Jump to content

Lepidium meyenii: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
FrescoBot (talk | contribs)
Bots
1,135,457 edits
m Bot: link syntax and minor changes
m Undid edits by 2404:1C40:3E0:A2EE:44FA:CDDE:33BF:4429 (talk) to last version by GreenC bot: not english content
 
(39 intermediate revisions by 24 users not shown)
Line 7: Line 7:
|species = meyenii
|species = meyenii
|authority = [[Wilhelm Gerhard Walpers|Walp.]]
|authority = [[Wilhelm Gerhard Walpers|Walp.]]
|synonyms = ''Lepidium peruvianum''
|synonyms = ''Lepidium peruvianum''}}
}}


'''''Lepidium meyenii''''', known as '''maca''' or '''Peruvian ginseng''', is an edible [[herbaceous]] [[biennial plant]] of the family [[Brassicaceae]] that is native to South America in the high [[Andes]] mountains of [[Peru]]. It was found exclusively at the [[Meseta de Bombón]] [[plateau]] close to [[Lake Junin]] in the late 1980s.<ref name="Hermann">Hermann, M, Bernet T. "[http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/_migrated/uploads/tx_news/The_transition_of_maca_from_neglect_to_market_prominence__nbsp_lessons_for_improving_use_strategies_and_market_chains_of_minor_crops_1318.pdf The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence: Lessons for improving use strategies and market chains of minor crops.]" Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods Discussion Papers 1. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, 101 p., 2009.</ref> It is grown for its fleshy [[hypocotyl]] that is fused with a [[taproot]], which is typically dried, but may also be freshly cooked as a [[root vegetable]]. If it is dried, it may be further processed into a [[flour]] for baking or as a [[dietary supplement]]. It also has uses in [[traditional medicine]]. As a cash crop, it is primarily exported as a powder that may be raw, or processed further by the supplement industry: [[Gelatinized starch|gelatinized]] or made into an [[Extraction (chemistry)|extract]].
'''''Lepidium meyenii''''', known as '''maca''' or '''Peruvian ginseng''', is an edible [[herbaceous]] [[biennial plant]] of the family [[Brassicaceae]] that is native to South America in the high [[Andes]] mountains of [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]]. It was rediscovered for commercial purposes at the Meseta de Bombón [[plateau]] close to [[Lake Junin]] in the late 1980s.<ref name="Hermann">Hermann, M, Bernet T. "[http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/_migrated/uploads/tx_news/The_transition_of_maca_from_neglect_to_market_prominence__nbsp_lessons_for_improving_use_strategies_and_market_chains_of_minor_crops_1318.pdf The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence: Lessons for improving use strategies and market chains of minor crops.]" Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods Discussion Papers 1. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, 101 p., 2009.</ref> It is grown for its fleshy [[hypocotyl]] that is fused with a [[taproot]], which is typically dried but may also be freshly cooked as a [[root vegetable]]. As a cash crop, it is primarily exported as a powder that may be raw or processed further as a [[gelatinized starch]] or as an [[extract]]. If dried, it may be processed into a [[flour]] for baking or as a [[dietary supplement]].


Its [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] names include ''maca-maca'', ''maino'', ''ayak chichira'', and ''ayak willku''.
Its [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] names include ''maca-maca'', ''maino'', ''ayak chichira'', and ''ayak willku''.


== History and controversy ==
== History and controversy ==
[[Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa]] gave a description of the plant following his visit to Peru ''circa'' 1598 and [[Bernabé Cobo]] gave a description of this plant in the early 17th century.<ref name="León1964">{{cite journal|last1=León|first1=Jorge|title=The "Maca" (Lepidium meyenii), a little known food plant of peru|journal=Economic Botany|volume=18|issue=2|year=1964|pages=122–127|issn=0013-0001|doi=10.1007/BF02862707|s2cid=1100455}}</ref> [[Wilhelm Gerhard Walpers|Gerhard Walpers]] named the species ''Lepidium meyenii'' in 1843. In the 1990s, Gloria Chacon made a further distinction of a different species. She considered the widely cultivated natural maca of today to be a newer domesticated species, ''L. peruvianum''.<ref name = Taylor>{{cite book |author=Taylor LG |title=The healing power of rainforest herbs: a guide to understanding and using herbal medicinals |publisher=Square One Publishers |location=Garden City Park, NY |year=2005 |isbn=0-7570-0144-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/healingpowerofra00tayl }}</ref>
[[Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa]] described the plant following his visit to Peru ''circa'' 1598, and [[Bernabé Cobo]] described this plant in the early 17th century.<ref name="León1964">{{cite journal|last1=León|first1=Jorge|title=The "Maca" (Lepidium meyenii), a little known food plant of peru|journal=Economic Botany|volume=18|issue=2|year=1964|pages=122–127|issn=0013-0001|doi=10.1007/BF02862707|s2cid=1100455}}</ref> [[Wilhelm Gerhard Walpers|Gerhard Walpers]] named the species ''Lepidium meyenii'' in 1843. In the 1990s, Gloria Chacon further distinguished a different species. She considered the widely cultivated natural maca of today to be a newer domesticated species, ''L. peruvianum''.<ref name = Taylor>{{cite book |author=Taylor LG |title=The healing power of rainforest herbs: a guide to understanding and using herbal medicinals |publisher=Square One Publishers |location=Garden City Park, NY |year=2005 |isbn=0757001440 |url=https://archive.org/details/healingpowerofra00tayl }}</ref>


Most [[botanist]]s doubt this distinction, however, and continue to call the cultivated maca ''L. meyenii''. The [[Latin name]] recognized by the [[USDA]] similarly continues to be ''Lepidium meyenii''.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = USDA PLANTS database | access-date = 2008-11-23 | url = http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LEME19 | title = Lepidium meyenii Walp. }}</ref> Debate about the correct nomenclature and whether the distinction between ''meyenii'' and ''peruvianum'' is botanically correct<ref name="Hermann" /> may have been settled by a more recent multicenter exploratory study that demonstrated distinct differences in taxonomy, visual appearance, phytochemical profiles and DNA sequences of the two researched Maca isotypes, suggesting that the two Maca specimens are dissimilar and formal use of the term “synonymous” to L. meyenii and L. peruvianum may be misleading.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Int J Biomed Sci. 2015 Mar; 11(1): 1–15 | access-date = 2022-03-02 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4392557/ | title = Peruvian Maca: Two Scientific Names Lepidium Meyenii Walpers and Lepidium Peruvianum Chacon – Are They Phytochemically-Synonymous? }}</ref>
However, most [[botanist]]s doubt this distinction and continue to call the cultivated maca ''L. meyenii''. The [[Latin name]] recognized by the [[USDA]] similarly continues to be ''Lepidium meyenii''.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = USDA Plants database | access-date = 2008-11-23 | url = http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LEME19 | title = Lepidium meyenii Walp. }}</ref> It has been debated whether it is botanically correct to consider ''meyenii'' and ''peruvianum'' to be distinct from one another.<ref name="Hermann" /> A 2015 multi-center study found differences in taxonomy, visual appearance, phytochemical profiles and DNA sequences when comparing ''L. meyenii'' and ''L. peruvianum'', suggesting that they are different and that their names should not be considered synonyms.<ref>{{cite journal | publisher = Int J Biomed Sci. 2015 Mar; 11(1): 1–15 | title = Peruvian Maca: Two Scientific Names Lepidium Meyenii Walpers and Lepidium Peruvianum Chacon – Are They Phytochemically-Synonymous? | year = 2015 | pmc = 4392557 | last1 = Meissner | first1 = H. O. | last2 = Mscisz | first2 = A. | last3 = Kedzia | first3 = B. | last4 = Pisulewski | first4 = P. | last5 = Piatkowska | first5 = E. | journal = International Journal of Biomedical Science | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–15 }}</ref>


==Description==
==Description==
[[File:Lepidium meyenii, Tsaghkadzor, in culture.jpg|thumb|right|Maca plants]]The growth habit, size, and proportions of maca are roughly similar to those of [[radish]]es and [[turnip]]s, to which it is related, but it also resembles a [[parsnip]]. The green, fragrant tops are short and lie along the ground.<ref name=flores>{{Cite journal|last=Flores|first=Hector|author2=Walker, Guimares |title=Anean Root and Tuber Crops: Underground Rainbows|journal=HortScience|date=April 2003|volume=38|issue=2|pages=161–167|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.38.2.161|doi-access=free}}</ref> The thin, frilly leaves sprout in a rosette at the soil surface, not growing more than {{convert|12-20|cm|abbr=on}} in height. The leaves show a [[Sexual dimorphism|dimorphism]] according to reproductive stage. They are more prominent in the vegetative phase, and are continuously renewed from the center as the outer leaves die. The off-white, [[self-fertile]] flowers are borne on a central [[raceme]], and are followed by {{convert|4-5|mm|abbr=on}} siliculate fruits, each containing two small {{convert|2.0-2.5|mm|abbr=on}} reddish-gray ovoid [[seed]]s. Seeds are the maca’s only means of reproduction. Maca reproduces mainly through self-pollination and is an autogamous species. The genome consists of 64 chromosomes. From experiments with different day lengths, maca is a [[short-day plant]].<ref name= Hermann/> Some sources consider the maca to be an annual plant, as in favorable years it can complete a lifecycle within a year.<ref name= flores/>
[[File:Lepidium meyenii, Tsaghkadzor, in culture.jpg|thumb|right|Maca plants]]The growth habit, size, and proportions of maca are roughly similar to those of [[radish]]es and [[turnip]]s, to which it is related, but it also resembles a [[parsnip]]. The green, fragrant tops are short and lie along the ground.<ref name=flores>{{Cite journal|last=Flores|first=Hector|author2=Walker, Guimares |title=Anean Root and Tuber Crops: Underground Rainbows|journal=HortScience|date=April 2003|volume=38|issue=2|pages=161–167|doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.38.2.161|doi-access=free}}</ref> The thin, frilly leaves sprout in a rosette at the soil surface, not growing more than {{convert|12–20|cm|abbr=on}} in height. The leaves show a [[Sexual dimorphism|dimorphism]] according to the reproductive stage. They are more prominent in the vegetative phase and continuously renew from the center as the outer leaves die. The off-white, [[self-fertile]] flowers are borne on a central [[raceme]], and are followed by {{convert|4–5|mm|abbr=on}} siliculate fruits, each containing two small {{convert|2.0–2.5|mm|abbr=on}} reddish-gray ovoid [[seed]]s. Seeds are the maca's only means of reproduction. Maca reproduces mainly through self-pollination and is an autogamous species. The genome consists of 64 chromosomes. Maca is a [[short-day plant]] from experiments with different day lengths.<ref name= Hermann/> Some sources consider the maca an annual plant, as in favorable years, it can complete a lifecycle within a year.<ref name= flores/>


===Root===
===Root===
[[File:Macae2.JPG|thumb|right|Maca root powder]]
[[File:Macae2.JPG|thumb|right|Maca root powder]]
Maca is the only member of the genus ''[[Lepidium]]'' with a fleshy [[hypocotyl]], which is fused with the taproot to form a rough inverted pear-shaped body. Maca does vary greatly in the size and shape of the root, which may be triangular, flattened circular, spherical, or rectangular, the latter of which forms the largest roots. Traditionally, native growers have acknowledged four varieties of maca, based on their root color: cream-yellow, half purple, purple, and black; varying levels of [[anthocyanin]] is primarily responsible for the color differences.<ref name="León1964" /> Maca hypocotyls may be gold or cream, red, purple, blue, black, or green. Each is considered a "genetically unique variety", as seeds of the parent plants grow to have roots of the same color. Specific [[phenotypes]] (in maca, 'phenotype' pertains mainly to root color) have been propagated exclusively to increase commercial interest.<ref name=clement>{{cite journal|last=Clément|first=Céline|author2=Diaz Grados |author3=Diego A. |author4=Bharathi A. |author5=Khan I. A. |author6=Mayer A. C. |author7=Ponce A. |author8=Dante D. |author9=Manrique I. |author10= Kreuzer M. |title=Influence of colour type and previous cultivation on secondary metabolites in hypocotyls and leaves of maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers)|journal=[[Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture]]|year=2010|volume=90|issue=5|pages=861–869|doi=10.1002/jsfa.3896|pmid=20355123}}</ref> Cream-colored roots are the most widely grown and are favored in Peru for their enhanced sweetness and size. Black maca is both sweet and slightly bitter in taste.
Maca is the only member of the genus ''[[Lepidium]]'' with a fleshy [[hypocotyl]], which is fused with the taproot to form a rough inverted pear-shaped body. Traditionally, native growers have acknowledged four varieties of maca based on their root color: cream-yellow, half-purple, purple, and black; varying levels of [[anthocyanin]] are primarily responsible for the color differences.<ref name="León1964" /> Maca hypocotyls may be gold or cream, red, purple, blue, black, or green. Each is considered a "genetically unique variety," as the seeds of the parent plants grow to have roots of the same color. Specific [[phenotypes]] (in maca, 'phenotype' pertains mainly to root color) have been propagated exclusively to increase commercial interest.<ref name=clement>{{cite journal|last=Clément|first=Céline|author2=Diaz Grados |author3=Diego A. |author4=Bharathi A. |author5=Khan I. A. |author6=Mayer A. C. |author7=Ponce A. |author8=Dante D. |author9=Manrique I. |author10= Kreuzer M. |title=Influence of colour type and previous cultivation on secondary metabolites in hypocotyls and leaves of maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers)|journal=[[Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture]]|year=2010|volume=90|issue=5|pages=861–869|doi=10.1002/jsfa.3896|pmid=20355123|bibcode=2010JSFA...90..861C }}</ref> Cream-colored roots are the most widely grown and are favored in Peru for their enhanced sweetness and size. Black maca is both sweet and slightly bitter.


==Cultivation==
==Cultivation==


===Growth conditions===
===Growth conditions===
The natural environment of the maca is at 11-12ºS latitude and at an elevation of {{convert|3800–4400|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name=clement/> At this elevation, temperatures of the growing season vary from {{convert|-2|to|13|C|F|abbr=on}} in monthly mean minimum or maximum, respectively. Temperatures can decline, however, as low as {{convert|-10|C|abbr=on}} and [[frost]]s are common. Of the cultivated plants, maca is one of the most frost tolerant.<ref name="Lim 2015 p.802" /> Strong winds and sunlight also are characteristics of the native habitat of the maca. Maca today is still mainly cultivated in [[Peru]], in the high [[Andes]] of Bolivia, and to a small extent also in [[Brazil]].<ref name= flores/> Maca can be cultivated beyond its natural elevation range, over {{convert|4400|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="Benco 2006">{{cite book | last=Benco | first=Nancy | title=The origins of agriculture : an international perspective | url=https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa | url-access=limited | publisher=University of Alabama Press | location=Tuscaloosa | year=2006 | isbn=0-8173-5349-6 | page=[https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa/page/n214 196]}}</ref>
The natural environment of the maca is at 11–12ºS latitude and at an elevation of {{convert|3800–4400|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name=clement/> At this elevation, temperatures of the growing season vary from {{convert|-2|to|13|C|F|abbr=on}} in monthly mean minimum or maximum, respectively. Temperatures can decline, however, as low as {{convert|-10|C|abbr=on}} and [[frost]]s are common. Of the cultivated plants, maca is one of the most frost tolerant.<ref name="Lim 2015 p.802" /> Strong winds and sunlight are also characteristics of the native habitat of the maca. Maca today is still mainly cultivated in [[Peru]], in the high [[Andes]] of Bolivia, and to a small extent also in [[Brazil]].<ref name= flores/> Maca can be cultivated beyond its natural elevation range, over {{convert|4400|m|abbr=on}} above sea level.<ref name="Benco 2006">{{cite book | last=Benco | first=Nancy | title=The origins of agriculture: an international perspective | url=https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa | url-access=limited | publisher=University of Alabama Press | location=Tuscaloosa | year=2006 | isbn=0817353496 | page=[https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa/page/n214 196]}}</ref>


===Growth===
===Growth===
[[File:Alpacas at Monks Park - geograph.org.uk - 765582.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alpaca]] [[manure]] is used to fertilize maca croplands]]
[[File:Alpacas at Monks Park - geograph.org.uk - 765582.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alpaca]] [[manure]] is used to fertilize maca croplands]]


Maca (Peruvian ginseng) seedlings usually emerge about one month after sowing with the onset of the rainy season in October. In the vegetative phase, until May to June, the lower part of the hypocotyl, as well as the upper part of the tap root, grows in size. After 260 to 280 days, it is formed to the harvestable hypocotyl. If the root is left in the soil, it is dormant for two to three months in the time of the cold, dry season until August. Then it will form a generative shoot on which the seeds ripen five months later. One plant is capable of forming up to 1000 tiny seeds, 1600 of which together weigh about one gram. Thus, only relatively few plants are needed for propagation. The plants for cultivation are selected for preferred size and color, then placed 50–100&nbsp;mm deep in pits with alternate layers of grass and soil to protect them from drying out. They are fertilized heavily, as maca is a soil exhaustive crop.<ref name="León1964" /> The cultivation cycle is strictly linked to seasonality.<ref name= Hermann/><ref name=flores/>
Maca (Peruvian ginseng) seedlings usually emerge about one month after sowing, with the onset of the rainy season in October. In the vegetative phase, from May to June, the lower part of the hypocotyl, as well as the upper part of the tap root, grows in size. After 260 to 280 days, it is formed into the harvestable hypocotyl. If the root is left in the soil, it is dormant for two to three months in the time of the cold, dry season until August. Then, it will form a generative shoot on which the seeds ripen five months later. One plant can form up to 1000 tiny seeds, 1600 of which weigh about one gram. Thus, only relatively few plants are needed for propagation. The cultivated plants are selected for preferred size and color, then placed 50–100&nbsp;mm deep in pits with alternate layers of grass and soil to protect them from drying out. They are fertilized heavily, as maca is an exhaustive crop of soil.<ref name="León1964" /> The cultivation cycle is strictly linked to seasonality.<ref name= Hermann/><ref name=flores/>


Traditionally, land preparation was done by hand. Nowadays, tractor plowing also is used. As maca grows on sites where no other crops can be cultivated, it is often found after long fallows of sheep grazing pastures.<ref name= Hermann/> Maca croplands thus traditionally are only fertilized with sheep and alpaca manure; however, fertilizer application could prevent soils from depleting in nutrients{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}.
Traditionally, land preparation was done by hand. Nowadays, tractor plowing is also used. As maca grows on sites where no other crops can be cultivated, it is often found after long fallows of sheep grazing pastures.<ref name= Hermann/> Maca croplands, thus, traditionally are only fertilized with sheep and alpaca manure; however, fertilizer application could prevent soils from depleting in nutrients{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}.


Weeding or pesticide application usually is not necessary as the climate is not suitable for most weeds or pests. Nearly all maca cultivation in Peru is carried out organically, as maca itself is seldom attacked. Maca is sometimes interplanted with potatoes, as it is known to maca farmers that the plant naturally repels most root crop pests.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}
Weeding or pesticide application usually is not necessary. The climate is not suitable for most weeds or pests. Nearly all maca cultivation in Peru is carried out organically; maca is seldom attacked. Maca is sometimes interplanted with potatoes, as it is known to maca farmers that the plant naturally repels most root crop pests.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}


=== Harvest ===
=== Harvest ===
The harvest is done manually, with the leaves left in the field as [[livestock feed]] or [[organic fertilizer]].
The harvest is done manually, with the leaves left in the field as [[livestock feed]] or [[organic fertilizer]].


The yield for a cultivated hectare may reach an estimated 15 tons in fresh hypocotyls resulting in around 5 tons of dried material.<ref name=flores/> According to the [[Ministry of Agriculture of Peru]], however, average maca yields for 2005 were only 7 t/ha, with a great variation between different sites.<ref name= Hermann/>
The yield for a cultivated hectare may reach an estimated 15 tons in fresh hypocotyls, resulting in around 5 tons of dried material.<ref name=flores/> According to the [[Ministry of Agriculture of Peru]], however, average maca yields for 2005 were only 7 t/ha, with a great variation between different sites.<ref name= Hermann/>
Although maca has been cultivated outside the Andes, whether it develops the same active constituents or potency outside of its natural habitat is not yet clear. Hypocotyls grown from Peruvian seeds form with difficulty at low elevations, in greenhouses, or in warm climates.
Although maca has been cultivated outside the Andes, it is unclear whether it develops the same active constituents or potency outside of its natural habitat. Hypocotyls grown from Peruvian seeds form with difficulty at low elevations, in greenhouses, or warm climates.


==Nutrition==
==Nutrition==
[[File:(1R, 3S)-1-methyltetrahydro-carboline-3-carboxylic acid.png|thumb|(1''R'',3''S'')-1-Methyltetrahydro-carboline-3-carboxylic acid found in maca]]
[[File:(1R, 3S)-1-methyltetrahydro-carboline-3-carboxylic acid.png|thumb|(1''R'',3''S'')-1-Methyltetrahydro-carboline-3-carboxylic acid found in maca]]
The average composition, on a dry matter basis, is 60-75% [[carbohydrate]]s (mostly as [[polysaccharide]]s),<ref>{{cite journal | last = Muhammad |first = I |author2=Zhao J. |author3=Dunbar D.C. |author4=Khan I.A. | title = Constituents of Lepidium meyenii 'maca' | journal = [[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | year = 2002 | pages = 105–110 | pmid = 11754952 | doi = 10.1016/S0031-9422(01)00395-8 }}</ref> 10-14% [[protein]], 8.5% [[dietary fiber]], and 2.2% [[fat]]s.<!--why? {{dubious|date=April 2017}} --><ref name="RainTreeDB">{{cite web|url=http://www.rain-tree.com/maca.htm |title=Database entry for Maca Lepidium meyenii Maca - Lepidium peruvianum, Chacon - Maca - Lepidium meyenii Maca - Lepidium meyenii Maca |publisher=Rain-tree.com |access-date=2012-10-26}}</ref>
The average composition, on a dry matter basis, is 60–75% [[carbohydrate]]s (primarily as [[polysaccharide]]s),<ref>{{cite journal | last = Muhammad |first = I |author2=Zhao J. |author3=Dunbar D.C. |author4=Khan I.A. | title = Constituents of Lepidium meyenii 'maca' | journal = [[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | year = 2002 | pages = 105–110 | pmid = 11754952 | doi = 10.1016/S0031-9422(01)00395-8 |bibcode = 2002PChem..59..105M }}</ref> 10–14% [[protein]], 8.5% [[dietary fiber]], and 2.2% [[fat]]s.<!--why? {{dubious|date=April 2017}} --><ref name="RainTreeDB">{{cite web|url=http://www.rain-tree.com/maca.htm |title=Database entry for Maca Lepidium meyenii Maca – Lepidium peruvianum, Chacon – Maca – Lepidium meyenii Maca |publisher=Rain-tree.com |access-date=2012-10-26}}</ref>
⚫
==Phytochemicals==


⚫
==Phytochemicals==
Maca contains [[glucotropaeolin]], m-methoxyglucotropaeolin, benzyl [[glucosinolate]]s, [[polyphenol]]s, (1R,3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA) , and p-methoxybenzyl [[isothiocyanate]].<ref name="clement" /><ref name="corazza">{{cite journal|pmc=4082836|year=2014|last1=Corazza|first1=O|title=Sexual Enhancement Products for Sale Online: Raising Awareness of the Psychoactive Effects of Yohimbine, Maca, Horny Goat Weed, and Ginkgo biloba|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2014|pages=841798|last2=Martinotti|first2=G|last3=Santacroce|first3=R|last4=Chillemi|first4=E|last5=Di Giannantonio|first5=M|last6=Schifano|first6=F|last7=Cellek|first7=S|doi=10.1155/2014/841798|pmid=25025070|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[amide|Alkamide]]s are also present in maca.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhao J, Muhammad I, Dunbar DC, Mustafa J, Khan IA |title=New alkamides from maca (Lepidium meyenii) |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=690–3 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15686421 |doi=10.1021/jf048529t }}</ref>
Maca contains [[glucotropaeolin]], ''m''-methoxyglucotropaeolin, [[benzyl]] [[glucosinolate]]s, [[polyphenol]]s, (1''R'',3''S'')-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA), and [[p-methoxybenzyl|''p''-methoxybenzyl]] [[isothiocyanate]].<ref name="clement" /><ref name="corazza">{{cite journal|pmc=4082836|year=2014|last1=Corazza|first1=O|title=Sexual Enhancement Products for Sale Online: Raising Awareness of the Psychoactive Effects of Yohimbine, Maca, Horny Goat Weed, and Ginkgo biloba|journal=BioMed Research International|volume=2014|pages=841798|last2=Martinotti|first2=G|last3=Santacroce|first3=R|last4=Chillemi|first4=E|last5=Di Giannantonio|first5=M|last6=Schifano|first6=F|last7=Cellek|first7=S|doi=10.1155/2014/841798|pmid=25025070|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[amide|Alkamide]]s are also present in maca.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhao J, Muhammad I, Dunbar DC, Mustafa J, Khan IA |title=New alkamides from maca (Lepidium meyenii) |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=690–3 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15686421 |doi=10.1021/jf048529t }}</ref> Maca contains several N-benzylamides referred to as ''macamides'' that are structurally related to [[anandamide]].<ref name="zhu">{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhu H, Hu B, Hua H, Liu C, Cheng Y, Guo Y, Yao W, Qian H |title=Macamides: A review of structures, isolation, therapeutics, and prospects |journal=Food Research International |volume=138 |issue=Pt B |pages=109819 |date=December 2020 |pmid=33288191 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109819|s2cid=226344133 }}</ref>


===Safety===
===Safety===
No [[pharmacokinetic]] data have been published for maca.<ref name="corazza" /> The presence of (1R,3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA) in the extracts of maca indicate a potential safety issue as a [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]] (re. which see [[beta-Carboline|β-carboline]]) and possibility as a [[mutagen]].<ref name="corazza" /> Due to these potential mutagenic properties of MTCA, the Agency for Sanitary Security in France warned consumers about the possible health risks of powdered maca root, a declaration disputed on the assumption that MTCA would be deactivated by boiling to process maca roots.<ref name="corazza" /> MTCA-like compounds are associated with [[craving (withdrawal)|craving]] behaviour.<ref name="corazza" />
No [[pharmacokinetic]] data have been published for maca.<ref name="corazza" /> The presence of (1''R'',3''S'')-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA) in the extracts of maca indicate a potential safety issue as a [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]] (re. which see [[beta-Carboline|β-carboline]]) and possibility as a [[mutagen]].<ref name="corazza" /> Due to these potential mutagenic properties of MTCA, the Agency for Sanitary Security in France warned consumers about the possible health risks of powdered maca root, a declaration disputed on the assumption that MTCA would be deactivated by boiling to process maca roots.<ref name="corazza" /> MTCA-like compounds are associated with [[craving (withdrawal)|craving]] behaviour.<ref name="corazza" />


==Marketing==
==Marketing==
Due to its purported effects on [[fertility]], maca grew in agricultural, commercial, and research interest over the decades of the 1990s to 2014.<ref name="Hermann" /><ref name="kilham">{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/health/2014/08/06/buying-fever-grips-perus-maca-trade/|title=Buying fever grips Peru's maca trade|author=Chris Kilham|date=6 August 2014|publisher=Fox News}}</ref> Market studies showed low acceptance of the particular maca taste by consumers when first exposed to it, creating a barrier for popularity of this food as a culinary vegetable. The economic interest existed more in the perceived, but unproven, health effects of the root's constituents supplied as an extract in a dietary supplement.<ref name="Hermann" /><ref name="kilham" />
Due to its purported effect on [[fertility]], maca grew in agricultural, commercial, and research interest from the 1990s to 2014.<ref name="Hermann" /><ref name="kilham">{{cite web|url=https://www.foxnews.com/health/buying-fever-grips-perus-maca-trade/|title=Buying fever grips Peru's maca trade|author=Chris Kilham|date=6 August 2014|publisher=Fox News}}</ref> Market studies showed low acceptance of the particular maca taste by consumers when first exposed to it, creating a barrier for popularity of this food as a culinary vegetable. The economic interest existed more in the perceived but unproven health effects of the root's constituents supplied as an extract in a dietary supplement.<ref name="Hermann" /><ref name="kilham" />


By 2014, agricultural and market interest for maca grew in China, but with challenges from Peruvian institutions who accused Chinese companies of illegally exporting maca and of [[biopiracy]], as several Chinese patents had been filed to improve the propagation and genetic diversity of maca.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moellerip.com/peru-accuses-chinese-companiesof-biopiracy-involving-maca-root/|title=Peru accuses Chinese companies of biopiracy involving maca root|date=2008|publisher=Moeller IP, Buenos Aires, Argentina}}</ref>
By 2014, agricultural and market interest in maca grew in China, but with challenges from Peruvian institutions who accused Chinese companies of illegally exporting maca and of [[biopiracy]], as several Chinese patents had been filed to improve maca's propagation and genetic diversity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moellerip.com/peru-accuses-chinese-companiesof-biopiracy-involving-maca-root/|title=Peru accuses Chinese companies of biopiracy involving maca root|date=2008|publisher=Moeller IP, Buenos Aires, Argentina}}</ref>


==Uses and preparation==
==Uses and preparation==
Maca is mainly grown for consumption of its root. The majority of harvested maca is dried. In this form, the hypocotyls can be stored for several years.<ref name= Hermann/><ref name=Inca>{{cite book|last=National Research Council|title=Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation.|year=1989|publisher=National Academy Press|location=Washington, D.C|pages=57}}</ref> In Peru, maca is prepared and consumed in various ways, although traditionally it is always cooked. The freshly harvested hypocotyl may be roasted in a pit (called ''[[huatia]]''), and is considered a delicacy. Fresh roots usually are available only in the vicinity of the growers. The root can also be mashed and boiled to produce a sweet, thick liquid, then dried and mixed with milk to form a porridge, ''[[mazamorra]]''.<ref name="Lim 2015 p.802 ">{{cite book | last=Lim | first=T. K. | title=Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants | publisher=Springer Netherlands | location=Dordrecht | year=2015 | isbn=978-94-017-9510-4 | doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9511-1 | page=802| s2cid=28380177 }}</ref> The cooked roots are also used with other vegetables in ''empanadas'', jams, or soups. The root may be ground to produce a flour for bread, cakes, or pancakes. If fermented, a weak [[beer]] called ''[[chicha]] de maca'' may be produced. In 2010, a U.S.-based brewery, called Andean Brewing Company, became the first company to produce and commercialize beer made from maca under the brand KUKA Beer.<ref>[http://inthenameofbeer.com/blog/2013/4/17/new-for-tap-ny-part-two-the-kuka-andean-brewing-company New For TAP NY (Part Two): The KUKA Andean Brewing Company] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095159/http://inthenameofbeer.com/blog/2013/4/17/new-for-tap-ny-part-two-the-kuka-andean-brewing-company |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> From the black morphotype, a liquor is produced. Also, the leaves are edible or may serve as animal fodder. They can be prepared raw in salads or cooked much like ''L. sativum'' and ''L. campestre'', to which it is closely related genetically.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}
Maca is mainly grown for the consumption of its roots. The majority of harvested maca is dried. In this form, the hypocotyls can be stored for several years.<ref name= Hermann/><ref name=Inca>{{cite book|last=National Research Council|title=Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation.|year=1989|publisher=National Academy Press|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=57}}</ref> In Peru, maca is prepared and consumed in various ways, although traditionally, it is always cooked. The freshly harvested hypocotyl may be roasted in a pit (called ''[[huatia]]'') and is considered a delicacy. Fresh roots usually are available only in the vicinity of the growers. The root can also be mashed and boiled to produce a sweet, thick liquid, then dried and mixed with milk to form a porridge, ''[[mazamorra]]''.<ref name="Lim 2015 p.802 ">{{cite book | last=Lim | first=T. K. | title=Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants | publisher=Springer Netherlands | location=Dordrecht | year=2015 | isbn=978-9401795104 | doi=10.1007/978-94-017-9511-1 | page=802| s2cid=28380177 }}</ref> The cooked roots are also used with other vegetables in ''[[empanada]]s'', jams, or soups. The root may be ground to produce flour for bread, cakes, or pancakes. If fermented, a weak [[beer]] called ''[[chicha]] de maca'' may be produced. In 2010, a U.S.-based brewery called Andean Brewing Company became the first company to produce and commercialize beer made from maca under the brand KUKA Beer.<ref>[http://inthenameofbeer.com/blog/2013/4/17/new-for-tap-ny-part-two-the-kuka-andean-brewing-company New For TAP NY (Part Two): The KUKA Andean Brewing Company] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095159/http://inthenameofbeer.com/blog/2013/4/17/new-for-tap-ny-part-two-the-kuka-andean-brewing-company |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref> From the black morphotype, a liquor is produced. Also, the leaves are edible or may serve as animal fodder. They can be prepared raw in salads or cooked much like ''L. sativum'' and ''L. campestre'', which are closely related genetically.{{citation needed|date=June 2018}}


[[File:Macae1.JPG|thumb|right|Maca root powder]]
[[File:Macae1.JPG|thumb|right|Maca root powder]]


The prominent product for export is maca [[flour]], which is a baking flour ground from the hard, dried roots. It is called ''harina de maca''. Maca flour (powder) is a relatively inexpensive bulk commodity, much like wheat flour or potato flour. The supplement industry uses both the dry roots and maca flour for different types of processing and concentrated extracts. <!-- encyclopedic?An internet query will show dozens of different extracts available, each touting a particular efficaciousness for a traditional use or health claim. --> Another common form is maca processed by [[gelatinization]]. This extrusion process separates and removes the tough fiber from the roots using gentle heat and pressure, as raw maca is difficult to digest due to its thick fibers.
The prominent product for export is maca [[flour]], a baking flour ground from the hard, dried roots. It is called ''harina de maca''. Maca flour (powder) is a relatively inexpensive bulk commodity, like wheat flour or potato flour. The supplement industry uses both dry roots and maca flour for different types of processing and concentrated extracts. <!-- encyclopedic?An internet query will show dozens of different extracts, each touting a particular efficaciousness for a traditional use or health claim. --> Another common form is maca, processed by [[gelatinization]]. This extrusion process separates and removes the tough fiber from the roots using gentle heat and pressure, as raw maca is difficult to digest due to its thick fibers.


Archaeological evidence exists for varying degrees of cultivation of maca in the [[Lake Junin]] region from around 1700 BC to 1200 AD.<ref name="Benco 2006 p.191 ">{{cite book | last=Benco | first=Nancy | title=The origins of agriculture : an international perspective | url=https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa | url-access=limited | publisher=University of Alabama Press | location=Tuscaloosa | year=2006 | isbn=0-8173-5349-6 | page=[https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa/page/n209 191]}}</ref> Maca has been harvested and used by humans in the [[puna grassland]]s of the Andean Mountains for centuries. Contrary to frequent claims that maca's cultivation was common in what is today Peru, until the late 1980s, maca has been cultivated only in a limited area around [[Lake Junin]], in central Peru. Historically, maca often was traded for lowland tropical food staples, such as [[maize]], [[rice]], [[manioc]] (tapioca roots), [[quinoa]], and [[papaya]]. It also was used as a form of payment of Spanish imperial taxes.<ref name=flores/><ref>{{cite journal | last = Valentova | first = K. |author2=Ulrichova J. | title = ''Smallanthus sonchifolius'' and ''Lepidium meyenii'' - prospective Andean crops for the prevention of chronic diseases | journal = Biomedical Papers of the Medical Faculty of the University Palacký, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia | year = 2003 | volume = 147 | issue = 2 | pages = 119–30 | pmid = 15037892 | doi=10.5507/bp.2003.017| doi-access = free }}</ref>
Archaeological evidence exists for varying degrees of cultivation of maca in the [[Lake Junin]] region from around 1700 BC to 1200 AD.<ref name="Benco 2006 p.191 ">{{cite book | last=Benco | first=Nancy | title=The origins of agriculture: an international perspective | url=https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa | url-access=limited | publisher=University of Alabama Press | location=Tuscaloosa | year=2006 | isbn=0-8173-5349-6 | page=[https://archive.org/details/originsagricultu00cowa/page/n209 191]}}</ref> Maca has been harvested and used by humans in the [[puna grassland]]s of the Andean Mountains for centuries. Contrary to frequent claims that maca cultivation was common in what is today Peru, until the late 1980s, maca has been cultivated only in a limited area around [[Lake Junin]] in central Peru. Historically, maca was often traded for lowland tropical food staples, such as [[maize]], [[rice]], [[manioc]] (tapioca roots), [[quinoa]], and [[papaya]]. It also was used as a form of payment for Spanish imperial taxes.<ref name=flores/><ref>{{cite journal | last = Valentova | first = K. |author2=Ulrichova J. | title = ''Smallanthus sonchifolius'' and ''Lepidium meyenii'' – prospective Andean crops for the prevention of chronic diseases | journal = Biomedical Papers of the Medical Faculty of the University Palacký, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia | year = 2003 | volume = 147 | issue = 2 | pages = 119–130 | pmid = 15037892 | doi=10.5507/bp.2003.017| doi-access = free }}</ref>


===Traditional medicine===
===Traditional medicine===


Maca has been marketed for its supposed uses in [[traditional medicine]], but there is no high-quality research to indicate it has any effect on health or diseases.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ernst E, Posadzki P, Lee MS |title=Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction in older men and women: an overview of systematic reviews |journal=Maturitas |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=37–41 |date=September 2011 |pmid=21782365 |doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.06.011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/features/the-truth-about-maca?ecd=wnl_men_012511 | title = The Truth About Maca | publisher = [[WebMD]] | author = Kathleen M. Zelman, MPH, RD, LD}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin BC, Lee MS, Yang EJ, Lim HS, Ernst E |title=Maca (L. meyenii) for improving sexual function: a systematic review |journal=BMC Complement Altern Med |volume=10 |pages=44 |year=2010 |pmid=20691074 |pmc=2928177 |doi=10.1186/1472-6882-10-44 }}</ref> A 2016 systematic review found little evidence that it affects [[semen]] quality in healthy and infertile men.<ref name="Lee2016">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=MS|last2=Lee|first2=HW|last3=You|first3=S|last4=Ha|first4=KT|title=The use of maca (Lepidium meyenii) to improve semen quality: A systematic review|journal=Maturitas|date=October 2016|volume=92|pages=64–69|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2016.07.013|pmid=27621241|type=Review}}</ref> A 2011 review found no good evidence either for the effectiveness of maca as a treatment for [[menopause|menopausal symptoms]] in women or for its safety.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee MS, Shin BC, Yang EJ, Lim HJ, Ernst E |title=Maca (''Lepidium meyenii'') for treatment of menopausal symptoms: A systematic review |journal=Maturitas |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=227–33 |year=2011 |pmid=21840656 |doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.07.017 }}</ref>
Maca is said to have medicinal properties, but scientific research remains inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ernst E, Posadzki P, Lee MS |title=Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction in older men and women: an overview of systematic reviews |journal=Maturitas |volume=70 |issue=1 |pages=37–41 |date=September 2011 |pmid=21782365 |doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.06.011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/features/the-truth-about-maca?ecd=wnl_men_012511 | title = The Truth About Maca | publisher = [[WebMD]] | author = Kathleen M. Zelman, MPH, RD, LD}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin BC, Lee MS, Yang EJ, Lim HS, Ernst E |title=Maca (L. meyenii) for improving sexual function: a systematic review |journal=BMC Complement Altern Med |volume=10 |pages=44 |year=2010 |pmid=20691074 |pmc=2928177 |doi=10.1186/1472-6882-10-44 |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2016 systematic review found evidence suggesting that it improves [[semen]] quality in healthy and infertile men.<ref name="Lee2016">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=MS|last2=Lee|first2=HW|last3=You|first3=S|last4=Ha|first4=KT|title=The use of maca (Lepidium meyenii) to improve semen quality: A systematic review|journal=Maturitas|date=October 2016|volume=92|pages=64–69|doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2016.07.013|pmid=27621241|type=Review}}</ref> A 2011 systematic review found the evidence for the effectiveness of maca as a treatment for [[menopause|menopausal symptoms]] in women inconclusive.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee MS, Shin BC, Yang EJ, Lim HJ, Ernst E |title=Maca (''Lepidium meyenii'') for treatment of menopausal symptoms: A systematic review |journal=Maturitas |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=227–33 |year=2011 |pmid=21840656 |doi=10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.07.017 }}</ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
{{Reflist}}


{{Commons category|Lepidium_meyenii|Lepidium meyenii}}
{{Commons category|Lepidium_meyenii|Lepidium meyenii}}
Line 85: Line 84:
[[Category:Flora of Peru]]
[[Category:Flora of Peru]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Root vegetables]]
[[Category:Biopiracy]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Peru]]
[[Category:Crops originating from Peru]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1843]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1843]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of South America]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of South America]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Wilhelm Gerhard Walpers]]

Latest revision as of 16:56, 24 November 2024

"Maca" redirects here. For other uses, see Maca (disambiguation).

Lepidium meyenii
Maca hypocotyl and root
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Lepidium
Species:
L. meyenii
Binomial name
Lepidium meyenii
Synonyms

Lepidium peruvianum

Lepidium meyenii, known as maca or Peruvian ginseng, is an edible herbaceous biennial plant of the family Brassicaceae that is native to South America in the high Andes mountains of Peru and Bolivia. It was rediscovered for commercial purposes at the Meseta de Bombón plateau close to Lake Junin in the late 1980s.[1] It is grown for its fleshy hypocotyl that is fused with a taproot, which is typically dried but may also be freshly cooked as a root vegetable. As a cash crop, it is primarily exported as a powder that may be raw or processed further as a gelatinized starch or as an extract. If dried, it may be processed into a flour for baking or as a dietary supplement.

Its Spanish and Quechua names include maca-maca, maino, ayak chichira, and ayak willku.

History and controversy

[edit]

Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa described the plant following his visit to Peru circa 1598, and Bernabé Cobo described this plant in the early 17th century.[2] Gerhard Walpers named the species Lepidium meyenii in 1843. In the 1990s, Gloria Chacon further distinguished a different species. She considered the widely cultivated natural maca of today to be a newer domesticated species, L. peruvianum.[3]

However, most botanists doubt this distinction and continue to call the cultivated maca L. meyenii. The Latin name recognized by the USDA similarly continues to be Lepidium meyenii.[4] It has been debated whether it is botanically correct to consider meyenii and peruvianum to be distinct from one another.[1] A 2015 multi-center study found differences in taxonomy, visual appearance, phytochemical profiles and DNA sequences when comparing L. meyenii and L. peruvianum, suggesting that they are different and that their names should not be considered synonyms.[5]

Description

[edit]
Maca plants

The growth habit, size, and proportions of maca are roughly similar to those of radishes and turnips, to which it is related, but it also resembles a parsnip. The green, fragrant tops are short and lie along the ground.[6] The thin, frilly leaves sprout in a rosette at the soil surface, not growing more than 12–20 cm (4.7–7.9 in) in height. The leaves show a dimorphism according to the reproductive stage. They are more prominent in the vegetative phase and continuously renew from the center as the outer leaves die. The off-white, self-fertile flowers are borne on a central raceme, and are followed by 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) siliculate fruits, each containing two small 2.0–2.5 mm (0.079–0.098 in) reddish-gray ovoid seeds. Seeds are the maca's only means of reproduction. Maca reproduces mainly through self-pollination and is an autogamous species. The genome consists of 64 chromosomes. Maca is a short-day plant from experiments with different day lengths.[1] Some sources consider the maca an annual plant, as in favorable years, it can complete a lifecycle within a year.[6]

Root

[edit]
Maca root powder

Maca is the only member of the genus Lepidium with a fleshy hypocotyl, which is fused with the taproot to form a rough inverted pear-shaped body. Traditionally, native growers have acknowledged four varieties of maca based on their root color: cream-yellow, half-purple, purple, and black; varying levels of anthocyanin are primarily responsible for the color differences.[2] Maca hypocotyls may be gold or cream, red, purple, blue, black, or green. Each is considered a "genetically unique variety," as the seeds of the parent plants grow to have roots of the same color. Specific phenotypes (in maca, 'phenotype' pertains mainly to root color) have been propagated exclusively to increase commercial interest.[7] Cream-colored roots are the most widely grown and are favored in Peru for their enhanced sweetness and size. Black maca is both sweet and slightly bitter.

Cultivation

[edit]

Growth conditions

[edit]

The natural environment of the maca is at 11–12ºS latitude and at an elevation of 3,800–4,400 m (12,500–14,400 ft) above sea level.[7] At this elevation, temperatures of the growing season vary from −2 to 13 °C (28 to 55 °F) in monthly mean minimum or maximum, respectively. Temperatures can decline, however, as low as −10 °C (14 °F) and frosts are common. Of the cultivated plants, maca is one of the most frost tolerant.[8] Strong winds and sunlight are also characteristics of the native habitat of the maca. Maca today is still mainly cultivated in Peru, in the high Andes of Bolivia, and to a small extent also in Brazil.[6] Maca can be cultivated beyond its natural elevation range, over 4,400 m (14,400 ft) above sea level.[9]

Growth

[edit]
Alpaca manure is used to fertilize maca croplands

Maca (Peruvian ginseng) seedlings usually emerge about one month after sowing, with the onset of the rainy season in October. In the vegetative phase, from May to June, the lower part of the hypocotyl, as well as the upper part of the tap root, grows in size. After 260 to 280 days, it is formed into the harvestable hypocotyl. If the root is left in the soil, it is dormant for two to three months in the time of the cold, dry season until August. Then, it will form a generative shoot on which the seeds ripen five months later. One plant can form up to 1000 tiny seeds, 1600 of which weigh about one gram. Thus, only relatively few plants are needed for propagation. The cultivated plants are selected for preferred size and color, then placed 50–100 mm deep in pits with alternate layers of grass and soil to protect them from drying out. They are fertilized heavily, as maca is an exhaustive crop of soil.[2] The cultivation cycle is strictly linked to seasonality.[1][6]

Traditionally, land preparation was done by hand. Nowadays, tractor plowing is also used. As maca grows on sites where no other crops can be cultivated, it is often found after long fallows of sheep grazing pastures.[1] Maca croplands, thus, traditionally are only fertilized with sheep and alpaca manure; however, fertilizer application could prevent soils from depleting in nutrients[citation needed].

Weeding or pesticide application usually is not necessary. The climate is not suitable for most weeds or pests. Nearly all maca cultivation in Peru is carried out organically; maca is seldom attacked. Maca is sometimes interplanted with potatoes, as it is known to maca farmers that the plant naturally repels most root crop pests.[citation needed]

Harvest

[edit]

The harvest is done manually, with the leaves left in the field as livestock feed or organic fertilizer.

The yield for a cultivated hectare may reach an estimated 15 tons in fresh hypocotyls, resulting in around 5 tons of dried material.[6] According to the Ministry of Agriculture of Peru, however, average maca yields for 2005 were only 7 t/ha, with a great variation between different sites.[1] Although maca has been cultivated outside the Andes, it is unclear whether it develops the same active constituents or potency outside of its natural habitat. Hypocotyls grown from Peruvian seeds form with difficulty at low elevations, in greenhouses, or warm climates.

Nutrition

[edit]
(1R,3S)-1-Methyltetrahydro-carboline-3-carboxylic acid found in maca

The average composition, on a dry matter basis, is 60–75% carbohydrates (primarily as polysaccharides),[10] 10–14% protein, 8.5% dietary fiber, and 2.2% fats.[11]

Phytochemicals

[edit]

Maca contains glucotropaeolin, m-methoxyglucotropaeolin, benzyl glucosinolates, polyphenols, (1R,3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA), and p-methoxybenzyl isothiocyanate.[7][12] Alkamides are also present in maca.[13] Maca contains several N-benzylamides referred to as macamides that are structurally related to anandamide.[14]

Safety

[edit]

No pharmacokinetic data have been published for maca.[12] The presence of (1R,3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA) in the extracts of maca indicate a potential safety issue as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (re. which see β-carboline) and possibility as a mutagen.[12] Due to these potential mutagenic properties of MTCA, the Agency for Sanitary Security in France warned consumers about the possible health risks of powdered maca root, a declaration disputed on the assumption that MTCA would be deactivated by boiling to process maca roots.[12] MTCA-like compounds are associated with craving behaviour.[12]

Marketing

[edit]

Due to its purported effect on fertility, maca grew in agricultural, commercial, and research interest from the 1990s to 2014.[1][15] Market studies showed low acceptance of the particular maca taste by consumers when first exposed to it, creating a barrier for popularity of this food as a culinary vegetable. The economic interest existed more in the perceived but unproven health effects of the root's constituents supplied as an extract in a dietary supplement.[1][15]

By 2014, agricultural and market interest in maca grew in China, but with challenges from Peruvian institutions who accused Chinese companies of illegally exporting maca and of biopiracy, as several Chinese patents had been filed to improve maca's propagation and genetic diversity.[16]

Uses and preparation

[edit]

Maca is mainly grown for the consumption of its roots. The majority of harvested maca is dried. In this form, the hypocotyls can be stored for several years.[1][17] In Peru, maca is prepared and consumed in various ways, although traditionally, it is always cooked. The freshly harvested hypocotyl may be roasted in a pit (called huatia) and is considered a delicacy. Fresh roots usually are available only in the vicinity of the growers. The root can also be mashed and boiled to produce a sweet, thick liquid, then dried and mixed with milk to form a porridge, mazamorra.[8] The cooked roots are also used with other vegetables in empanadas, jams, or soups. The root may be ground to produce flour for bread, cakes, or pancakes. If fermented, a weak beer called chicha de maca may be produced. In 2010, a U.S.-based brewery called Andean Brewing Company became the first company to produce and commercialize beer made from maca under the brand KUKA Beer.[18] From the black morphotype, a liquor is produced. Also, the leaves are edible or may serve as animal fodder. They can be prepared raw in salads or cooked much like L. sativum and L. campestre, which are closely related genetically.[citation needed]

Maca root powder

The prominent product for export is maca flour, a baking flour ground from the hard, dried roots. It is called harina de maca. Maca flour (powder) is a relatively inexpensive bulk commodity, like wheat flour or potato flour. The supplement industry uses both dry roots and maca flour for different types of processing and concentrated extracts. Another common form is maca, processed by gelatinization. This extrusion process separates and removes the tough fiber from the roots using gentle heat and pressure, as raw maca is difficult to digest due to its thick fibers.

Archaeological evidence exists for varying degrees of cultivation of maca in the Lake Junin region from around 1700 BC to 1200 AD.[19] Maca has been harvested and used by humans in the puna grasslands of the Andean Mountains for centuries. Contrary to frequent claims that maca cultivation was common in what is today Peru, until the late 1980s, maca has been cultivated only in a limited area around Lake Junin in central Peru. Historically, maca was often traded for lowland tropical food staples, such as maize, rice, manioc (tapioca roots), quinoa, and papaya. It also was used as a form of payment for Spanish imperial taxes.[6][20]

Traditional medicine

[edit]

Maca is said to have medicinal properties, but scientific research remains inconclusive.[21][22][23] A 2016 systematic review found evidence suggesting that it improves semen quality in healthy and infertile men.[24] A 2011 systematic review found the evidence for the effectiveness of maca as a treatment for menopausal symptoms in women inconclusive.[25]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Hermann, M, Bernet T. "The transition of maca from neglect to market prominence: Lessons for improving use strategies and market chains of minor crops." Agricultural Biodiversity and Livelihoods Discussion Papers 1. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, 101 p., 2009.
  2. ^ a b c León, Jorge (1964). "The "Maca" (Lepidium meyenii), a little known food plant of peru". Economic Botany. 18 (2): 122–127. doi:10.1007/BF02862707. ISSN 0013-0001. S2CID 1100455.
  3. ^ Taylor LG (2005). The healing power of rainforest herbs: a guide to understanding and using herbal medicinals. Garden City Park, NY: Square One Publishers. ISBN 0757001440.
  4. ^ "Lepidium meyenii Walp". USDA Plants database. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
  5. ^ Meissner, H. O.; Mscisz, A.; Kedzia, B.; Pisulewski, P.; Piatkowska, E. (2015). "Peruvian Maca: Two Scientific Names Lepidium Meyenii Walpers and Lepidium Peruvianum Chacon – Are They Phytochemically-Synonymous?". International Journal of Biomedical Science. 11 (1). Int J Biomed Sci. 2015 Mar; 11(1): 1–15: 1–15. PMC 4392557.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Flores, Hector; Walker, Guimares (April 2003). "Anean Root and Tuber Crops: Underground Rainbows". HortScience. 38 (2): 161–167. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.38.2.161.
  7. ^ a b c Clément, Céline; Diaz Grados; Diego A.; Bharathi A.; Khan I. A.; Mayer A. C.; Ponce A.; Dante D.; Manrique I.; Kreuzer M. (2010). "Influence of colour type and previous cultivation on secondary metabolites in hypocotyls and leaves of maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers)". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 90 (5): 861–869. Bibcode:2010JSFA...90..861C. doi:10.1002/jsfa.3896. PMID 20355123.
  8. ^ a b Lim, T. K. (2015). Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 802. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9511-1. ISBN 978-9401795104. S2CID 28380177.
  9. ^ Benco, Nancy (2006). The origins of agriculture: an international perspective. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. p. 196. ISBN 0817353496.
  10. ^ Muhammad, I; Zhao J.; Dunbar D.C.; Khan I.A. (2002). "Constituents of Lepidium meyenii 'maca'". Phytochemistry. 59 (1): 105–110. Bibcode:2002PChem..59..105M. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(01)00395-8. PMID 11754952.
  11. ^ "Database entry for Maca Lepidium meyenii Maca – Lepidium peruvianum, Chacon – Maca – Lepidium meyenii Maca". Rain-tree.com. Retrieved 2012-10-26.
  12. ^ a b c d e Corazza, O; Martinotti, G; Santacroce, R; Chillemi, E; Di Giannantonio, M; Schifano, F; Cellek, S (2014). "Sexual Enhancement Products for Sale Online: Raising Awareness of the Psychoactive Effects of Yohimbine, Maca, Horny Goat Weed, and Ginkgo biloba". BioMed Research International. 2014: 841798. doi:10.1155/2014/841798. PMC 4082836. PMID 25025070.
  13. ^ Zhao J, Muhammad I, Dunbar DC, Mustafa J, Khan IA (February 2005). "New alkamides from maca (Lepidium meyenii)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 53 (3): 690–3. doi:10.1021/jf048529t. PMID 15686421.
  14. ^ Zhu H, Hu B, Hua H, Liu C, Cheng Y, Guo Y, Yao W, Qian H (December 2020). "Macamides: A review of structures, isolation, therapeutics, and prospects". Food Research International. 138 (Pt B): 109819. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109819. PMID 33288191. S2CID 226344133.
  15. ^ a b Chris Kilham (6 August 2014). "Buying fever grips Peru's maca trade". Fox News.
  16. ^ "Peru accuses Chinese companies of biopiracy involving maca root". Moeller IP, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 2008.
  17. ^ National Research Council (1989). Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. p. 57.
  18. ^ New For TAP NY (Part Two): The KUKA Andean Brewing Company Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
  19. ^ Benco, Nancy (2006). The origins of agriculture: an international perspective. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. p. 191. ISBN 0-8173-5349-6.
  20. ^ Valentova, K.; Ulrichova J. (2003). "Smallanthus sonchifolius and Lepidium meyenii – prospective Andean crops for the prevention of chronic diseases". Biomedical Papers of the Medical Faculty of the University Palacký, Olomouc, Czechoslovakia. 147 (2): 119–130. doi:10.5507/bp.2003.017. PMID 15037892.
  21. ^ Ernst E, Posadzki P, Lee MS (September 2011). "Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) for sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction in older men and women: an overview of systematic reviews". Maturitas. 70 (1): 37–41. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.06.011. PMID 21782365.
  22. ^ Kathleen M. Zelman, MPH, RD, LD. "The Truth About Maca". WebMD.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Shin BC, Lee MS, Yang EJ, Lim HS, Ernst E (2010). "Maca (L. meyenii) for improving sexual function: a systematic review". BMC Complement Altern Med. 10: 44. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-10-44. PMC 2928177. PMID 20691074.
  24. ^ Lee, MS; Lee, HW; You, S; Ha, KT (October 2016). "The use of maca (Lepidium meyenii) to improve semen quality: A systematic review". Maturitas (Review). 92: 64–69. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2016.07.013. PMID 27621241.
  25. ^ Lee MS, Shin BC, Yang EJ, Lim HJ, Ernst E (2011). "Maca (Lepidium meyenii) for treatment of menopausal symptoms: A systematic review". Maturitas. 70 (3): 227–33. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2011.07.017. PMID 21840656.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lepidium meyenii.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/enwiki/w/index.php?title=Lepidium_meyenii&oldid=1259338311"