Handley Page Hermes: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox aircraft |
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|name = HP.81 Hermes |
|name = HP.81 Hermes |
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|image = HP.81 Hermes 4 G-ALDT Air Safaris Ringway 12.08.61 edited-3.jpg |
|image = HP.81 Hermes 4 G-ALDT Air Safaris Ringway 12.08.61 edited-3.jpg |
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|caption = Hermes IV of Air Safaris at [[Manchester Airport]] in 1961 |
|caption = Hermes IV of Air Safaris at [[Manchester Airport]] in 1961 |
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}}{{Infobox aircraft type |
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|type = Airliner |
|type = Airliner |
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|manufacturer = [[Handley Page]] |
|manufacturer = [[Handley Page]] |
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|designer = |
|designer = |
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|first_flight = 2 December 1945 |
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|introduction = 6 August 1950 |
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|retired = |
|retired = 1965 |
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|status = |
|status = |
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|primary_user = BOAC |
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|more_users = |
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|produced = 1945–1951 |
|produced = 1945–1951 |
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|number_built = 29 |
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|unit cost = |
|unit cost = |
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|variants with their own articles = |
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The '''Handley Page HP.81 Hermes''' was a |
The '''Handley Page HP.81 Hermes''' was a civilian [[airliner]] designed and produced by the [[United Kingdom|British]] aircraft manufacturer [[Handley Page]]. |
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The Hermes was developed during the 1940s in parallel with the closely related [[Handley Page Hastings]] military transport. It was a low-wing [[monoplane]], with most examples being powered by four [[piston engine]]s. Originally intended to enter service in advance of the Hastings, development of the Hermes was delayed by the fatal loss of the first prototype during its [[maiden flight]] on 2 December 1945. Measures were taken to improve the airliner's stability as well as to expand its capacity, which sufficiently impressed the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC) into placing a sizeable order for 25 ''HP 81 Hermes IV'' on 4 February 1947. A pair of [[turboprop]]-powered development aircraft were also ordered by the [[Ministry of Supply]] for experimental flights. |
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The Hermes entered airline service on 6 August 1950, having been delayed by roughly one year due to initial production aircraft being overweight. They would be operated by BOAC, the most prominent operator of the type, for less than a decade before they were sold onto other operators largely due to the rapid advances in airliners made during this era. During its later years of service, second hand Hermes were routinely used by various [[charter]] airlines. The final Hermes flight was performed sometime during 1969, by which point most of the type had already been scrapped as obsolete. A single example has been partially preserved. |
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==Design and development== |
==Design and development== |
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===Background=== |
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The Hermes can be traced back to discussions held by the [[Air Staff (United Kingdom)]] as early as summer 1943.<ref name="Barnes (76) p435"/> At the time, authorities were considering not only the need for an immediate successor to the [[Royal Air Force]]'s (RAF) fleet of [[Handley Page Halifax]] in the transport/freighter capacity, but also the role of an interim civil airliner for the [[post-war]] years. Accordingly, during December 1944, priority orders were placed for various projects, including both the military and civil programmes proposed by the British aircraft manufacturer [[Handley Page]].<ref name="Barnes (76) p435"/> For the civil airliner, [[List of Air Ministry specifications#1940–1949|Specification 15/43]] was issued by the [[Air Ministry]]; this called for a [[Cabin pressurization|pressurised]] civil transport that was capable of carrying up to 34 first class or 50 tourist class passengers.<ref name="Barnes (76) p435">Barnes 1976, p. 435.</ref> |
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During April 1944, at the urging of [[George Volkert]], Handley Page's chief designer, to settle production priorities, the company's founder and managing director [[Frederick Handley Page]] decided to merge the work of several projects and prioritise the transport aircraft; this also aligned with the release of [[List of Air Ministry specifications#1940–1949|Specification C.3/44]], which sought a multipurpose transport.<ref name="Barnes (76) p4356">Barnes 1976, pp. 435-436.</ref> Handley Page's proposal was accepted with no meaningful alterations sought. Shortly thereafter, it was recognised that development of the civil transport posed less of a challenge than the military transport project, thus it was decided that the airliner programme would be flown first.<ref name="Barnes (76) p436">Barnes 1976, p. 436.</ref> The military transport aircraft, which would share a relatively high level of similarities with the civil project, would enter service as the [[Handley Page Hastings]], while the civil transport became known as the Hermes.<ref name="Jackson v2 p247">Jackson 1973, p. 247.</ref><ref name="Barnes (76) p436-437"/> |
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Despite the intentional similarities, there were distinct design differences between the two aircraft. Unlike the [[Conventional landing gear|tailwheel]] of the Hastings, the Hermes was planned to have a nosewheel [[landing gear]], although the first two [[prototype]]s were completed with a [[Conventional landing gear|tailwheel undercarriage]].<ref name="Barnes (76) p436-437"/> Despite the differences, both aircraft remained similar enough that they were produced using the same primary assembly [[Jig (tool)|jigs]]. The first prototype was effectively an unpressurised "bare shell", while the second featured a [[Cabin pressurization|pressurised cabin]] and was fully equipped in most respects.<ref name="Barnes (76) p436-437">Barnes 1976, pp. 436–437.</ref> On 9 November 1945, a mock-up conference was held at the company's [[Cricklewood]] facility, attended by various airline officials and industry figures. Rapid progress on the first prototype's construction enabled it to commence ground trials at [[Radlett]] on 1 December 1945.<ref name="Barnes (76)p437"/> |
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===Into flight and redesign=== |
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The Hermes was built to meet the 1944 Air Ministry specification for a [[Cabin pressurization|pressurised]] civil transport capable of carrying 34 first-class or 50 tourist-class passengers, at the same time as the RAF required a new transport to replace its [[Handley Page Halifax]], for which Handley Page designed the very similar [[Handley Page Hastings]].<ref name="Jackson v2 p247">Jackson 1973, p.247.</ref> Unlike the [[Conventional landing gear|tailwheel]] Hastings, the Hermes was planned to have a nosewheel undercarriage, although the first two prototypes used a tailwheel undercarriage, of which the first was an unpressurised "bare shell" and the second to be pressurised and fully equipped.<ref name="Barnes (76) p436-437">Barnes 1976, pp.437–437.</ref> It was intended to introduce the Hermes before the Hastings, but production was delayed after the first prototype (HP 68 Hermes 1), registered G-AGSS crashed on its maiden flight shortly after takeoff on 2 December 1945.<ref name="Barnes (76)p437">Barnes 1976, p437.</ref> Handley Page's chief test pilot and the chief test observer were both killed.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1945/1945%20-%202419.html "Loss of the prototype Hermes"] ''Flight'' 6 December 1945.</ref> |
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While Handley Page had intended for the Hermes to be introduced in advance of the Hastings from an early stage of development, a delay to its production was necessitated after the first prototype (HP 68 Hermes 1), registered ''G-AGSS'', crashed during its [[maiden flight]] shortly after takeoff on 2 December 1945.<ref name="Barnes (76)p437">Barnes 1976, p. 437.</ref> It is believed that the aircraft had encountered severe longitudinal instability due to [[Elevator (aeronautics)|elevator]] overbalance. Handley Page's chief test pilot and the chief test observer were both killed in the incident, while the prototype was completely destroyed by a post-impact fire.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1945/1945%20-%202419.html "Loss of the prototype Hermes"] ''Flight'' 6 December 1945.</ref> |
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In order to sufficiently resolve the instability that caused the fatal crash, development of the civil Hermes was protracted, while work on the Hastings progressed more smoothly.<ref name="Barnes (76) p437-438">Barnes 1976, pp. 437–438.</ref> This delay presented the opportunity to undertake design revisions and improvements; it was decided that the second prototype's length would be extended to produce the HP 74 Hermes II. The prospects of powering the type with [[turboprop]] engines was also investigated around this time, but ultimately decided against.<ref name="Barnes (76) p460">Barnes 1976, p. 460.</ref> The first Hermes II (''G-AGUB'') performed its first flight on 2 September 1947; it quickly proved to not only have greater stability, but to also possess a superior lift coefficient to the Hastings as well. On 4 September 1948, the type received its [[certificate of airworthiness]], clearing it for service.<ref name="Jackson v2 p247"/><ref name="Barnes (76) p462">Barnes 1976, p. 462.</ref> |
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Development of the civil Hermes was delayed to resolve the instability that caused the accident to the first prototype, and the chance was taken to lengthen the second prototype, producing the HP 74 Hermes II (''G-AGUB''), first flying on 2 September 1947.<ref name="Jackson v2 p247"/> |
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On 4 February 1947, firm orders were placed by the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC) for 25 of the definitive ''HP 81 Hermes IV''. This model was furnished with a [[tricycle undercarriage]] and powered by four [[Bristol Hercules 763|Bristol Hercules]] [[radial engine]]s, each capable of generating up to 2,100 hp (1,570 kW).<ref name="Barnes (76) p4601"/> Additionally, a pair of ''Hermes V'' airliners were also ordered, the primary difference of this model was the use of four [[Bristol Theseus]] turboprop engines instead. Further turboprop-powered developments of the Hermes were also proposed to potential customers as a competitor to types such as the [[Bristol Britannia]].<ref name="Barnes (76) p4601">Barnes 1976, pp. 460-461.</ref> |
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==Operational history== |
==Operational history== |
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===Airline operations=== |
===Airline operations=== |
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[[File:BOAC Hermes IV at Heathrow.jpg|thumb|right|BOAC Hermes IV at [[London Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] in 1953]] |
[[File:BOAC Hermes IV at Heathrow.jpg|thumb|right|BOAC Hermes IV at [[London Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] in 1953]] |
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[[File:HP Hermes IV Britavia 1954.jpg|thumb|right|Hermes |
[[File:HP Hermes IV Britavia 1954.jpg|thumb|right|Hermes IV of [[Britavia]] at [[Blackbushe Airport]] in 1954]] |
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Despite the first Hermes IV (registered ''G-AKFP'') performing its first flight relatively quickly on 5 September 1948,<ref name="Jackson v2 p247"/> and quantity production being promptly established, BOAC was somewhat unsatisfied by the airliner, primarily due to the early aircraft being overweight.<ref name="Barnes (76) p465">Barnes 1976, p. 465.</ref> This was in part due to the use of Hastings components and ad-hoc modifications to accelerate flight trials; it was promptly agreed that weight-saving modifications were to be made prior to BOAC issuing its final acceptance of the Hermes. Design alterations to reduce weight included the adoption of lighter floor members.<ref name="Barnes (76) p4656">Barnes 1976, pp. 465-466.</ref> |
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On 6 August 1950, the Hermes IV finally entered service with BOAC, taking over from the [[Avro York]] on the West Africa service from London Heathrow to [[Accra]] via [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], [[Kano (city)|Kano]] and [[Lagos]], with services to [[Kenya]] and [[South Africa]] commencing before the end of the year.<ref name="Jackson v2 p248-249">Jackson 1973, pp. 248–249.</ref><ref name="Barnes (76) p466">Barnes 1976, p. 466.</ref> The Hermes IV was used by BOAC on routes to West and South [[Africa]]. They were quickly replaced, however by the reliable [[Canadair North Star|Canadair Argonaut]] in 1952, although some re-entered service in July 1954 following the grounding of the [[de Havilland Comet]], being retired again in December.<ref name="Jackson v2 p49">Jackson 1973, p. 249.</ref><ref name="Barnes (76) p471">Barnes 1976, p. 471.</ref> |
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This was not the end of the Hermes in airline service, however, as surplus aircraft were sold to independent [[charter airline]]s, with [[Airwork Services|Airwork]] purchasing four in 1952, others being operated by [[British Aviation Services|Britavia]] and [[Skyways (British airline)|Skyways]], particularly in the trooping role.<ref name="Jackson v2 p249-250">Jackson 1973, |
This was not the end of the Hermes in airline service, however, as surplus aircraft were sold to independent [[charter airline]]s, with [[Airwork Services|Airwork]] purchasing four in 1952, others being operated by [[British Aviation Services|Britavia]] and [[Skyways (British airline)|Skyways]], particularly in the trooping role.<ref name="Jackson v2 p249-250">Jackson 1973, pp. 249–250.</ref> Many of these aircraft were fitted with Hercules 773 engines, which could be operated on lower [[octane rating|octane]] fuel than the original Hercules 763s, being designated as Hermes IVA. They returned to Hermes IV standards when fuel supplies improved.<ref name="Jackson v2 p249-250"/><ref name="Barnes (76) p4712">Barnes 1976, pp. 471-472.</ref> |
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Later, the Hermes were flown on inclusive tour holiday flights from the UK. The last Hermes, ''G-ALDA'', flown by Air Links Limited, was retired on 13 December 1964, and was scrapped nine days later.<ref name="Jackson v2 p251">Jackson 1973, p.251.</ref> |
Later, the Hermes were flown on inclusive tour holiday flights from the UK. The last operational civil Hermes, ''G-ALDA'', flown by Air Links Limited, was retired on 13 December 1964, and was scrapped nine days later.<ref name="Jackson v2 p251">Jackson 1973, p. 251.</ref><ref name="Barnes (76) p472">Barnes 1976, p. 472.</ref> |
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===Development aircraft=== |
===Development aircraft=== |
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[[File:Hermes V at Farnborough.jpg|thumb|right|Hermes V G-ALEU at the Farnborough SBAC show in 1950. Note the slimmer nacelles of the Theseus turboprop engines]] |
[[File:Hermes V at Farnborough.jpg|thumb|right|Hermes V G-ALEU at the Farnborough SBAC show in 1950. Note the slimmer nacelles of the Theseus turboprop engines]] |
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The two turboprop Hermes V were owned by the [[Ministry of Supply]] and made their first flights in August 1949. They were used for development of the [[Bristol Theseus]] turboprop engine. The first was lost in a wheels-up landing at [[RAF Chilbolton|Chilbolton airfield]] on 10 April 1951, but the second continued development flying with the [[A&AEE |
The two turboprop Hermes V were owned by the [[Ministry of Supply]] and made their first flights in August 1949.<ref name="Barnes (76) p4646">Barnes 1976, pp. 464, 466.</ref> They were used for development of the [[Bristol Theseus]] turboprop engine. The first aircraft was lost in a wheels-up landing at [[RAF Chilbolton|Chilbolton airfield]] on 10 April 1951, but the second continued development flying with the [[Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment]] (A&AEE) at [[RAF Boscombe Down|MOD Boscombe Down]] and the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] (RAE) at [[Farnborough Airport]] until its retirement during September 1953.<ref name="Barnes (76) p46679">Barnes 1976, pp. 466-467, 469.</ref> |
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The prototype Hermes II was given military markings in October 1953 as ''VX234'' and was used for various research and development programmes, including the testing of airborne radar for the [[Royal Radar Establishment]] at [[RAF Defford]], Worcestershire |
The prototype Hermes II was given military markings in October 1953 as ''VX234'' and was used for various research and development programmes, including the testing of airborne radar for the [[Royal Radar Establishment]] at [[RAF Defford]], Worcestershire. It was finally retired in 1969, at which point the aircraft had been the final Hermes in operation.<ref name="Barnes (76) p472-474">Barnes 1976, pp. 472–474.</ref> |
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==Preservation== |
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The fuselage of a Hermes IV (the former [[BOAC]] aircraft G-ALDG named ''Horsa'') is preserved at the [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]]. |
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The fuselage of a Hermes IV (the former [[BOAC]] aircraft G-ALDG named ''Horsa'') is preserved at the [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]].<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.britairliners.org/airliner-detail?type=handley-page-hermes-iv-(fuselage)&id=35 |title = Handley Page Hermes IV (Fuselage) |publisher = britairliners.org |accessdate = 28 September 2021}}</ref> |
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==Variants== |
==Variants== |
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==Operators== |
==Operators== |
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[[File:G-ALDA HP Hermes 4 Air Links - G-ANTK Avro York Dan Air LGW (early 1960's) (6890683335).jpg|thumb|An [[Air Links]] Hermes at [[Gatwick Airport]], circa 1962]] |
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[[File:G-ALDG Handley Page HP-81 Hermes 4 (cn 08) BOAC. (5661319091).jpg|thumb|Preserved fuselage of ''G-ALDG'', at the [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]], 2010]] |
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;{{BAH}} |
;{{BAH}} |
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* [[Bahamas Airways]] |
* [[Bahamas Airways]] |
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==Accidents and incidents== |
==Accidents and incidents== |
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* 3 December 1945 - Hermes I G-AGSS the prototype Hermes crashed on the first test flight soon after takeoff three miles from Radlett Aerodrome. The two Handley Page test pilots were killed. |
* 3 December 1945 - Hermes I ''G-AGSS'' the prototype Hermes crashed on the first test flight soon after takeoff three miles from Radlett Aerodrome. The two Handley Page test pilots were killed. |
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* 26 May 1952 - Hermes IV G-ALDN (''Horus''), operated by BOAC, en route from [[Tripoli, Libya]], to [[Kano, Nigeria]], flew off course for several hours and ran out of fuel, force landing in the [[Sahara Desert]] south of [[Atar, Mauritania]]. The passengers and crew all survived and spent several days in the desert before making their way to an oasis, where First Officer Ted Haslam, who had suffered a head injury in the crash, died.<ref>Fisher, John Hayes (Producer). (2003). Desert Rescue [Television series episode]. In ''Meet the ancestors.'' London: British Broadcasting Corporation.</ref><ref>Magna, April 2014, the magazine of the Friends of The National Archives, London.</ref> |
* 26 May 1952 - Hermes IV ''G-ALDN'' (''Horus''), operated by BOAC, en route from [[Tripoli, Libya]], to [[Kano, Nigeria]], flew off course for several hours and ran out of fuel, force landing in the [[Sahara Desert]] south of [[Atar, Mauritania]]. The passengers and crew all survived and spent several days in the desert before making their way to an oasis, where First Officer Ted Haslam, who had suffered a head injury in the crash, died.<ref>Fisher, John Hayes (Producer). (2003). Desert Rescue [Television series episode]. In ''Meet the ancestors.'' London: British Broadcasting Corporation.</ref><ref>Magna, April 2014, the magazine of the Friends of The National Archives, London.</ref><ref>{{IMDb title|qid=Q123680958|title=Lost in the Sahara}}</ref> |
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* 25 August 1952 - Hermes IV 'G-ALDF' operated by Air-work Ltd en route from Blackbushe to Khartoum via Malta, ditched off Sicily (near Trapani) at 0300 LT, following failure of two engines and the prospect of the other two engines failing. Electrical power also failed, so no lights or radio available. The ditching was "brilliantly performed" and successful, but 6 passengers (including 4 young children) and one air hostess drowned, mainly due to defective life jackets and lack of a life raft for the children. Investigation report by the Italian authorities (not published in UK) is summarised in ICAO Circular 38-AN/33.<ref> baaa-acro.com/sites/default/files/import/uploads/2017</ref> Contains some criticism of the crew and operating company and recommended improvements to the aircraft and to safety provisions. Matter raised in Parliament by Wedgwood Benn MP.<ref>{{citation | url = https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1953/nov/19/aircraft-crash-sicily-report | contribution = Aircraft crash, Sicily (Report) | date = 1953-11-19 | title = House of Commons Paper, Series 5 | first = Wedgwood | last = Benn | volume = 520 | page = 1965 | publisher = UK Parliament }}</ref> |
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* 4 March 1956 - Hermes IV G-ALDW operated by Skyways Limited was destroyed on the ground by a time-bomb in the forward freight compartment. The aircraft was at [[Nicosia]] Airport, Cyprus when the explosion occurred 20 minutes before the aircraft was due to depart for the United Kingdom with 68 passengers.<ref>"[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1956/1956%20-%200310.html Civil Aviation: Hermes Sabotage]". ''[[Flight International|Flight]]''. 16 March 1956, p.306.</ref> There were no fatalities.<ref>{{cite news |
* 4 March 1956 - Hermes IV ''G-ALDW'' operated by Skyways Limited was destroyed on the ground by a time-bomb in the forward freight compartment. The aircraft was at [[Nicosia]] Airport, Cyprus when the explosion occurred 20 minutes before the aircraft was due to depart for the United Kingdom with 68 passengers.<ref>"[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1956/1956%20-%200310.html Civil Aviation: Hermes Sabotage]". ''[[Flight International|Flight]]''. 16 March 1956, p.306.</ref> There were no fatalities.<ref>{{cite news | title=ASN Aircraft accident Handley Page HP.81 Hermes IV G-ALDW Nicosia | date=26 October 2014 | publisher=Aviation Safety Network | url =http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19560304-0 | access-date = 2014-10-26 }}</ref> |
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* 5 August 1956 - Hermes IV G-ALDK operated by Britavia suffered the collapse of the nose undercarriage at [[Jinnah International Airport|Drigh Road Airport]], [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]. The aircraft was damaged beyond economic repair.<ref name=Aeroplane1210>{{cite magazine|title=Hermes prang|first=Lyn |last=Chesterfield |magazine=Aeroplane |publisher=Kelsey Publishing |issue=January 2011 |page=82}}</ref> |
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* 5 |
* 5 August 1956 - Hermes IV ''G-ALDK'' operated by Britavia suffered the collapse of the nose undercarriage at [[Jinnah International Airport|Drigh Road Airport]], [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]]. The aircraft was damaged beyond economic repair.<ref name=Aeroplane1210>{{cite magazine|title=Hermes prang|first=Lyn |last=Chesterfield |magazine=Aeroplane |publisher=Kelsey Publishing |issue=January 2011 |page=82}}</ref> |
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* |
* 5 November 1956 - Hermes IVa ''G-ALDJ'' operated by Britavia crashed on night approach to [[Blackbushe Airport|Blackbushe Aerodrome]], [[England]] in bad weather. Seven of the 80 occupants died.<ref>ICAO Accident Digest No.8, Circular 54-AN/49 (138–147)</ref> |
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* 9 October 1960 - Hermes IV G-ALDC of [[Falcon Airways]] overran the runway on landing at [[Southend Airport]], ending up across the [[Shenfield to Southend Line|Shenfield to Southend]] railway line. The aircraft was written off but all 76 people on board survived.<ref name=ASN091060>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19601009-0 |title=G-ALDC Accident description |publisher=Aviation Safety Network | |
* 1 April 1958 - Hermes IV ''G-ALDV'' operated by Skyways Limited. Crashed at Meesden Green, close to Stansted Airport, whilst on an airtest after an engine change. The crew of three, Capt. Rayment, Capt. West and FE. N Bradley were all killed. |
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* 9 October 1960 - Hermes IV ''G-ALDC'' of [[Falcon Airways]] overran the runway on landing at [[Southend Airport]], ending up across the [[Shenfield to Southend Line|Shenfield to Southend]] railway line. The aircraft was written off but all 76 people on board survived.<ref name=ASN091060>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19601009-0 |title=G-ALDC Accident description |publisher=Aviation Safety Network |access-date=22 March 2011}}</ref> |
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==Specifications (Hermes IV)== |
==Specifications (Hermes IV)== |
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[[File:Hermes 4 |
[[File:Handley Page Hermes 4 3-view silhouette.jpg|300px|right|Hermes IV]] |
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{{Aircraft specs |
{{Aircraft specs |
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|ref =Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1950-51<ref name=JAWA1950-51>{{cite book |title=Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1950-51 |
|ref = ''Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1950-51''<ref name=JAWA1950-51>{{cite book |title=Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1950-51 |editor1-last=Bridgman |editor1-first=Leonard |year=1950 |publisher=Sampson Low, Marston & Co |location=London |page=65c}}</ref> |
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|prime units?=imp |
|prime units?= imp |
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<!-- |
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General characteristics |
General characteristics |
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|crew= |
|crew= Five flight crew, plus cabin crew |
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|capacity=40 - 82 passengers |
|capacity= 40 - 82 passengers |
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|length ft=96 |
|length ft= 96 |
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|length in=10 |
|length in= 10 |
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|length note= |
|length note= |
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|span ft=113 |
|span ft= 113 |
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|span in= |
|span in= |
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|span note= |
|span note= |
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|height ft=29 |
|height ft= 29 |
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|height in=11 |
|height in= 11 |
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|height note= |
|height note= |
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|wing area sqft= |
|wing area sqft= 1,408 |
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|wing area note= |
|wing area note= |
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|aspect ratio=<!-- sailplanes --> |
|aspect ratio=<!-- sailplanes --> |
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|airfoil='''root:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA 23021]]; '''tip:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA 23007]]<ref name="Selig">{{cite web |last1=Lednicer |first1=David |title=The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage |url=https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html |website=m-selig.ae.illinois.edu | |
|airfoil='''root:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA 23021]]; '''tip:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA 23007]]<ref name="Selig">{{cite web |last1=Lednicer |first1=David |title=The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage |url=https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html |website=m-selig.ae.illinois.edu |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref> |
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|empty weight lb= |
|empty weight lb= 55,350 |
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|empty weight note=basic equipped |
|empty weight note= basic equipped |
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|gross weight lb= |
|gross weight lb= |
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|gross weight note= |
|gross weight note= |
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|max takeoff weight lb= |
|max takeoff weight lb= 82,000 |
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|max takeoff weight note= |
|max takeoff weight note= |
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*'''Maximum landing weight:''' {{cvt|75000|lb|0}} |
* '''Maximum landing weight:''' {{cvt|75000|lb|0}} |
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|fuel capacity={{cvt|3224|impgal|USgal l|0}} in integral wing tanks ; 4x {{cvt|37|impgal|USgal l|0}} oil tanks |
|fuel capacity= {{cvt|3224|impgal|USgal l|0}} in integral wing tanks ; 4x {{cvt|37|impgal|USgal l|0}} oil tanks |
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|more general= |
|more general= |
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Powerplant |
Powerplant |
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--> |
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|eng1 number=4 |
|eng1 number= 4 |
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|eng1 name=[[Bristol Hercules 763]] |
|eng1 name= [[Bristol Hercules 763|Bristol Hercules]] |
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|eng1 type=14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines |
|eng1 type= 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines |
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|eng1 hp= |
|eng1 hp= 2,020 |
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|eng1 note=for take-off |
|eng1 note= for take-off |
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|prop blade number=4 |
|prop blade number= 4 |
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|prop name=[[de Havilland Hydromatic]] |
|prop name= [[de Havilland Hydromatic]] |
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|prop dia ft=13 |
|prop dia ft= 13 |
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|prop dia in=<!-- propeller aircraft --> |
|prop dia in=<!-- propeller aircraft --> |
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|prop dia note=constant-speed fully-feathering reversible-pitch propellers |
|prop dia note= constant-speed fully-feathering reversible-pitch propellers |
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Performance |
Performance |
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|max speed mph=357 |
|max speed mph= 357 |
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|max speed note=at {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} |
|max speed note= at {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} |
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|cruise speed mph=266 |
|cruise speed mph= 266 |
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|cruise speed note=maximum weak mixture at {{cvt|10000|ft|0}} |
|cruise speed note= maximum weak mixture at {{cvt|10000|ft|0}} |
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::::{{cvt|274|mph|kn km/h|0}} maximum weak mixture at {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} |
::::{{cvt|274|mph|kn km/h|0}} maximum weak mixture at {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} |
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::::{{cvt|213|mph|kn km/h|0}} maximum range speed at {{cvt|10000|ft|0}} |
::::{{cvt|213|mph|kn km/h|0}} maximum range speed at {{cvt|10000|ft|0}} |
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|minimum control speed mph= |
|minimum control speed mph= |
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|minimum control speed note= |
|minimum control speed note= |
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|range miles= |
|range miles= 3,147-3,554 |
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|range note=with {{cvt|2213|lb|0}} payload at {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} dependent on speed |
|range note= with {{cvt|2213|lb|0}} payload at {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} dependent on speed |
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|ferry range miles= |
|ferry range miles= |
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|ferry range note= |
|ferry range note= |
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|endurance=<!-- if range unknown --> |
|endurance=<!-- if range unknown --> |
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|ceiling ft= |
|ceiling ft= 24,500 |
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|ceiling note= |
|ceiling note= |
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|climb rate ftmin= |
|climb rate ftmin= 1,030 |
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|climb rate note= |
|climb rate note= |
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|time to altitude=<br> |
|time to altitude=<br> |
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:* {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} in 25 minutes |
:* {{cvt|20000|ft|0}} in 25 minutes |
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|lift to drag= |
|lift to drag= |
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|wing loading lb/sqft=58.2 |
|wing loading lb/sqft= 58.2 |
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|wing loading note= |
|wing loading note= |
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|fuel consumption lb/mi= |
|fuel consumption lb/mi= |
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|power/mass={{cvt|0.104|hp/lb}} |
|power/mass= {{cvt|0.104|hp/lb}} |
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|more performance= |
|more performance= |
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*'''Take-off run:''' {{cvt|3330|ft|0}} at {{cvt|82000|lb|0}} |
* '''Take-off run:''' {{cvt|3330|ft|0}} at {{cvt|82000|lb|0}} |
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*'''Take-off distance to {{cvt|50|ft|0}}:''' {{cvt|4440|ft|0}} |
* '''Take-off distance to {{cvt|50|ft|0}}:''' {{cvt|4440|ft|0}} |
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*'''Landing distance from {{cvt|50|ft|0}}:''' {{cvt|4224|ft|0}} |
* '''Landing distance from {{cvt|50|ft|0}}:''' {{cvt|4224|ft|0}} |
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|avionics= |
|avionics= |
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}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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===Citations=== |
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{{reflist}} |
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{{Reflist}} |
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===Bibliography=== |
===Bibliography=== |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{ |
{{Commons category|Handley Page Hermes}} |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194624/http://www.britishaircraft.co.uk/aircraftpage.php?ID=235 Hastings at British Aircraft Directory] (archive.org copy) |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194624/http://www.britishaircraft.co.uk/aircraftpage.php?ID=235 Hastings at British Aircraft Directory] (archive.org copy) |
||
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002009/http://www.handleypage.com/Aircraft_hp81.html Hermes] (archive.org copy) |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927002009/http://www.handleypage.com/Aircraft_hp81.html Hermes] (archive.org copy) |
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[[Category:1940s British airliners]] |
[[Category:1940s British airliners]] |
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[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1945]] |
[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1945]] |
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[[Category:Four-engined piston aircraft]] |
[[Category:Four-engined piston aircraft]] |
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[[Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear]] |
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Latest revision as of 15:58, 25 November 2024
| HP.81 Hermes | |
|---|---|
 Hermes IV of Air Safaris at Manchester Airport in 1961 | |
| General information | |
| Type | Airliner |
| Manufacturer | Handley Page |
| Primary user | BOAC |
| Number built | 29 |
| History | |
| Manufactured | 1945–1951 |
| Introduction date | 6 August 1950 |
| First flight | 2 December 1945 |
| Retired | 1965 |
| Developed from | Handley Page Hastings |
The Handley Page HP.81 Hermes was a civilian airliner designed and produced by the British aircraft manufacturer Handley Page.
The Hermes was developed during the 1940s in parallel with the closely related Handley Page Hastings military transport. It was a low-wing monoplane, with most examples being powered by four piston engines. Originally intended to enter service in advance of the Hastings, development of the Hermes was delayed by the fatal loss of the first prototype during its maiden flight on 2 December 1945. Measures were taken to improve the airliner's stability as well as to expand its capacity, which sufficiently impressed the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) into placing a sizeable order for 25 HP 81 Hermes IV on 4 February 1947. A pair of turboprop-powered development aircraft were also ordered by the Ministry of Supply for experimental flights.
The Hermes entered airline service on 6 August 1950, having been delayed by roughly one year due to initial production aircraft being overweight. They would be operated by BOAC, the most prominent operator of the type, for less than a decade before they were sold onto other operators largely due to the rapid advances in airliners made during this era. During its later years of service, second hand Hermes were routinely used by various charter airlines. The final Hermes flight was performed sometime during 1969, by which point most of the type had already been scrapped as obsolete. A single example has been partially preserved.
Design and development
[edit]Background
[edit]The Hermes can be traced back to discussions held by the Air Staff (United Kingdom) as early as summer 1943.[1] At the time, authorities were considering not only the need for an immediate successor to the Royal Air Force's (RAF) fleet of Handley Page Halifax in the transport/freighter capacity, but also the role of an interim civil airliner for the post-war years. Accordingly, during December 1944, priority orders were placed for various projects, including both the military and civil programmes proposed by the British aircraft manufacturer Handley Page.[1] For the civil airliner, Specification 15/43 was issued by the Air Ministry; this called for a pressurised civil transport that was capable of carrying up to 34 first class or 50 tourist class passengers.[1]
During April 1944, at the urging of George Volkert, Handley Page's chief designer, to settle production priorities, the company's founder and managing director Frederick Handley Page decided to merge the work of several projects and prioritise the transport aircraft; this also aligned with the release of Specification C.3/44, which sought a multipurpose transport.[2] Handley Page's proposal was accepted with no meaningful alterations sought. Shortly thereafter, it was recognised that development of the civil transport posed less of a challenge than the military transport project, thus it was decided that the airliner programme would be flown first.[3] The military transport aircraft, which would share a relatively high level of similarities with the civil project, would enter service as the Handley Page Hastings, while the civil transport became known as the Hermes.[4][5]
Despite the intentional similarities, there were distinct design differences between the two aircraft. Unlike the tailwheel of the Hastings, the Hermes was planned to have a nosewheel landing gear, although the first two prototypes were completed with a tailwheel undercarriage.[5] Despite the differences, both aircraft remained similar enough that they were produced using the same primary assembly jigs. The first prototype was effectively an unpressurised "bare shell", while the second featured a pressurised cabin and was fully equipped in most respects.[5] On 9 November 1945, a mock-up conference was held at the company's Cricklewood facility, attended by various airline officials and industry figures. Rapid progress on the first prototype's construction enabled it to commence ground trials at Radlett on 1 December 1945.[6]
Into flight and redesign
[edit]While Handley Page had intended for the Hermes to be introduced in advance of the Hastings from an early stage of development, a delay to its production was necessitated after the first prototype (HP 68 Hermes 1), registered G-AGSS, crashed during its maiden flight shortly after takeoff on 2 December 1945.[6] It is believed that the aircraft had encountered severe longitudinal instability due to elevator overbalance. Handley Page's chief test pilot and the chief test observer were both killed in the incident, while the prototype was completely destroyed by a post-impact fire.[7]
In order to sufficiently resolve the instability that caused the fatal crash, development of the civil Hermes was protracted, while work on the Hastings progressed more smoothly.[8] This delay presented the opportunity to undertake design revisions and improvements; it was decided that the second prototype's length would be extended to produce the HP 74 Hermes II. The prospects of powering the type with turboprop engines was also investigated around this time, but ultimately decided against.[9] The first Hermes II (G-AGUB) performed its first flight on 2 September 1947; it quickly proved to not only have greater stability, but to also possess a superior lift coefficient to the Hastings as well. On 4 September 1948, the type received its certificate of airworthiness, clearing it for service.[4][10]
On 4 February 1947, firm orders were placed by the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) for 25 of the definitive HP 81 Hermes IV. This model was furnished with a tricycle undercarriage and powered by four Bristol Hercules radial engines, each capable of generating up to 2,100 hp (1,570 kW).[11] Additionally, a pair of Hermes V airliners were also ordered, the primary difference of this model was the use of four Bristol Theseus turboprop engines instead. Further turboprop-powered developments of the Hermes were also proposed to potential customers as a competitor to types such as the Bristol Britannia.[11]
Operational history
[edit]Airline operations
[edit]
Despite the first Hermes IV (registered G-AKFP) performing its first flight relatively quickly on 5 September 1948,[4] and quantity production being promptly established, BOAC was somewhat unsatisfied by the airliner, primarily due to the early aircraft being overweight.[12] This was in part due to the use of Hastings components and ad-hoc modifications to accelerate flight trials; it was promptly agreed that weight-saving modifications were to be made prior to BOAC issuing its final acceptance of the Hermes. Design alterations to reduce weight included the adoption of lighter floor members.[13]
On 6 August 1950, the Hermes IV finally entered service with BOAC, taking over from the Avro York on the West Africa service from London Heathrow to Accra via Tripoli, Kano and Lagos, with services to Kenya and South Africa commencing before the end of the year.[14][15] The Hermes IV was used by BOAC on routes to West and South Africa. They were quickly replaced, however by the reliable Canadair Argonaut in 1952, although some re-entered service in July 1954 following the grounding of the de Havilland Comet, being retired again in December.[16][17]
This was not the end of the Hermes in airline service, however, as surplus aircraft were sold to independent charter airlines, with Airwork purchasing four in 1952, others being operated by Britavia and Skyways, particularly in the trooping role.[18] Many of these aircraft were fitted with Hercules 773 engines, which could be operated on lower octane fuel than the original Hercules 763s, being designated as Hermes IVA. They returned to Hermes IV standards when fuel supplies improved.[18][19]
Later, the Hermes were flown on inclusive tour holiday flights from the UK. The last operational civil Hermes, G-ALDA, flown by Air Links Limited, was retired on 13 December 1964, and was scrapped nine days later.[20][21]
Development aircraft
[edit]
The two turboprop Hermes V were owned by the Ministry of Supply and made their first flights in August 1949.[22] They were used for development of the Bristol Theseus turboprop engine. The first aircraft was lost in a wheels-up landing at Chilbolton airfield on 10 April 1951, but the second continued development flying with the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at MOD Boscombe Down and the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) at Farnborough Airport until its retirement during September 1953.[23]
The prototype Hermes II was given military markings in October 1953 as VX234 and was used for various research and development programmes, including the testing of airborne radar for the Royal Radar Establishment at RAF Defford, Worcestershire. It was finally retired in 1969, at which point the aircraft had been the final Hermes in operation.[24]
Preservation
[edit]The fuselage of a Hermes IV (the former BOAC aircraft G-ALDG named Horsa) is preserved at the Imperial War Museum Duxford.[25]
Variants
[edit]All 29 aircraft were built at Radlett Aerodrome, Hertfordshire, England.
- HP.68 Hermes I
- Prototype powered by four 1,650 hp (1,230 kW) Bristol Hercules 101 radial engines. One built.
- HP.74 Hermes II
- Prototype powered by four 1,675 hp (1,249 kW) Bristol Hercules 121 engines and a 13 ft (4.57 m) longer forward fuselage. One built.
- HP.81 Hermes IV
- Production aircraft with tricycle landing gear, powered by four 2,100 hp (1,570 kW) Bristol Hercules 763 engines. Twenty-five built.
- HP.81 Hermes IVa
- Hermes IV modified to use 100-octane fuel, with the engine redesignated Hercules 773. Most converted back to Hermes IV standard.
- HP.82 Hermes V
- Development aircraft with four 2,490 hp (1,860 kW) Bristol Theseus 502 turboprops. Two built.
Operators
[edit]_(6890683335).jpg)
_BOAC._(5661319091).jpg)
- Air Links
- Air Safaris
- Airwork
- Britavia
- British Overseas Airways Corporation
- Falcon Airways
- Royal Radar Establishment
- Silver City Airways
- Skyways
- Ministry of Supply
Accidents and incidents
[edit]- 3 December 1945 - Hermes I G-AGSS the prototype Hermes crashed on the first test flight soon after takeoff three miles from Radlett Aerodrome. The two Handley Page test pilots were killed.
- 26 May 1952 - Hermes IV G-ALDN (Horus), operated by BOAC, en route from Tripoli, Libya, to Kano, Nigeria, flew off course for several hours and ran out of fuel, force landing in the Sahara Desert south of Atar, Mauritania. The passengers and crew all survived and spent several days in the desert before making their way to an oasis, where First Officer Ted Haslam, who had suffered a head injury in the crash, died.[26][27][28]
- 25 August 1952 - Hermes IV 'G-ALDF' operated by Air-work Ltd en route from Blackbushe to Khartoum via Malta, ditched off Sicily (near Trapani) at 0300 LT, following failure of two engines and the prospect of the other two engines failing. Electrical power also failed, so no lights or radio available. The ditching was "brilliantly performed" and successful, but 6 passengers (including 4 young children) and one air hostess drowned, mainly due to defective life jackets and lack of a life raft for the children. Investigation report by the Italian authorities (not published in UK) is summarised in ICAO Circular 38-AN/33.[29] Contains some criticism of the crew and operating company and recommended improvements to the aircraft and to safety provisions. Matter raised in Parliament by Wedgwood Benn MP.[30]
- 4 March 1956 - Hermes IV G-ALDW operated by Skyways Limited was destroyed on the ground by a time-bomb in the forward freight compartment. The aircraft was at Nicosia Airport, Cyprus when the explosion occurred 20 minutes before the aircraft was due to depart for the United Kingdom with 68 passengers.[31] There were no fatalities.[32]
- 5 August 1956 - Hermes IV G-ALDK operated by Britavia suffered the collapse of the nose undercarriage at Drigh Road Airport, Karachi, Pakistan. The aircraft was damaged beyond economic repair.[33]
- 5 November 1956 - Hermes IVa G-ALDJ operated by Britavia crashed on night approach to Blackbushe Aerodrome, England in bad weather. Seven of the 80 occupants died.[34]
- 1 April 1958 - Hermes IV G-ALDV operated by Skyways Limited. Crashed at Meesden Green, close to Stansted Airport, whilst on an airtest after an engine change. The crew of three, Capt. Rayment, Capt. West and FE. N Bradley were all killed.
- 9 October 1960 - Hermes IV G-ALDC of Falcon Airways overran the runway on landing at Southend Airport, ending up across the Shenfield to Southend railway line. The aircraft was written off but all 76 people on board survived.[35]
Specifications (Hermes IV)
[edit]
Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1950-51[36]
General characteristics
- Crew: Five flight crew, plus cabin crew
- Capacity: 40 - 82 passengers
- Length: 96 ft 10 in (29.51 m)
- Wingspan: 113 ft (34 m)
- Height: 29 ft 11 in (9.12 m)
- Wing area: 1,408 sq ft (130.8 m2)
- Airfoil: root: NACA 23021; tip: NACA 23007[37]
- Empty weight: 55,350 lb (25,106 kg) basic equipped
- Max takeoff weight: 82,000 lb (37,195 kg) * Maximum landing weight: 75,000 lb (34,019 kg)
- Fuel capacity: 3,224 imp gal (3,872 US gal; 14,657 L) in integral wing tanks ; 4x 37 imp gal (44 US gal; 168 L) oil tanks
- Powerplant: 4 × Bristol Hercules 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engines, 2,020 hp (1,510 kW) each for take-off
- Propellers: 4-bladed de Havilland Hydromatic, 13 ft (4.0 m) diameter constant-speed fully-feathering reversible-pitch propellers
Performance
- Maximum speed: 357 mph (575 km/h, 310 kn) at 20,000 ft (6,096 m)
- Cruise speed: 266 mph (428 km/h, 231 kn) maximum weak mixture at 10,000 ft (3,048 m)
- 274 mph (238 kn; 441 km/h) maximum weak mixture at 20,000 ft (6,096 m)
- 213 mph (185 kn; 343 km/h) maximum range speed at 10,000 ft (3,048 m)
- 244 mph (212 kn; 393 km/h) maximum range speed at 20,000 ft (6,096 m)
- Range: 3,147–3,554 mi (5,065–5,720 km, 2,735–3,088 nmi) with 2,213 lb (1,004 kg) payload at 20,000 ft (6,096 m) dependent on speed
- Service ceiling: 24,500 ft (7,500 m)
- Rate of climb: 1,030 ft/min (5.2 m/s)
- Time to altitude:
- 10,000 ft (3,048 m) in 10 minutes 30 seconds
- 20,000 ft (6,096 m) in 25 minutes
- Wing loading: 58.2 lb/sq ft (284 kg/m2)
- Power/mass: 0.104 hp/lb (0.171 kW/kg)
- Take-off run: 3,330 ft (1,015 m) at 82,000 lb (37,195 kg)
- Take-off distance to 50 ft (15 m): 4,440 ft (1,353 m)
- Landing distance from 50 ft (15 m): 4,224 ft (1,287 m)
See also
[edit]Related development
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
References
[edit]Citations
[edit]- ^ a b c Barnes 1976, p. 435.
- ^ Barnes 1976, pp. 435-436.
- ^ Barnes 1976, p. 436.
- ^ a b c Jackson 1973, p. 247.
- ^ a b c Barnes 1976, pp. 436–437.
- ^ a b Barnes 1976, p. 437.
- ^ "Loss of the prototype Hermes" Flight 6 December 1945.
- ^ Barnes 1976, pp. 437–438.
- ^ Barnes 1976, p. 460.
- ^ Barnes 1976, p. 462.
- ^ a b Barnes 1976, pp. 460-461.
- ^ Barnes 1976, p. 465.
- ^ Barnes 1976, pp. 465-466.
- ^ Jackson 1973, pp. 248–249.
- ^ Barnes 1976, p. 466.
- ^ Jackson 1973, p. 249.
- ^ Barnes 1976, p. 471.
- ^ a b Jackson 1973, pp. 249–250.
- ^ Barnes 1976, pp. 471-472.
- ^ Jackson 1973, p. 251.
- ^ Barnes 1976, p. 472.
- ^ Barnes 1976, pp. 464, 466.
- ^ Barnes 1976, pp. 466-467, 469.
- ^ Barnes 1976, pp. 472–474.
- ^ "Handley Page Hermes IV (Fuselage)". britairliners.org. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
- ^ Fisher, John Hayes (Producer). (2003). Desert Rescue [Television series episode]. In Meet the ancestors. London: British Broadcasting Corporation.
- ^ Magna, April 2014, the magazine of the Friends of The National Archives, London.
- ^ Lost in the Sahara at IMDb
- ^ baaa-acro.com/sites/default/files/import/uploads/2017
- ^ Benn, Wedgwood (19 November 1953), "Aircraft crash, Sicily (Report)", House of Commons Paper, Series 5, vol. 520, UK Parliament, p. 1965
- ^ "Civil Aviation: Hermes Sabotage". Flight. 16 March 1956, p.306.
- ^ "ASN Aircraft accident Handley Page HP.81 Hermes IV G-ALDW Nicosia". Aviation Safety Network. 26 October 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
- ^ Chesterfield, Lyn. "Hermes prang". Aeroplane. No. January 2011. Kelsey Publishing. p. 82.
- ^ ICAO Accident Digest No.8, Circular 54-AN/49 (138–147)
- ^ "G-ALDC Accident description". Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ Bridgman, Leonard, ed. (1950). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1950-51. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co. p. 65c.
- ^ Lednicer, David. "The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage". m-selig.ae.illinois.edu. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
Bibliography
[edit]- Barnes, C. H. Handley Page Aircraft Since 1907. London: Putnam, 1976. ISBN 0-370-00030-7.
- Barnes, C. H. Handley Page Aircraft Since 1907. London: Putnam & Company, Ltd., 1987. ISBN 0-85177-803-8.
- Clayton, Donald C. Handley Page, an Aircraft Album. Shepperton, Surrey, UK: Ian Allan Ltd., 1969. ISBN 0-7110-0094-8.
- Jackson, A.J. British Civil Aircraft since 1919: Volume 2. London:Putnam, Second edition 1973. ISBN 0-370-10010-7.
Further reading
[edit]- Donald, David (1997). The encyclopedia of world aircraft (Updated ed.). Leicester: Blitz Editions. p. 496. ISBN 1-85605-375-X.
External links
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Handley Page Hermes.
- Hastings at British Aircraft Directory (archive.org copy)
- Hermes (archive.org copy)
- A picture of the Hermes II prototype G-AGUB - (note: picture file name is misidentified as an Avro Tudor II) (archive.org copy)
