had to be repeated regularly.

The declaration consisted of 18 articles. The most important article stated that hostilities were not allowed within the territory and the waters of the Dutch Empire; no nation was allowed to use the territory and the waters as a base for military operations; and that foreign soldiers who, for whatever reason, crossed into Dutch territory would be interned in prisoner-of-war camps for the duration of the war.[12][verification needed]

Violations

[edit]

At the beginning of the war, the German Army marched near the Dutch–Belgian border in the province of Limburg. For a stretch of 500 metres (550 yd) between border markers 42 and 43, the road was half Belgian and half Dutch territory. Dutch border guards made clear which part of the road was Dutch territory, and as a consequence, the German Army avoided it on its westward march. However, the Dutch were falsely accused by Belgian and French newspapers at the time of supporting the German invasion of Belgium.[13][better source needed]

Both Allied and German military aircraft violated Dutch airspace. On several occasions, Allied and German pilots mistakenly dropped bombs on Dutch towns. The deadliest incident occurred on 30 April 1917, when a Royal Naval Air Service pilot mistakenly dropped eight bombs on the town of Zierikzee, damaged several houses and killed a family of three. After initially denying the incident, the British government apologized and agreed to compensate the Dutch for damage and loss of life.[14] A total of 107 Allied and German airplanes and 24 seaplanes landed in the Netherlands, and 220 crewmen were taken prisoner. Of the crashed planes, 67 were repaired and added to the army's air department.[15]

German Zeppelins carrying out bombing raids against the UK frequently violated Dutch airspace because of weather conditions such as wind or fog. It is unclear whether Dutch fire was responsible for the downing of the Zeppelin LZ 54, which came down in the North Sea and led to the King Stephen incident, in which the captain of the British fishing trawler King Stephen, William Martin, refused to rescue the crew of LZ 54, resulting in them drowning.[citation needed]

Dutch merchant shipping

[edit]

A key aspect of Dutch neutrality was maritime trade. The Netherlands were not included in the allied blockade of Germany, and thus offered a conduit to overseas trade for the Central Powers. The Dutch imported goods from countries such as the US and exported domestic produce to Germany, netting a profit and becoming Germany's biggest food supplier. In the first half of 1916, Dutch food export to Germany was worth around 5 million goldmarks per day. The British negotiated with Dutch representatives in the Netherlands Oversea Trust Company (NOT) to attempt to reduce this, by offering to buy a share of Dutch agricultural product, to initially mixed success.[16] The Dutch agreed that vessels bound to the Netherlands would first dock in Britain and submit to an inspection. Large amounts of smuggling and fraud meant much goods reached Germany regardless.[1]

Dutch vessels used a channel from their coast via the Dogger Bank to the North Sea, which both the British and Germans pledged to keep safe. Nevertheless, Dutch sailors suffered from war-related incidents and neutrality violations. While both the initial German submarine campaign and the British did not formally target neutral trade, several Dutch ships were damaged or sunk by German U-boats and occasional stray Allied sea mines. 220 ships, 1189 sailors and fishermen were lost overall.[17] The fishing town of Scheveningen lost 300 fishermen, out of a total of 862 Dutch fishermen lost and 96 to 175 fishing boats sunk. The majority was due to German attacks, with around 150[18] merchant and fishing ships sunk by U-boats, the largest being the passenger steamer SS Tubantia on 16 March 1916. Sea mines accounted for 19 deaths in Dutch waters,[17] with some sea mines washing ashore and killing civilians or military specialists tasked with disarming them.[19]

In February 1917 the Germans announced a renewed campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare with neutral ships bound for Britain now deliberately targeted. This meant that Dutch vessels proceeding to British ports for inspection were now under threat. As a result the majority of Dutch shipping was left idle in port while the NOT attempted to negotiate with the Allies to relax the inspection requirement and allow their trade to bypass the German danger zone. In April 1917 the USA declared war against the Central Powers. The US adopted a hard line, restricting its own exports to neutrals. By June 1917, US authorities were detaining Dutch merchant ships in US ports. The Allies demanded the confiscation of such vessels in allied ports in return for loosening trade restrictions.[20][1]

After lengthy negotiations the Dutch allowed an Allied ultimatum to lapse on 18 March 1918.[16] The United States Customs Service seized 89 Dutch ships under angary,[21] including 46 in New York.[22]

31 of the ships that the US seized were commissioned into the United States Navy.[21] Most were cargo ships, but they also included the ocean liners Rijndam, Koningin der Nederlanden, and Zeelandia, which the USA converted into troopships.[23][24][25] Other Dutch cargo ships were taken over by the United States Shipping Board.[26]

The United Kingdom also seized Dutch merchant ships, including Prinses Juliana and Goentoer, which were converted into troopships.[27][28] In total the Allies requisitioned 132 ships, and they were returned in spring 1919. As punishment for allowing the seizure of the vessels, German leader Erich Ludendorff compelled the Dutch to allow the use of their railways and canals as "military highway".[16] The Allies agreed to be more lenient towards the Netherlands while Germany declared that it would no longer recognise the neutrality of Dutch ships, and would sink them even outside the war zone.[20]

Espionage

[edit]

Its geographical significance and its international connections made the Netherlands become a hotbed of espionage.[29] The country's neutrality allowed citizens of belligerent countries to travel freely to or from the Netherlands. Most spy agencies had operatives in the country. MI6 had a station in Rotterdam under the command of Richard B. Tinsley, who handled several important spy networks in Belgium, such as La Dame Blanche. The networks provided the Allies with intelligence concerning German troops behind the Western Front.

The German secret services also used Rotterdam as a base for espionage in Britain. From Rotterdam, spies were sent by ferry to spy on the Royal Navy.

Dutch citizens were in demand as spies, as they could travel freely throughout Europe. Some of the spies were executed for espionage. Haicke Janssen and Willem Roos, two unemployed Dutch sailors, were executed in 1915. The exotic dancer and courtesan Mata Hari, convicted of spying for Germany in France, was executed in 1917. In total, seven Dutch citizens were executed by the British, French and Germans, and many more were imprisoned.[30][page needed]

Armed forces

[edit]
Oil painting of a military exercise during the war

On 31 July 1914, the Dutch government ordered the full mobilization of its conscript armed forces of 200,000 men, including reserves and regional militias. The chief of staff, Lieutenant-General Cornelis Snijders, was promoted to full general and commander-in-chief, a position that existed only in wartime. Snijders was the first non-aristocratic Dutch general to become commander-in-chief, which until then had been reserved for senior princes of the House of Orange.

The Dutch military strategy was purely defensive and rested on three pillars. First, there was the Dutch Water Line, a defensive ring of rivers and lowland surrounding the core Dutch region of Holland that could be inundated. An older version had existed since the 16th century. The second line of defence was formed by a circle of 19th-century fortresses and further inundations around the capital of Amsterdam. The third pillar was the Veldleger, or mobile field army, which would operate outside the Waterline in the rural eastern and southern provinces. In August 1914, the field army had an operational strength of 88,770 soldiers.[31]

During the war, militarily sensitive border areas and places considered essential to national defense were declared to be in a state of siege, a status immediately below a state of war. There, military authorities ruled under martial law, and non-residents could travel there only with a special permit. The prohibited border areas were expanded during the war to fight espionage and to restrict the access of suspect individuals.

The main weapons used by the Dutch army were the Männlicher rifle and the Schwarzlose machine gun, both of which were manufactured in Austria-Hungary. Artillery weaponry was German and French but mostly outdated. The fortifications were also outdated.[32]

At the start of the war, there was no air force, only a small aviation department within the army. During the war, foreign planes that crashed in Dutch territory were repaired to serve in the aviation department.

Volunteers in foreign armies

[edit]

Some Dutchmen volunteered for service in the French, British, German or Austro-Hungarian armies, but exact numbers are unknown. The Imperial German Army did not accept foreign volunteers unless they had German nationality, and they were often directed to the Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian or Ottoman armies. Some immigrants from the Netherlands to Canada and a few who lived in the United States served with various regiments of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. About 80 of those who served have been identified through the personnel records of the First World War that are held at Library and Archives Canada.[33][incomplete short citation]

Refugees

[edit]

After the German invasion of Belgium on 4 August 1914, one million Belgians out of a total population of six million fled their country to the Netherlands. The first wave consisted of Belgians of German descent, German-speaking East Europeans, and Jews, who fell victim to the Belgian public's outrage directly after the invasion. Many chose to leave because their businesses and homes were raided by angry mobs.

The second wave was caused by the German Army's invasion and war crimes against civilians. Most of these refugees returned when the focus of military action became concentrated on the Western Front, but others moved on to the UK or France. An estimated 100,000 Belgians stayed in refugee camps during the war, the largest of the camps being in Nunspeet. The Dutch-German border was eventually blocked by the German-built Wire of Death.

As well as Belgian civilians, there were political refugees from Germany, such as the German-American socialist Carl Minster; Germans escaping conscription into the army; and prisoners-of-war who had escaped from German camps, mostly Russians, Ukrainians, and Poles.

Foreign soldiers

[edit]

Prisoners-of-war

[edit]
Commemorative monument to interned Belgian POWs

According to international law, soldiers of the warring nations who entered a neutral country were to be interned for the duration of the war. Of the soldiers who entered the Netherlands on purpose or by mistake, 33,105 were Belgians, 1,751 British, 1,461 Germans, 8 French and 4 Americans. Among the prisoners were pilots who had flown into Dutch airspace and crashed.[34]

Most Belgian and British internees had fled to the Netherlands after the fall of Antwerp in 1914. Belgian prisoners were held captive in a camp in Amersfoort. The camp initially had a very strict regime, but after a revolt that resulted in the death of seven Belgians, the rules softened. As the prisoners would not be released until the end of the war, their wives and children often sought accommodation in the vicinity.

Most British prisoners-of-war were members of the 1st Royal Naval Brigade. They were interned in Groningen, where they were held captive under a mild regime, which allowed for trips into the city. Some British soldiers formed a cabaret group, named the Timbertown Follies, which toured throughout the country. The proceeds were donated to charities.

Many German soldiers entered the Netherlands by mistake, which occurred most frequently at the beginning of the war, as the border between the Netherlands and Belgium was confusing. The German prisoner-of-war camp was at Bergen, in the province of North Holland.

Deserters were not considered foreign soldiers when they entered neutral territory if they were unarmed, removed badges from their uniforms, and proclaimed themselves deserters to the proper authorities. Numbers are unknown, but most deserters by far were German. As deserters had no right to free accommodation or food, some of them were voluntarily interned in prisoner-of-war camps.

Edith Cavell

[edit]

From 1914 to 1915, English nurse Edith Cavell, who was based in German-occupied Belgium, helped 200 Allied soldiers escape from Belgian soil to the Netherlands. Wounded Allied soldiers as well as Belgian and French civilians of military age were hidden from German occupational troops and provided with false papers by Prince Réginald de Croÿ at Bellignies, his château near Mons, Belgium. From there, they were conducted by various guides to the houses of Cavell and others in Brussels, where their hosts furnished them with money to reach the Belgium-Netherlands border and provide them with guides.[35] With their false papers, the soldiers were able to evade the Dutch authorities and avoid being interned, and several eventually made their way to Britain. On 3 August 1915, Cavell was arrested by the Germans and court-martialed and sentenced to death for violating German military law, and was executed by firing squad on 12 October. Her execution provoked outrage among both the Allies and neutral countries, and was represented as an act of German barbarism and moral depravity in British propaganda.[36][37]

Economic consequences

[edit]

It has been argued that the Netherlands overall profited from its neutral position during the war. Estimates of per-capita, inflation adjusted economic growth between 1913 and 1921 are 2.4 percent, higher than the western Allies, Germany, and most neutral powers, but not the US. War conditions, however, did disrupt the Netherlands' food imports (due to U-boat attacks and Allied embargos) and the failure of authorities to prevent food producers from prioritizing the lucrative export trade over domestic consumption led to further shortages.[1]

A number of food riots occurred. In June-July 1917 there were food riots in Amsterdam. Rioters broke into warehouses and took potatoes that were intended to be exported to the UK. Two thousand soldiers were called in to break up the riot. The revolt was ended when soldiers opened fire on the crowd. In total 9 were killed.[38] Later, fearing a revolution led by socialist leader Pieter Jelles Troelstra, Dutch would adopt a strongly pro-Allied policy under the September 1918 Beerenbrouck government. The Allies permitted the export to the Dutch of large quantities of grain, relieving the food issue.[1]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f Samuël Kruizinga; Paul Moeyes; Wim Klinkert (8 October 2014). "The Netherlands". 1914-1918 Online.
  2. ^ "The Hague peace conferences of 1899 and 1907". avalon.law.yale.edu.
  3. ^ Telford Taylor (1 November 1993). The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials: A Personal Memoir. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-3168-3400-9. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
  4. ^ "The Avalon Project : Laws of War - Final Act of the International Peace Conference; July 29, 1899". avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  5. ^ Fasseur, Cees. Wilhelmina. De Jonge Koningin. Amsterdam: Balans, 1998, pp. 508–510.
  6. ^ Minderaa, J.T. (1979), "Linden, Pieter Wilhelm Adrianus Cort van der (1846–1935)", Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland, vol. 1, retrieved 13 March 2008
  7. ^ "Dr. John Loudon, A Dutch Diplomat". The New York Times. 13 November 1955. Retrieved 11 January 2014. John Loudon, former Netherlands Foreign Minister, died today after a long illness.
  8. ^ Ruis 2016, p. 149.
  9. ^ S.J. de Groot, Het ‘Baralong-voorval’, 19 August 1915. Misdaad en straf volgens het Britse zeerecht, in Tijdschrift voor Zeegeschiedenis 14 (1995), p. 123.
  10. ^ Moeyes 2001, p. 372-.
  11. ^ Fischer 1967, p. 73.
  12. ^ Moeyes 2001, p. 54.
  13. ^ Moeyes 2001, p. 88-97.
  14. ^ Van Lith 2001, p. 91-95.
  15. ^ Starink, Dirk. De Jonge Jaren van Luchtmacht. Amsterdam: Boom, 2013, p. 95.
  16. ^ a b c Frey, Marc (1997). "Trade, Ships and the Neutrality of the Netherlands in the First World War". The International History Review. 19 (3): 541–562. doi:10.1080/07075332.1997.9640796. JSTOR 40107865.
  17. ^ a b Abbenhuis 2006, p. 127-28.
  18. ^ "Ships hit by U-boats during WWI". Uboat.net.
  19. ^ Van Lith 2001, p. 176–177.
  20. ^ a b Abbenhuis 2006, p. 132-134.
  21. ^ a b "Rijndam". DANFS. Naval History and Heritage Command. 29 September 2005. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  22. ^ "Dutch steamers seized in New York harbour". Daily Commercial News and Shipping List. 25 March 1918. p. 2. Retrieved 19 May 2023 – via Trove.
  23. ^ "Ryndam – ID 5630". Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank (in Dutch). Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  24. ^ "Koningin der Nederlanden – ID 3489". Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank (in Dutch). Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  25. ^ "Zeelandia – ID 7457". Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank (in Dutch). Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  26. ^ "Arakan – ID 566". Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank (in Dutch). Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  27. ^ "Prinses Juliana – ID 8509". Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank (in Dutch). Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  28. ^ "Goentoer – ID 2518". Stichting Maritiem-Historische Databank (in Dutch). Retrieved 9 July 2023.
  29. ^ Klinkert, Wim. "Intelligence and Espionage (The Netherlands) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". 1914-1918-Online. Retrieved 24 October 2018.
  30. ^ Ruis 2016.
  31. ^ Abbenhuis 2006, p. 47.
  32. ^ Abbenhuis 2006, p. 50-51.
  33. ^ Canada, Library and Archives (15 June 2016). "Personnel Records of the First World War". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  34. ^ Roodt, Evelyn de. Oorlogsgasten. Vluchtelingen en krijgsgevangenen in Nederland tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog. Zaltbommel, 2000, pp. 16, 139–140, 173
  35. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 1922.
  36. ^ Hoehling 1957.
  37. ^ Scovil 1915.
  38. ^ "Aardappeloproer". Amsterdam en de Eerste Wereldoorlog (in Dutch). Stadsarchief Amsterdam. Archived from the original on 25 September 2021.

Works cited

[edit]
  • Abbenhuis, Maartje (2006). The Art of Staying Neutral. The Netherlands in the First World War, 1914–1918. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
  • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1922). "Cavell, Edith" . Encyclopædia Britannica (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
  • Fischer, Fritz (1967). Germany's Aims in the First World War. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-09798-6.
  • Hoehling, A A (October 1957). "The Story of Edith Cavell". The American Journal of Nursing. 57 (10). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: 1320–22. doi:10.2307/3461516. JSTOR 3461516. PMID 13469875.
  • Linden, Henk van der. The Live Bait Squadron: three mass graves off the Dutch coast, 22 September 1914. Soesterberg: Aspekt, 2014.
  • Van Lith, Hans (2001). Plotseling een vreselijke knal. Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek.
  • Moeyes, Paul (2001). Buiten schot: Nederland tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog: 1914-1918. Amsterdam: De Arbeiderspers.
  • Ruis, Edwin (2016). Spynest. British and German Espionage from Neutral Holland 1914–1918. Briscombe: The History Press.
  • Scovil, Elisabeth Robinson (November 1915). "An Heroic Nurse". The American Journal of Nursing. 16 (2). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: 118–21. doi:10.2307/3406248. JSTOR 3406248.
  • Tuyll van Serooskerken, Hubert P. van. The Netherlands and World War I. Espionage, Diplomacy and Survival. Leiden: Brill, 2001.