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There have been five or six major ice ages in the history of Earth over the past 3 billion years. The Late Cenozoic Ice Age began 34 million years ago, its latest phase being the Quaternary glaciation, in progress since 2.58 million years ago.

Within ice ages, there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate conditions, referred to as glacial periods and interglacial periods, respectively. The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary glaciation, with the Last Glacial Period of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago. The current interglacial is known as the Holocene epoch.^[1] Based on climate proxies, paleoclimatologists study the different climate states originating from glaciation.

Known ice ages

Name of ice age	Years BP (Ma)	Geological period	Era
Pongola	2900–2780^[2]		Mesoarchean
Huronian	2400–2100	Siderian Rhyacian	Paleoproterozoic
Sturtian Marinoan Gaskiers Baykonur	715–680 650–635 580 547	Cryogenian Ediacaran	Neoproterozoic
Andean-Saharan (incl. Hirnantian and Late Ordovician glaciation)	450–420	Late Ordovician Silurian	Paleozoic
Karoo	360–289	Carboniferous Permian	Paleozoic
Late Cenozoic Ice Age (incl. Quaternary glaciation)	34–present	Late Paleogene Neogene Quaternary	Cenozoic

Descriptions

Life timeline

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Earliest multicellular life

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Hirnantian glaciation*

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Earliest tetrapods

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Karoo ice age*

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Earliest apes / humans

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Quaternary ice age*

(million years ago)

*Ice Ages

The third ice age, and possibly most severe, is estimated to have occurred from 720 to 635 Ma (million years) ago,^[3] in the Neoproterozoic Era, and it has been suggested that it produced a second^[4] "Snowball Earth", i.e. a period during which Earth was completely covered in ice. It has also been suggested that the end of that second cold period^[4] was responsible for the subsequent Cambrian explosion, a time of rapid diversification of multi-cellular life during the Cambrian Period. The hypothesis is still controversial,^[5]^[6] though is gaining credence among researchers, as evidence in its favour has mounted.^[7]

A minor series of glaciations occurred from 460 to 430 Ma, and there were extensive glaciations from 350 to 289 Ma.

The Late Cenozoic Ice Age has seen extensive ice sheets in Antarctica for the last 34 Ma. During the last 3 Ma, ice sheets have also developed on the northern hemisphere. That phase is known as the Quaternary glaciation, and was marked by more or less extensive glaciation. They first appeared with a dominant frequency of 41,000 years, but after the Mid-Pleistocene Transition that changed to high-amplitude cycles, with an average period of 100,000 years.^[8]

Nomenclature of Quaternary glacial cycles

Whereas the first 30 million years of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age mostly involved Antarctica, the Quaternary has seen numerous ice sheets extending over parts of Europe and North America that are currently populated and easily accessible. Early geologists therefore named apparent sequences of glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary Ice Age after characteristic geological features, and these names varied from region to region. The marine record preserves all the past glaciations; the land-based evidence is less complete because successive glaciations may wipe out evidence of their predecessors. Ice cores from continental ice accumulations also provide a complete record, but do not go as far back in time as marine data. Pollen data from lakes and bogs as well as loess profiles provided important land-based correlation data.^[9] The names system has mostly been phased out by professionals. It is now more common for researchers to refer to the periods by their marine isotopic stage number.^[10] For example, there are five Pleistocene glacial/interglacial cycles recorded in marine sediments during the last half million years, but only three classic glacials were originally recognized on land during that period (Mindel, Riss and Würm).^[11]

Land-based evidence works acceptably well back as far as MIS 6 (see Marine isotope stages, Stages), but it has been difficult to coordinate stages using just land-based evidence before that. Hence, the "names" system is incomplete and the land-based identifications of ice ages previous to that are somewhat conjectural. Nonetheless, land based data is essentially useful in discussing landforms, and correlating the known marine isotopic stage with them.^[9]

Historical nomenclature in the Alps

Biber (2.6–1.8 Ma, Gelasian)
Biber-Danube interglacial (not in use)
Danube (1.8–1.0 Ma, Calabrian)
Danube-Gunz interglacial (not in use)
Günz (1.0–0.4 Ma, MIS 21 – MIS 11 ?)
Günz-Haslach interglacial (not in use)
Haslach (seldom used)
Haslach-Mindel interglacial (not in use)
Mindel (MIS 12?, MIS 10)
Mindel-Riss interglacial (MIS 9)
Riss (MIS 8-6)
Riss-Würm interglacial (MIS 5e)
Würm (MIS 5d-2)

Historical nomenclature in Great Britain and Ireland

Bramertonian Stage
Baventian Stage/Pre-Pastonian
Pastonian Stage
Beestonian stage
Cromerian Stage (MIS 21-13 ?)
Anglian Stage (MIS 12, perhaps also MIS 10 ?)
Hoxnian Stage (MIS 11, perhaps also MIS 9 ?)
Wolstonian Stage (MIS 8–6, perhaps also MIS 10–9 ?)
Ipswichian interglacial (MIS 5e)
Devensian glaciation (MIS 5d-2)
Flandrian interglacial (MIS 1)

Historical nomenclature in Northern Europe

Pre-Tiglian
Tiglian interglacial
Eburonian
Waalian interglacial
Menapian glacial stage^[12]
Bavelian
Cromerian complex (MIS 21-13 ?)
Elster glaciation (MIS 10, perhaps also MIS 12 ?)
Holstein interglacial (MIS 9 ?)
Saale glaciation (ended with MIS 6)
Eem interglacial (MIS 5e)
Weichsel glaciation (MIS 5d-2)

Historical nomenclature in North America

Nebraskan glaciation (replaced by Pre-Illinoian in modern scientific literature)
Aftonian interglacial (replaced by Pre-Illinoian in modern scientific literature)
Kansan glaciation (replaced by Pre-Illinoian in modern scientific literature)
Yarmouthian (stage) (replaced by Pre-Illinoian in modern scientific literature)
Illinoian stage (MIS 6)
Sangamonian (MIS 5e, sometimes also 5d-5a)
Wisconsin glaciation (MIS 4-2, sometimes also 5d-5a)

Historical nomenclature in South America

Caracoles (Río Frío) glaciation^[13]
Río Llico (Colegual) glaciation^[13]
Santa María (Casma) glaciation^[13]
Valdivia interglacial (MIS 5e)
Llanquihue glaciation (at least MIS 4-2)

Uncertain correlations

It has proved difficult to correlate the traditional regional names with the global marine and ice core sequences. The indexes of MIS often identify several distinct glaciations that overlap in time with a single traditional regional glaciation. Some modern authors use the traditional regional glacial names to identify such a sequence of glaciations, whereas others replace the word "glaciation" with "complex" to refer to a continuous period of time that also includes warmer stages. As shown in the table below, it is only during the last 200-300 thousand years that the time resolution of the traditional nomenclature allow for clear correspondence with MIS indexes. In particular there has been a lot of controversy regarding the glaciations MIS 10 and MIS 12, and their correspondence to the Elster and Mindel glaciations of Europe.^[14]

Marine isotope stage	Time ago (ka) ^[15]	Regional names						Global age / epoch
Marine isotope stage	Time ago (ka) ^[15]	Alpine region	Great Britain	N. Europe	E. Europe	N. America	S. America	Global age / epoch
MIS 103-64	2600–1800	Biber^[16]	Pre-Ludham^[17] Ludham^[17] Thurnian^[17] Bramerton^[17] Bavents^[17] Paston^[17]	Pre-Tiglian^[18] Tiglian A^[18] Tiglian B^[18] Tiglian C3^[18] Tiglian C4^[18] Tiglian C5^[18]	Verkhodon^[17] Khapry^[17]	Pre-illinois K^[17] Pre-illinois J^[17]		Gelasian
MIS 63-23	1800–900	Danube^[16]	Beeston^[17]	Eburon^[16] Waal^[16] Menap^[16] Bavel^[16]	Tolucheevka^[17] Krinitsa^[17]	Pre-illinois I^[17] Pre-illinois H^[17] Pre-illinois G^[17]		Calabrian
MIS 22	900–866	Günz	Cromer^[19]	Cromer		Pre-illinois F^[17]
MIS 21	866–814	Günz	Cromer^[19]	Cromer		Pre-illinois
MIS 20	814–790	Günz	Cromer^[19]	Cromer		Pre-illinois E ?
MIS 19	790–761	Günz^[16]	Cromer^[19]	Cromer^[16]		Pre-illinois		Chibanian
MIS 18	761-712	Günz^[16]	Cromer^[19]	Cromer^[16]		Pre-illinois E ?
MIS 17	712-676	Günz^[16]	Cromer^[19]	Cromer^[16]		Pre-illinois
MIS 16	676–621	Günz^[16]	Cromer^[19]	Cromer/Don^[20]	Don^[21]	Pre-illinois D^[17]
MIS 15	621–563	Günz^[16]	Cromer^[19]	Cromer^[16]	Muchkap^[22]	Pre-illinois
MIS 14	563–533	Günz^[16]	Cromer^[19]	Cromer^[16]	Oka?^[21]	Pre-illinois C^[17]
MIS 13	533–478	Günz^[16]	Cromer^[19]	Cromer^[16]	Oka?^[21]	Pre-illinois
MIS 12	478–424	Günz^[16] Mindel?^[23]	Anglia^[19]	Elster^[21] Cromer?^[16]	Oka^[21]	Pre-illinois B^[17]	Caracoles^[13] Río Frío?^[13]
MIS 11	424–374	Günz?^[16]	Hoxne^[17]	Holstein^[17] Cromer/Rhume?^[16]	Likhvin^[24]	Pre-illinois
MIS 10	374–337	Mindel?^[16]	Wolston^[17]	Elster?^[16]^[21]	Likhvin?^[24]	Pre-illinois A ?	Río Llico^[13] Colegual?^[13]
MIS 9	337–300	Mindel-Riss?^[16]	Wolston^[17] Purfleet^[25]	Holstein?^[16]	Likhvin^[24]	Pre-illinois
MIS 8	300–243	Riss^[16]	Wolston^[17]	Saale/Fuhne^[16]	AC	Pre-illinois A ?
MIS 7	243–191	Riss^[16]	Wolston^[17] Aveley^[25]	Saale/Dömnitz^[16] Belvedere^[26]	AC	Pre-illinois
MIS 6	191–130	Riss^[16]	Wolston^[17]	Saale/Drenthe,Warthe^[16]	Dnieper/Moscow^[22]	Illinois^[27]	Santa María^[13] Casma?^[13]
MIS 5e	123 (peak)	Riss-Würm^[16]	Ipswich^[17]	Eem	Mikulino^[22]	Sangamonian	Valdivia	Late Pleistocene ('Tarantian')
MIS 5d	109 (peak)	Würm^[16]	Devens/Early D.^[28]	Weichsel/Herning^[29]	Valdai^[22]	AC	AC
MIS 5c	96 (peak)	Würm^[16]	Devens/Early D.^[28]	Weichsel/Brørup^[29]	Valdai^[22]	AC	AC
MIS 5b	87 (peak)	Würm^[16]	Devens/Early D.^[28]	Weichsel/Rederstall^[29]	Valdai^[22]	AC	AC
MIS 5a	82 (peak)	Würm^[16]	Devens/Early D.^[28]	Weichsel/Odderade^[29]	Valdai^[22]	AC	AC
MIS 4	71–57	Würm^[16]	Devens/Middle D.^[28]	Weichsel/Middle W.^[29]	Valdai^[22]	Wisconsin	Llanquihue
MIS 3	57–29	Würm^[16]	Devens/Middle D.^[28]	Weichsel/Middle W.^[29]	Valdai^[22]	Wisconsin	Llanquihue
MIS 2	29–14	Würm/LGM	Devens/Dimlington	Weichsel/LGM	Valdai^[22]	Wisconsin/Vashon	Llanquihue/LGM
MIS 1	14–present	(Holocene)	Flandria	Flandria (Holocene)		(Holocene)	(Holocene)	Holocene

Table explanation
Extensive interglacial (similar to Holocene)
Moderate interglacial
Intermediate climate
Moderate glaciation
Extensive glaciation (similar to LGM)
AC = Ambiguous correlation

Sources

For sources to the tables, see the individual linked articles.

References

^ Walker, M., Johnsen, S., Rasmussen, S. O., Popp, T., Steffensen, J.-P., Gibbard, P., Hoek, W., Lowe, J., Andrews, J., Bjo¨ rck, S., Cwynar, L. C., Hughen, K., Kershaw, P., Kromer, B., Litt, T., Lowe, D. J., Nakagawa, T., Newnham, R., and Schwander, J. 2009. Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 24 pp. 3–17. ISSN 0267-8179.
^ Robert E. Kopp; Joseph L. Kirschvink; Isaac A. Hilburn & Cody Z. Nash (2005). "The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (32): 11131–6. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10211131K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504878102. PMC 1183582. PMID 16061801.
^ "Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy. Archived from the original on 2017-01-13. Retrieved 2017-02-14.
^ ^a ^b Miracle Planet: Snowball Earth, (2005) documentary, Canadian Film Board, rebroadcast 25 April 2009 on the Science Channel (HD).
^ van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1994). New Views on an Old Planet: A History of Global Change (2nd ed.). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44755-3.
^ Rieu, Ruben; et al. (2007). "Climatic cycles during a Neoproterozoic "snowball" glacial epoch". Geology. 35 (4): 299–302. Bibcode:2007Geo....35..299R. doi:10.1130/G23400A.1.
^ "The Cambrian Period". ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
^ Brovkin, V.; Calov, R.; Ganopolski, A.; Willeit, M. (April 2019). "Mid-Pleistocene transition in glacial cycles explained by declining CO2 and regolith removal | Science Advances". Science Advances. 5 (4): eaav7337. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav7337. PMC 6447376. PMID 30949580.
^ ^a ^b Davis, Owen K. "Non-Marine Records: Correlations with the Marine Sequence". Introduction to Quaternary Ecology. University of Arizona. Archived from the original on 2017-07-27.
^ Gibbard, P.; van Kolfschoten, T. (2004). "Chapter 22: The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs" (PDF). In Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, A. Gilbert (eds.). A Geologic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78142-8.
^ Kukla, George (August 2005). "Saalian supercycle, Mindel/Riss interglacial and Milankovitch's dating". Quaternary Science Reviews. 24 (14–15): 1573–83. Bibcode:2005QSRv...24.1573K. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.08.023.
^ "Menapian Glacial Stage | geology".
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Porter, S.C. (1981). "Pleistocene glaciation in the southern Lake District of Chile". Quaternary Research. 16 (3): 263–292. Bibcode:1981QuRes..16..263P. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(81)90013-2. S2CID 140544020.
^ Böse; et al. (2012). "Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe". Quaternary Science Reviews (44): 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.734.1691.
^ Lisiecki, Lorraine E.; Raymo, Maureen E. (2005). "A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records". Paleoceanography. 20 (1): n/a. Bibcode:2005PalOc..20.1003L. doi:10.1029/2004PA001071. hdl:2027.42/149224. S2CID 12788441.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an German Stratigraphic Commission: Stratigraphische Tabelle von Deutschland 2016
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Lee et al. (2011), The Glacial History of the British Isles during the early and Middle Pleistocene: Implications for the long-term development of the British Ice Sheet, Quaternary Glaciations-Extent and Chronology, pages 59-74, Elsevier.
^ "North West European Rivers 3: Don Glaciation (Donian Stage)". University of Cambridge: Quaternary Palaeoenvironments Group.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Böse; et al. (2012). "Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe". Quaternary Science Reviews. 44 (44): 1–25. Bibcode:2012QSRv...44....1B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.734.1691. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.04.017.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Velichko; et al. (2004). "Glaciations of the East European Plain – distribution and chronology". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L. (eds.). Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology. Elsevier. pp. 337–354. ISBN 9780080540146.
^ Stratigraphische Tabellen des Bayerischen Geologischen Landesamtes. Ad hoc AG Geologie der Staatlichen Geologischen Dienste (SGD) and the BGR
^ ^a ^b ^c Velichko, A. A.; Wright, Herbert Edgar (2005). Cenozoic Climatic and Environmental Changes in Russia. Geological Society of America. p. 53. ISBN 9780813723822.
^ ^a ^b "Timescale of the Ice Age in Essex" (PDF). GeoEssex. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2019.
^ Kolfschoten, Thijs van; Roebroeks, W.; Vandenberghe, J. (January 1993). "The middle and late Pleistocene and climate sequence at Maastricht-Belvedere - the type locality of the Belvedere interglacial". Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst (47): 81–91.
^ McKay, E.D., 2007, Six Rivers, Five Glaciers, and an Outburst Flood: the Considerable Legacy of the Illinois River. Proceedings of the 2007 Governor's Conference on the Management of the Illinois River System: Our continuing Commitment, 11th Biennial Conference, Oct. 2-4, 2007, 11 p.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Delaney, Catherine (2003). "The Last Glacial Stage (the Devensian) in Northwest England" (PDF). North West Geography. 3 (2): 27–37. ISSN 1476-1580.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Lokrantz, Hanna; Sohlenius, Gustav (2006). Ice marginal fluctuations during the Weichselian glaciation in Fennoscandia, a literature review (Technical Report TR-06-36) (PDF). Stockholm: Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co).

External links

The dictionary definition of glaciation at Wiktionary

Aber, J.S. (2006). "Regional Glaciation of Kansas and Nebraska". Emporia KS: Emporia State University.
Work Group on Geospatial Analysis of Glaciated Environments (GAGE) (2000). "Pre-Wisconsin Glaciation of Central North America". Emporia KS: INQUA Commission on Glaciation, Emporia State University. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008.
Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (2011). "Global correlation tables for the Quaternary". Cambridge UK: Department of Geography, University of Cambridge.
Gibbard, P.L.; Boreham, S.; Cohen, K.M.; Moscariello, A. (2011). "Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years v. 2011". Cambridge UK: Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge.
Hambrey, M.J.; Harland, W.B., eds. (1981). Earth's pre-Pleistocene glacial record. Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on October 11, 2006. 1004 + xv pp. (book downloadable as series of PDF files)
Silva, P.G.; Zazo,C; Bardají,T.; Baena, J.; Lario, J.; Rosas, A.; Van der Made (2009). "Tabla Cronoestratigráfica del Cuaternario AEQUA V.2" (PDF). Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Salamanca, Spain: Asociación Española para el Estudio del Cuaternario (AEQUA). Archived from the original (PDF 3.6 Mb) on 2012-06-26. (Correlation Chart of European Quaternary and cultural stages and fossils)

[Walker,_M._2009._pp._3-1] Walker, M., Johnsen, S., Rasmussen, S. O., Popp, T., Steffensen, J.-P., Gibbard, P., Hoek, W., Lowe, J., Andrews, J., Bjo¨ rck, S., Cwynar, L. C., Hughen, K., Kershaw, P., Kromer, B., Litt, T., Lowe, D. J., Nakagawa, T., Newnham, R., and Schwander, J. 2009. Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 24 pp. 3–17. ISSN 0267-8179.

[Kopp-2] Robert E. Kopp; Joseph L. Kirschvink; Isaac A. Hilburn & Cody Z. Nash (2005). "The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (32): 11131–6. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10211131K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504878102. PMC 1183582. PMID 16061801.

[SG-20170113-3] "Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy. Archived from the original on 2017-01-13. Retrieved 2017-02-14.

[2nd_of_two-4] Miracle Planet: Snowball Earth, (2005) documentary, Canadian Film Board, rebroadcast 25 April 2009 on the Science Channel (HD).

[5] van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1994). New Views on an Old Planet: A History of Global Change (2nd ed.). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44755-3.

[6] Rieu, Ruben; et al. (2007). "Climatic cycles during a Neoproterozoic "snowball" glacial epoch". Geology. 35 (4): 299–302. Bibcode:2007Geo....35..299R. doi:10.1130/G23400A.1.

[7] "The Cambrian Period". ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-02-26.

[Willeit-8] Brovkin, V.; Calov, R.; Ganopolski, A.; Willeit, M. (April 2019). "Mid-Pleistocene transition in glacial cycles explained by declining CO2 and regolith removal | Science Advances". Science Advances. 5 (4): eaav7337. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav7337. PMC 6447376. PMID 30949580.

[Davis-9] Davis, Owen K. "Non-Marine Records: Correlations with the Marine Sequence". Introduction to Quaternary Ecology. University of Arizona. Archived from the original on 2017-07-27.

[Gibbard-10] Gibbard, P.; van Kolfschoten, T. (2004). "Chapter 22: The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs" (PDF). In Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, A. Gilbert (eds.). A Geologic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78142-8.

[11] Kukla, George (August 2005). "Saalian supercycle, Mindel/Riss interglacial and Milankovitch's dating". Quaternary Science Reviews. 24 (14–15): 1573–83. Bibcode:2005QSRv...24.1573K. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.08.023.

[12] "Menapian Glacial Stage | geology".

[Porter81-13] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Porter, S.C. (1981). "Pleistocene glaciation in the southern Lake District of Chile". Quaternary Research. 16 (3): 263–292. Bibcode:1981QuRes..16..263P. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(81)90013-2. S2CID 140544020.

[14] Böse; et al. (2012). "Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe". Quaternary Science Reviews (44): 17. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.734.1691.

[15] Lisiecki, Lorraine E.; Raymo, Maureen E. (2005). "A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records". Paleoceanography. 20 (1): n/a. Bibcode:2005PalOc..20.1003L. doi:10.1029/2004PA001071. hdl:2027.42/149224. S2CID 12788441.

[STD_2016-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an German Stratigraphic Commission: Stratigraphische Tabelle von Deutschland 2016

[Corr_2011-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011

[Kasse-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer

[Lee_2011-19] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Lee et al. (2011), The Glacial History of the British Isles during the early and Middle Pleistocene: Implications for the long-term development of the British Ice Sheet, Quaternary Glaciations-Extent and Chronology, pages 59-74, Elsevier.

[20] "North West European Rivers 3: Don Glaciation (Donian Stage)". University of Cambridge: Quaternary Palaeoenvironments Group.

[Böse_2012-21] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Böse; et al. (2012). "Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe". Quaternary Science Reviews. 44 (44): 1–25. Bibcode:2012QSRv...44....1B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.734.1691. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.04.017.

[Velichko_2004-22] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Velichko; et al. (2004). "Glaciations of the East European Plain – distribution and chronology". In Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L. (eds.). Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology. Elsevier. pp. 337–354. ISBN 9780080540146.

[BGR_2016-23] Stratigraphische Tabellen des Bayerischen Geologischen Landesamtes. Ad hoc AG Geologie der Staatlichen Geologischen Dienste (SGD) and the BGR

[Velichko_2005-24] Velichko, A. A.; Wright, Herbert Edgar (2005). Cenozoic Climatic and Environmental Changes in Russia. Geological Society of America. p. 53. ISBN 9780813723822.

[Essex-25] "Timescale of the Ice Age in Essex" (PDF). GeoEssex. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2019.

[26] Kolfschoten, Thijs van; Roebroeks, W.; Vandenberghe, J. (January 1993). "The middle and late Pleistocene and climate sequence at Maastricht-Belvedere - the type locality of the Belvedere interglacial". Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst (47): 81–91.

[McKay2007-27] McKay, E.D., 2007, Six Rivers, Five Glaciers, and an Outburst Flood: the Considerable Legacy of the Illinois River. Proceedings of the 2007 Governor's Conference on the Management of the Illinois River System: Our continuing Commitment, 11th Biennial Conference, Oct. 2-4, 2007, 11 p.

[Delaney-28] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Delaney, Catherine (2003). "The Last Glacial Stage (the Devensian) in Northwest England" (PDF). North West Geography. 3 (2): 27–37. ISSN 1476-1580.

[SGU-29] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Lokrantz, Hanna; Sohlenius, Gustav (2006). Ice marginal fluctuations during the Weichselian glaciation in Fennoscandia, a literature review (Technical Report TR-06-36) (PDF). Stockholm: Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co).

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@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 The [[Late Cenozoic Ice Age]] began 34 million years ago, its latest phase being the [[Quaternary glaciation]], in progress since 2.58 million years ago.
-Within ice ages, there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate conditions, referred to as [[glacial period]]s and [[interglacial|interglacial period]]s, respectively.  The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary glaciation, with the [[last glacial period]] of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago.  The current interglacial is known as the [[Holocene]] epoch.<ref name="Walker, M. 2009. pp. 3">Walker, M., Johnsen, S., Rasmussen, S. O., Popp, T., Steffensen, J.-P., Gibbard, P., Hoek, W., Lowe, J., Andrews, J., Bjo¨ rck, S., Cwynar, L. C., Hughen, K., Kershaw, P., Kromer, B., Litt, T., Lowe, D. J., Nakagawa, T., Newnham, R., and Schwander, J. 2009. [http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Holocene.pdf Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 24 pp. 3–17.] {{ISSN|0267-8179}}.</ref>
+Within ice ages, there exist periods of more severe glacial conditions and more temperate conditions, referred to as [[glacial period]]s and [[interglacial|interglacial period]]s, respectively.  The Earth is currently in such an interglacial period of the Quaternary glaciation, with the [[Last Glacial Period]] of the Quaternary having ended approximately 11,700 years ago.  The current interglacial is known as the [[Holocene]] epoch.<ref name="Walker, M. 2009. pp. 3">Walker, M., Johnsen, S., Rasmussen, S. O., Popp, T., Steffensen, J.-P., Gibbard, P., Hoek, W., Lowe, J., Andrews, J., Bjo¨ rck, S., Cwynar, L. C., Hughen, K., Kershaw, P., Kromer, B., Litt, T., Lowe, D. J., Nakagawa, T., Newnham, R., and Schwander, J. 2009. [http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Holocene.pdf Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 24 pp. 3–17.] {{ISSN|0267-8179}}.</ref>
 Based on [[Proxy (climate)|climate proxies]], [[Paleoclimatology|paleoclimatologists]] study the different [[climate state]]s originating from glaciation.
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 |-
 | [[Pongola glaciation|Pongola]]
-| 2900–2780<ref name="Kopp">{{cite journal |author1=Robert E. Kopp |author2=Joseph L. Kirschvink |author3=Isaac A. Hilburn |author4=Cody Z. Nash  |name-list-style=amp | title=The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | year=2005 | volume=102 | issue=32 | pages=11131–6 | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0504878102v1 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0504878102 | pmid=16061801 | pmc=1183582|bibcode = 2005PNAS..10211131K }}</ref>
+| 2900–2780<ref name="Kopp">{{cite journal |author1=Robert E. Kopp |author2=Joseph L. Kirschvink |author3=Isaac A. Hilburn |author4=Cody Z. Nash  |name-list-style=amp | title=The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | year=2005 | volume=102 | issue=32 | pages=11131–6 | doi=10.1073/pnas.0504878102 | pmid=16061801 | pmc=1183582|bibcode = 2005PNAS..10211131K |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 |
 | [[Mesoarchean]]
 |-
-| [[Huronian glaciation|Huron]]
+| [[Huronian glaciation|Huronian]]
 | 2400–2100
 | [[Siderian]]<br/>[[Rhyacian]]
 | [[Paleoproterozoic]]
 |-
-| [[Sturtian glaciation|Sturt]]<br/>[[Marinoan glaciation|Marino]]<br/>[[Gaskiers glaciation|Gaskiers]]<br/>[[Baykonurian glaciation|Baykonur]]
+| [[Sturtian glaciation|Sturtian]]<br/>[[Marinoan glaciation|Marinoan]]<br/>[[Gaskiers glaciation|Gaskiers]]<br/>[[Baykonurian glaciation|Baykonur]]
 | 715–680<br/>650–635<br/>580<br/>547
 | [[Cryogenian]]<br/><br/>[[Ediacaran]]
@@ Line 51: / Line 51: @@
 ==Descriptions==
 {{Life timeline}}
-The third ice age, and possibly most severe, is estimated to have occurred from 720 to 635&nbsp;[[Annum|Ma]] (million years) ago,<ref name="SG-20170113">{{cite web|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale |title=Chart |publisher=International Commission on Stratigraphy |access-date=2017-02-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113013553/http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale |archive-date=2017-01-13 }}</ref> in the [[Neoproterozoic]] Era, and it has been suggested that it produced a second<ref name="2nd of two"
+The third ice age, and possibly most severe, is estimated to have occurred from 720 to 635&nbsp;[[year|Ma]] (million years) ago,<ref name="SG-20170113">{{cite web|url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale |title=Chart |publisher=International Commission on Stratigraphy |access-date=2017-02-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113013553/http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale |archive-date=2017-01-13 }}</ref> in the [[Neoproterozoic]] Era, and it has been suggested that it produced a second<ref name="2nd of two">Miracle Planet: Snowball Earth, (2005) documentary, Canadian Film Board, rebroadcast 25 April 2009 on the Science Channel (HD).</ref> "[[Snowball Earth]]", i.e. a period during which Earth was completely covered in ice. It has also been suggested that the end of that second cold period<ref name="2nd of two"/> was responsible for the subsequent [[Cambrian explosion]], a time of rapid diversification of multi-cellular life during the [[Cambrian]] Period. The hypothesis is still controversial,<ref>{{cite book |last=van Andel |first=Tjeerd H. |title=New Views on an Old Planet: A History of Global Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge UK |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44755-3 |edition=2nd }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rieu, Ruben|title=Climatic cycles during a Neoproterozoic "snowball" glacial epoch |journal=Geology |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=299–302 |year=2007 |doi=10.1130/G23400A.1|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2007Geo....35..299R }}</ref> though is gaining credence among researchers, as evidence in its favour has mounted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Cambrian Period |url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php |access-date=2024-02-26 |website=ucmp.berkeley.edu}}</ref>
->Miracle Planet: Snowball Earth, (2005) documentary, Canadian Film Board, rebroadcast 25 April 2009 on the Science Channel (HD).</ref> "[[Snowball Earth]]" i.e. a period during which Earth was completely covered in ice. It has been suggested also that the end of this second cold period<ref name="2nd of two"/> was responsible for the subsequent [[Cambrian Explosion]], a time of rapid diversification of multi-cellular life during the [[Cambrian]] Period. This hypothesis is still controversial,<ref>{{cite book |last=van Andel |first=Tjeerd H. |title=New Views on an Old Planet: A History of Global Change |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge UK |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-521-44755-3 |edition=2nd }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Rieu, Ruben|title=Climatic cycles during a Neoproterozoic "snowball" glacial epoch |journal=Geology |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=299–302 |year=2007 |doi=10.1130/G23400A.1|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2007Geo....35..299R }}</ref> though is growing in popularity among researchers, as evidence in its favour has mounted.{{who|date=June 2015}}
-A minor series of [[wiktionary:glaciation|glaciations]] occurred from 460 to 430&nbsp;Ma. There were extensive glaciations from 350 to 289&nbsp;Ma.
+A minor series of [[wiktionary:glaciation|glaciations]] occurred from 460 to 430&nbsp;Ma, and there were extensive glaciations from 350 to 289&nbsp;Ma.
-The [[Late Cenozoic Ice Age]] has seen extensive ice sheets in Antarctica for the last 34&nbsp;Ma. During the last 3&nbsp;Ma ice sheets have also developed on the northern hemisphere. This phase is known as the [[Quaternary glaciation]], and has seen more or less extensive glaciation. These first appeared with a dominant periodicity of 41,000 years, but after the [[Mid-Pleistocene Transition]] this changed to high-amplitude cycles with an average period of 100,000 years.<ref name="Willeit">{{cite journal|title=Mid-Pleistocene transition in glacial cycles explained by declining CO2 and regolith removal &#124; Science Advances|journal=Science Advances|date=April 2019|volume=5|issue=4|pages=eaav7337|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aav7337|last1=Brovkin|first1=V.|last2=Calov|first2=R.|last3=Ganopolski|first3=A.|last4=Willeit|first4=M.|pmid=30949580|pmc=6447376}}</ref>
+The [[Late Cenozoic Ice Age]] has seen extensive ice sheets in [[Antarctica]] for the last 34&nbsp;Ma. During the last 3&nbsp;Ma, ice sheets have also developed on the northern hemisphere. That phase is known as the [[Quaternary glaciation]], and was marked by more or less extensive glaciation. They first appeared with a dominant frequency of 41,000 years, but after the [[Mid-Pleistocene Transition]] that changed to high-amplitude cycles, with an average period of [[100,000-year problem|100,000 years]].<ref name="Willeit">{{cite journal|title=Mid-Pleistocene transition in glacial cycles explained by declining CO2 and regolith removal &#124; Science Advances|journal=Science Advances|date=April 2019 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=eaav7337 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.aav7337 |last1=Brovkin| first1=V.| last2=Calov| first2=R.|last3=Ganopolski| first3=A. |last4=Willeit |first4=M. |pmid=30949580 |pmc=6447376}}</ref>
 == Nomenclature of Quaternary glacial cycles ==
-Whereas the first 30 million years of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age mostly involved Antarctica, the [[Quaternary glaciation|Quaternary]] has seen numerous ice sheets extending over parts of Europe and North America that are currently populated and easily accessible. Early geologists therefore named apparent sequences of glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary Ice Age after characteristic geological features, and these names varied from region to region. The marine record preserves all the past glaciations; the land-based evidence is less complete because successive glaciations may wipe out evidence of their predecessors. [[Ice cores]] from continental ice accumulations also provide a complete record, but do not go as far back in time as marine data. [[Pollen]] data from lakes and bogs as well as [[loess]] profiles provided important land-based correlation data.<ref name="Davis">{{cite web |author=Davis, Owen K. |title=Non-Marine Records: Correlations with the Marine Sequence |work=Introduction to Quaternary Ecology |publisher=University of Arizona |url=http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/geos462/07nonmarin.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727164508/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/geos462/07nonmarin.html |archive-date=2017-07-27 }}</ref> The ''names'' system has mostly been phased out by professionals. It is now more common for researchers to refer to the periods by their [[marine isotopic stage]] number.<ref name="Gibbard">{{cite book |author1=Gibbard, P. |author2=van Kolfschoten, T. |chapter=Chapter 22: The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs |chapter-url=http://www-qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/people/gibbard/GTS2004Quat.pdf |editor1=Gradstein, F. M. |editor2=Ogg, James G. |editor3=Smith, A. Gilbert |title=A Geologic Time Scale 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-78142-8 }}</ref>  For example, there are five Pleistocene glacial/interglacial cycles recorded in marine sediments during the last half million years, but only three classic interglacials were originally recognized on land during that period ([[Kansan glaciation|Mindel]], [[Wolstonian Stage|Riss]] and [[Wisconsin glaciation|Würm]]).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kukla, George |title=Saalian supercycle, Mindel/Riss interglacial and Milankovitch's dating |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=24 |issue=14–15 |pages=1573–83 |date=August 2005 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.08.023 |bibcode=2005QSRv...24.1573K }}</ref>
+Whereas the first 30 million years of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age mostly involved Antarctica, the [[Quaternary glaciation|Quaternary]] has seen numerous ice sheets extending over parts of Europe and North America that are currently populated and easily accessible. Early geologists therefore named apparent sequences of glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary Ice Age after characteristic geological features, and these names varied from region to region. The marine record preserves all the past glaciations; the land-based evidence is less complete because successive glaciations may wipe out evidence of their predecessors. [[Ice cores]] from continental ice accumulations also provide a complete record, but do not go as far back in time as marine data. [[Pollen]] data from lakes and bogs as well as [[loess]] profiles provided important land-based correlation data.<ref name="Davis">{{cite web |author=Davis, Owen K. |title=Non-Marine Records: Correlations with the Marine Sequence |work=Introduction to Quaternary Ecology |publisher=University of Arizona |url=http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/geos462/07nonmarin.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170727164508/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/geos462/07nonmarin.html |archive-date=2017-07-27 }}</ref> The ''names'' system has mostly been phased out by professionals. It is now more common for researchers to refer to the periods by their [[marine isotopic stage]] number.<ref name="Gibbard">{{cite book |author1=Gibbard, P. |author2=van Kolfschoten, T. |chapter=Chapter 22: The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs |chapter-url=http://www-qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/people/gibbard/GTS2004Quat.pdf |editor1=Gradstein, F. M. |editor2=Ogg, James G. |editor3=Smith, A. Gilbert |title=A Geologic Time Scale 2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-78142-8 }}</ref>  For example, there are five Pleistocene glacial/interglacial cycles recorded in marine sediments during the last half million years, but only three classic glacials were originally recognized on land during that period ([[Kansan glaciation|Mindel]], [[Wolstonian Stage|Riss]] and [[Wisconsin glaciation|Würm]]).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kukla, George |title=Saalian supercycle, Mindel/Riss interglacial and Milankovitch's dating |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |volume=24 |issue=14–15 |pages=1573–83 |date=August 2005 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.08.023 |bibcode=2005QSRv...24.1573K }}</ref>
-Land-based evidence works acceptably well back as far as MIS 6, but it has been difficult to coordinate stages using just land-based evidence before that. Hence, the "names" system is incomplete and the land-based identifications of ice ages previous to that are somewhat conjectural.  Nonetheless, land based data is essentially useful in discussing landforms, and correlating the known marine isotopic stage with them.<ref name="Davis"/>
+Land-based evidence works acceptably well back as far as MIS 6 (see [[Marine isotope stages]], Stages), but it has been difficult to coordinate stages using just land-based evidence before that. Hence, the "names" system is incomplete and the land-based identifications of ice ages previous to that are somewhat conjectural.  Nonetheless, land based data is essentially useful in discussing landforms, and correlating the known marine isotopic stage with them.<ref name="Davis"/>
 === Historical nomenclature in the Alps ===
@@ Line 97: / Line 96: @@
 * [[Waalian interglacial]]
 * [[Menapian glacial stage]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Menapian-Glacial-Stage | title=Menapian Glacial Stage &#124; geology}}</ref>
+* Bavelian
 * [[Cromerian complex]] (MIS 21-13 ?)
 * [[Elster glaciation]] (MIS 10, perhaps also MIS 12 ?)
@@ Line 121: / Line 121: @@
 === Uncertain correlations ===
-It has proved difficult to correlate the traditional regional names with the global marine and ice core sequences. The indexes of [[Marine isotope stage|MIS]] often identify several distinct glaciations that overlap in time with a single traditional regional glaciation. Some modern authors use the traditional regional glacial names to identify such a sequence of glaciations, whereas others replace the word "glaciation" with "complex" to refer to a continuous period of time that also includes warmer stages. As shown in the table below, it is only during the last 200-300 thousand years that the time resolution of the traditional nomenclature allow for clear correspondence with MIS indexes. In particular there has been a lot of controversy regarding the glaciations MIS 10 and MIS 12, and their correspondence to the [[Elster glaciation|Elster]] and [[Mindel glaciation]]s of Europe.<ref>[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.734.1691&rep=rep1&type=pdf Böse et al. (2012), Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe, Quaternary Science Reviews 44, page 17.]</ref>
+It has proved difficult to correlate the traditional regional names with the global marine and ice core sequences. The indexes of [[Marine isotope stage|MIS]] often identify several distinct glaciations that overlap in time with a single traditional regional glaciation. Some modern authors use the traditional regional glacial names to identify such a sequence of glaciations, whereas others replace the word "glaciation" with "complex" to refer to a continuous period of time that also includes warmer stages. As shown in the table below, it is only during the last 200-300 thousand years that the time resolution of the traditional nomenclature allow for clear correspondence with MIS indexes. In particular there has been a lot of controversy regarding the glaciations MIS 10 and MIS 12, and their correspondence to the [[Elster glaciation|Elster]] and [[Mindel glaciation]]s of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Böse|display-authors=etal|year=2012|title=Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|issue=44|page=17|citeseerx=10.1.1.734.1691 }}</ref>
 {| class="wikitable"
 ! rowspan=2|[[Marine isotope stage|Marine<br/>isotope<br/>stage]]
-! rowspan=2|Time ago<br/>([[Year#SI prefix multipliers|ka]])<br/><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2004PA001071|url=http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt|title=A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records|journal=Paleoceanography|volume=20|pages=n/a|author1= Lisiecki, Lorraine E.| author2=  Raymo, Maureen E.|issue=1|author-link = Lorraine Lisiecki|author-link2 = Maureen Raymo|year=2005|bibcode=2005PalOc..20.1003L|hdl=2027.42/149224|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
+! rowspan=2|Time ago<br/>([[Year#SI prefix multipliers|ka]])<br/><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1029/2004PA001071|url=http://www.lorraine-lisiecki.com/LR04_MISboundaries.txt|title=A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records|journal=Paleoceanography|volume=20|author1= Lisiecki, Lorraine E.| author2=  Raymo, Maureen E.|issue=1|author-link = Lorraine Lisiecki|author-link2 = Maureen Raymo|year=2005|pages=n/a|bibcode=2005PalOc..20.1003L|hdl=2027.42/149224|s2cid=12788441 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>
 ! colspan=6|Regional names
 ! rowspan=2|Global<br/>age /<br/>epoch
@@ Line 140: / Line 140: @@
 | [[Biber (geology)|Biber]]<ref name="STD 2016"/>
 | Pre-Ludham<ref name="Corr 2011"/><br/>Ludham<ref name="Corr 2011"/><br/>Thurnian<ref name="Corr 2011"/><br/>[[Bramertonian Stage|Bramerton]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/><br/>[[Baventian|Bavents]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/><br/>[[Pastonian Stage|Paston]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/>
-| [[Pre-Tiglian]]<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] A<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] B<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] C3<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] C4<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] C5<ref name="Kasse">[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107-123, Kluwer]</ref>
+| [[Pre-Tiglian]]<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] A<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] B<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] C3<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] C4<ref name="Kasse"/><br/>[[Tiglian]] C5<ref name="Kasse">[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer]</ref>
 | Verkhodon<ref name="Corr 2011"/><br/><br/>Khapry<ref name="Corr 2011"/>
@@ Line 150: / Line 150: @@
 | 1800–900
 | [[Danube (geology)|Danube]]<ref name="STD 2016"/>
-| [[Beestonian stage|Bestoon]]<ref name="Corr 2011">[http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011]</ref>
+| [[Beestonian stage|Beeston]]<ref name="Corr 2011">[http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011]</ref>
 | [[Eburonian|Eburon]]<ref name="STD 2016"/><br/>[[Waalian interglacial|Waal]]<ref name="STD 2016"/><br/>[[Menapian|Menap]]<ref name="STD 2016"/><br/>[[Bavelian|Bavel]]<ref name="STD 2016"/>
 | Tolucheevka<ref name="Corr 2011"/><br/><br/>Krinitsa<ref name="Corr 2011"/>
@@ Line 216: / Line 216: @@
 | [[Gunz glaciation|Günz]]<ref name="STD 2016"/>
 | [[Cromerian Stage|Cromer]]<ref name="Lee 2011"/>
-| [[Cromerian Stage|Cromer]]/[[Don Glaciation|Don]]<ref>[https://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/nweurorivers/donglaciation.html Cambridge Quaternary Palaeoenvironments Group: Don Glaciation]</ref>
+| [[Cromerian Stage|Cromer]]/[[Don Glaciation|Don]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qpg.geog.cam.ac.uk/research/projects/nweurorivers/donglaciation.html|publisher=University of Cambridge: Quaternary Palaeoenvironments Group|title=North West European Rivers 3: Don Glaciation (Donian Stage)}}</ref>
-| [[Don Glaciation|Don]]<ref name="Böse 2012">[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.734.1691&rep=rep1&type=pdf Böse et al. (2012), Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe, Quaternary Science Reviews 44, 1-25.]</ref>
+| [[Don Glaciation|Don]]<ref name="Böse 2012">{{cite journal|author=Böse|display-authors=etal|year=2012|title=Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=44 |issue=44|pages=1–25|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.04.017 |bibcode=2012QSRv...44....1B |citeseerx=10.1.1.734.1691 }}</ref>
 | [[Pre-Illinoian|Pre-illinois]] D<ref name="Corr 2011"/>
 |
@@ Line 226: / Line 226: @@
 | [[Cromerian Stage|Cromer]]<ref name="Lee 2011"/>
 | [[Cromerian Stage|Cromer]]<ref name="STD 2016"/>
-| Muchkap<ref name="Velichko 2004">[https://books.google.se/books?id=rKsL8CFcdAoC&pg=PA343&lpg=PA343&dq=Don+glaciation&source=bl&ots=VTI4h5_ySL&sig=ACfU3U1gsQvNy1lzEgWSfnmMg7Sof2eGGQ&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiy4qLkm53hAhWwy6YKHSdIDc8Q6AEwDHoECAcQAQ#v=onepage&q=Don%20glaciation&f=false Velichko et al. (2004), Glaciations of the East European Plain – distribution and chronology, Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology, Elsevier, pages 337-354.]</ref>
+| Muchkap<ref name="Velichko 2004">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rKsL8CFcdAoC&pg=PA343|author=Velichko|display-authors=etal|year=2004|chapter=Glaciations of the East European Plain – distribution and chronology|title=Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology|editor1-first=J.|editor1-last=Ehlers|editor2-first=P.L.|editor2-last=Gibbard|publisher=Elsevier|pages=337–354|isbn=9780080540146 }}</ref>
 | [[Pre-Illinoian|Pre-illinois]]
 |
@@ Line 262: / Line 262: @@
 | [[Hoxnian Stage|Hoxne]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/>
 | [[Holstein interglacial|Holstein]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/> [[Cromerian Stage|Cromer]]/Rhume?<ref name="STD 2016"/>
-| Likhvin<ref name="Velichko 2005">[https://books.google.se/books?id=k-TzWT7sSNMC&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=Oka+glaciation&source=bl&ots=57PoY2ROSF&sig=ACfU3U2dG3Q4RFAISOl2-lJgU4acJjb_Xg&hl=sv&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwimm4GIqJ3hAhUDy6YKHYzBBkcQ6AEwA3oECAYQAQ#v=onepage&q=Oka%20glaciation&f=false Velichko (2005), Cenozoic Climatic and Environmental Changes in Russia, page 53.]</ref>
+| Likhvin<ref name="Velichko 2005">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k-TzWT7sSNMC&pg=PA53|first1=A. A.|last1=Velichko|first2=Herbert Edgar|last2=Wright|publisher=Geological Society of America|year=2005|title=Cenozoic Climatic and Environmental Changes in Russia|isbn=9780813723822|page=53}}</ref>
 | [[Pre-Illinoian|Pre-illinois]]
 |
@@ Line 278: / Line 278: @@
 | 337–300
 | [[Holstein interglacial|Mindel-Riss]]?<ref name="STD 2016"/>
-| [[Wolstonian Stage|Wolston]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/> [[Purfleet Interglacial|Purfleet]]<ref name="Essex">[http://www.geoessex.org.uk/files/timescale_of_the_ice_age_in_essex.pdf GeoEssex: Timescale of the Ice Age in Essex]</ref>
+| [[Wolstonian Stage|Wolston]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/> [[Purfleet Interglacial|Purfleet]]<ref name="Essex">{{cite web|url=http://www.geoessex.org.uk/files/timescale_of_the_ice_age_in_essex.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402141806/http://www.geoessex.org.uk/files/timescale_of_the_ice_age_in_essex.pdf|archive-date=2 April 2019|website=GeoEssex|title=Timescale of the Ice Age in Essex}}</ref>
 | [[Holstein interglacial|Holstein]]?<ref name="STD 2016"/>
 | Likhvin<ref name="Velichko 2005"/>
@@ Line 297: / Line 297: @@
 | [[Riss glaciation|Riss]]<ref name="STD 2016"/>
 | [[Wolstonian Stage|Wolston]]<ref name="Corr 2011"/> Aveley<ref name="Essex"/>
-| [[Saale glaciation|Saale]]/Dömnitz<ref name="STD 2016"/> Belvedere<ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285772152_The_middle_and_late_Pleistocene_and_climatic_sequence_at_Maastricht-_Belvedere_the_type_locality_of_the_Belvedere_interglacial Kolfschoten, The middle and late Pleistocene and climate sequence at Maastricht-Belvedere - the type locality of the Belvedere interglacial]</ref>
+| [[Saale glaciation|Saale]]/Dömnitz<ref name="STD 2016"/> Belvedere<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2716996/view|first1=Thijs van|last1=Kolfschoten|first2=W.|last2=Roebroeks|first3=J.|last3=Vandenberghe|title=The middle and late Pleistocene and climate sequence at Maastricht-Belvedere - the type locality of the Belvedere interglacial|date=January 1993|journal=Mededelingen Rijks Geologische Dienst|issue=47|pages=81–91}}</ref>
 | AC
 | [[Pre-Illinoian|Pre-illinois]]
@@ Line 309: / Line 309: @@
 | Dnieper/Moscow<ref name="Velichko 2004"/>
 | [[Illinoian (stage)|Illinois]]<ref name="McKay2007">McKay, E.D., 2007, [http://ilrdss.sws.uiuc.edu/pubs/govconf2007/session2a/DonMcKay.pdf ''Six Rivers, Five Glaciers, and an Outburst Flood: the Considerable Legacy of the Illinois River.''] Proceedings of the 2007 Governor's Conference on the Management of the Illinois River System: Our continuing Commitment, 11th Biennial Conference, Oct. 2-4, 2007, 11 p.</ref>
-| Santa María<ref name=Porter81>{{cite journal |last1=Porter |first1=S.C. |date=1981 |title=Pleistocene glaciation in the southern Lake District of Chile |journal=[[Quaternary Research]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=263–292 |doi= 10.1016/0033-5894(81)90013-2|bibcode=1981QuRes..16..263P }}</ref> Casma?<ref name=Porter81/>
+| Santa María<ref name=Porter81>{{cite journal |last1=Porter |first1=S.C. |date=1981 |title=Pleistocene glaciation in the southern Lake District of Chile |journal=[[Quaternary Research]] |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=263–292 |doi= 10.1016/0033-5894(81)90013-2|bibcode=1981QuRes..16..263P |s2cid=140544020 }}</ref> Casma?<ref name=Porter81/>
 |- BGCOLOR="#44ff44"
 | MIS 5e
@@ Line 325: / Line 325: @@
 | [[Würm glaciation|Würm]]<ref name="STD 2016"/>
 | [[Devensian glaciation|Devens]]/Early D.<ref name="Delaney">{{cite journal | last=Delaney | first=Catherine | title=The Last Glacial Stage (the Devensian) in Northwest England | journal=North West Geography | year=2003 | volume=3 | issue=2 | pages=27–37 | issn=1476-1580 | url=https://www.mangeogsoc.org.uk/pdfs/delaney2.pdf}}</ref>
-| [[Weichsel glaciation|Weichsel]]/Herning<ref name="SGU">{{cite book | url=https://www.skb.se/publication/1200820/TR-06-36.pdf | title=Ice marginal fluctuations during the Weichselian glaciation in Fennoscandia, a literature review (Technical Report TR-06-36) | publisher=Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co) | first=Hanna | last=Lokrantz | first2=Gustav | last2=Sohlenius | year=2006 | location=Stockholm}}</ref>
+| [[Weichsel glaciation|Weichsel]]/Herning<ref name="SGU">{{cite book | url=https://www.skb.se/publication/1200820/TR-06-36.pdf | title=Ice marginal fluctuations during the Weichselian glaciation in Fennoscandia, a literature review (Technical Report TR-06-36) | publisher=Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co) | first1=Hanna | last1=Lokrantz | first2=Gustav | last2=Sohlenius | year=2006 | location=Stockholm}}</ref>
 | Valdai<ref name="Velichko 2004"/>
 | AC
@@ Line 420: / Line 420: @@
 * {{annotated link|Glacial period}}
 * {{annotated link|Ice age}}
-* {{annotated link|Last glacial period}}
+* {{annotated link|Last Glacial Period}}
+* {{annotated link|Thermal history of Earth}}
+* {{annotated link|Geologic temperature record}}
+* {{annotated link|List of periods and events in climate history}}
 ==References==
@@ Line 430: / Line 433: @@
 *{{cite web|author=Work Group on Geospatial Analysis of Glaciated Environments (GAGE) |title=Pre-Wisconsin Glaciation of Central North America |date=2000 |publisher=INQUA Commission on Glaciation, Emporia State University |url=http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/gage/pre-wisc/pre-wisc.htm |location=Emporia KS |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513181655/http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/gage/pre-wisc/pre-wisc.htm |archive-date=May 13, 2008 }}
 *{{cite web |author=Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy |title=Global correlation tables for the Quaternary |date=2011 |publisher=Department of Geography, University of Cambridge |location=Cambridge UK |url=http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/charts/}}
-*{{cite document |author1=Gibbard, P.L. |author2=Boreham, S. |author3=Cohen, K.M. |author4=Moscariello, A. |title=Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years v. 2011. |publisher=Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge |location=Cambridge UK |year=2011 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3557337}}
+*{{cite web |author1=Gibbard, P.L. |author2=Boreham, S. |author3=Cohen, K.M. |author4=Moscariello, A. |title=Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years v. 2011. |publisher=Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge |location=Cambridge UK |year=2011 |url=https://www.academia.edu/3557337}}
 *{{cite book|editor1=Hambrey, M.J. |editor2=Harland, W.B. |title=Earth's pre-Pleistocene glacial record |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1981 |url=http://www.aber.ac.uk/~glawww/epgr.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061011144504/http://www.aber.ac.uk/~glawww/epgr.htm |archive-date=October 11, 2006 }} 1004 + xv pp. (book downloadable as series of PDF files)
 *{{cite web |author1=Silva, P.G. |author2=Zazo,C |author3=Bardají,T. |author4=Baena, J. |author5=Lario, J. |author6=Rosas, A. |author7=Van der Made |title=Tabla Cronoestratigráfica del Cuaternario AEQUA V.2 |date=2009 |location=Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Salamanca, Spain |publisher=Asociación Española para el Estudio del Cuaternario (AEQUA) |url=http://tierra.rediris.es/aequa/doc/tabla_aequav2_2009.pdf/. |format=PDF 3.6 [[Megabyte|Mb]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626140850/http://tierra.rediris.es/aequa/doc/tabla_aequav2_2009.pdf |archive-date=2012-06-26 }} (Correlation Chart of European Quaternary and cultural stages and fossils)