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{{Short description|Archaeological site in Northern State, Egypt}} |
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'''Uronarti |
'''Uronarti''' is an island and archaeological site in the [[Nile]] just south of the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Second Cataract]] in the north of [[Sudan]]. The site features a massive ancient fortress that still stands on its northern end. This fortress is one of many constructed along the Nile in Lower Nubia during the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], beginning under the reign of [[Senusret I]]. |
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This site was thought to be submerged under [[Lake Nasser]], however parts remain above water and recently seen the establishment of new archaeological projects.<ref name=":2">[https://sites.brown.edu/urap/ Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project]</ref> The discoveries of the project include an extramural settlement contemporary with the fortress, called Site FC, and further details on the settlement itself.<ref name=":2" /> |
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== Archaeological Research == |
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Uronarti was first excavated by British archaeologist Noel F. Wheeler under the nominal supervision of [[George Andrew Reisner]]. The preliminary examination of the site was in May 1924. The excavations took place between November 15, 1928 – January 16, 1929 and February 5, 1930 – March 20, 1930. The publication of these excavations fell to Dows Dunham.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Second Cataract Forts II: Uronarti, Shalfak, Mirgissa|last=Dunham|first=Dows|publisher=Boston Museum of Fine Arts|year=1967|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> |
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It was long thought that the fortress was under water; it was recently rediscovered by Derek Welsby.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Welsby|first=Derek|date=2004|title=Hidden Treasures of Lake Nubia|url=|journal=Sudan and Nubia|volume=8|pages=103–4|via=}}</ref> In 2012, the Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project (URAP) was formed by Dr Laurel Bestock ([[Brown University]]) and Dr Christian Knoblauch (Austrian Academy of Sciences) to investigate Uronarti. The project, which is ongoing, focuses on colonial relations and the lived experience of ancient people on Uronarti and in the surrounding region. The discoveries of the project include an extramural settlement contemporary with the fortress, called Site FC, and extensive remodeling within the fortress. |
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Uronarti has been researched for over 100 years.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Welsby |first=Derek |date=2004 |title=Hidden Treasures of Lake Nubia |journal=Sudan and Nubia |volume=8 |pages=103–4}}</ref> Uronarti was first excavated by British archaeologist Noel F. Wheeler under the nominal supervision of [[George Andrew Reisner]] in 1924. <ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Dunham |first=Dows |title=Second Cataract Forts II: Uronarti, Shalfak, Mirgissa |publisher=Boston Museum of Fine Arts |year=1967}}</ref> The results of these excavations were published by [[Dows Dunham]].<ref name=":1" /> |
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The triangular shaped fortress of Uronarti is situated high on a rocky island, where it took advantage of the narrow passage of the Nile River in an area with the modern name [[Batn-El-Hajar]] - the Belly of Rocks. Conforming closely to the topography, the fort is largely constructed of sun-dried mud brick, with some stone foundations beneath its outer walls when those are laid on the very steep parts of the island. The outer walls measure 5 meters thick and were originally probably 10 meters high; they were built with an interior lattice of tree trunks, further reinforced and leveled with layers of reed matting. The fortress proper has a length and width of about 120 meters x 60 meters. |
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After the [[Aswan Dam|Aswan High Dam]] was built, it believed that this site was submerged under [[Lake Nasser|Lake Nasser.]] Recently, the fortress was recently rediscovered by Derek Welsby.<ref name=":3" /> In 2012, the Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project (URAP) was formed by Dr Laurel Bestock and Dr Christian Knoblauch to investigate Uronarti.<ref name=":2">[https://sites.brown.edu/urap/ Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project]</ref> The project, which is ongoing, focuses on colonial relations and the lived experience of ancient people on Uronarti and in the surrounding region. <ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoblauch |first1=Christian |last2=Bestock |first2=Laurel |date=2017 |title=Evolving Communities: the Egyptian fortress on Uronarti in the Late Middle Kingdom |journal=Sudan and Nubia |volume=21 |pages=50–8}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | The interior of the fortress has streets paved with stone |
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The triangular shaped fortress of Uronarti is situated high on a rocky island, where it took advantage of the narrow passage of the Nile River in an area with the modern name [[Batn-El-Hajar]] - the Belly of Rocks.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last1=Bestock |first1=Laurel |last2=Knoblauch |first2=Christian |date=April 2015 |title=Living Beyond the Walls: new evidence for Egyptian Colonialism at Uronarti, Nubia |url=http://journal.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/bestock344 |website=Antiquity}}</ref> Conforming closely to the topography, the fort is an example of the [[Terrain type]] of Middle Kingdom forts. It was largely constructed of sun-dried mud brick.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoblauch |first1=Christian |last2=Bestock |first2=Laurel |date=2013 |title=The Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: final report of the 2012 survey |journal=Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo |volume=69 |pages=103–42}}</ref> |
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| ⚫ | The initial mapping of Uronarti was completed by Dows Dunham.<ref name=":1" /> The interior of the fortress has streets paved with stone.<ref name=":1" /> Sections of the fort include large granaries, buildings thought to be an administrative center, a governor's house, and barracks.<ref name=":22">[https://sites.brown.edu/urap/ Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project]</ref><ref name=":1" /> The barracks are similar in plan to small houses known at other Middle Kingdom settlements that were planned by the state<ref name=":02" /> Many of the buildings inside the fortress saw substantial modifications over time, indicating shifts in both social life and administration.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoblauch |first1=Christian |last2=Bestock |first2=Laurel |date=2017 |title=Evolving Communities: the Egyptian fortress on Uronarti in the Late Middle Kingdom |journal=Sudan and Nubia |volume=21 |pages=50–8}}</ref> The ceramics from dumps at Uronarti suggest an occupation history into the very late Middle Kingdom or very early Second Intermediate Period, but not beyond.<ref name=":02" /> |
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Aside from the architecture itself, the overwhelming majority of archaeological finds from Uronarti fortress are ceramics. The volume of pottery from the original excavations of the fortress was so high that only complete vessels were ever recorded; dumps from both the initial use of the fortress, which was regularly cleaned out by its inhabitants, and from the Wheeler excavations, cover large parts of the area south of the fortress. Amongst notable ceramic types are bread moulds, typical of many Middle Kingdom sites and indicative of the provisioning of the garrison, and Nubian cooking pots, pointing to interaction with a local population, though there is no contemporary Nubian settlement known from the immediate area.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Knoblauch|first=Christian|last2=Bestock|first2=Laurel|date=2013|title=The Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: final report of the 2012 survey|url=|journal=Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo|volume=69|pages=103–42|via=}}</ref> |
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Aside from the architecture itself, the overwhelming majority of archaeological finds from Uronarti fortress are ceramics.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Penacho |first=Susan |title=Deciphering Sealing Practices at Uronarti and Askut: a Spatial Analysis of the Built Environment and Individual Sealers |publisher=Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Chicago |year=2015}}</ref> |
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Inscribed finds at Uronarti include seal impressions, mud stamps, pottery, papyrus fragments, and stelae. Most papyrus fragments include only a few characters; while they are thus largely illegible, they attest to the high level of documentation of the administrative activities of the fortress (see the [[Semna Despatches]] for better preserved records of this type of activity). The mud stamps are a type known only from the fortresses; depicting captives, rather than having inscriptions proper, they may have been used as a kind of token.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wegner|first=Josef|date=1995|title=Regional Control in Middle Kingdom Lower Nubia|url=|journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt|volume=32|pages=144–9|via=}}</ref> The large number of sealings reflects administrative activities; they were broken off of delivered goods that came in jars and boxes, were from sealed letters, and sealed doors, and are also common at other Nubian fortresses.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Deciphering Sealing Practices at Uronarti and Askut: a Spatial Analysis of the Built Environment and Individual Sealers|last=Penacho|first=Susan|publisher=Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Chicago|year=2015|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> The seals referring to the various surrounding fortresses in the Second Cataract region show the close connection between them. Centers for local administration are also seen in the treasuries and granaries that are shown to exist in the seals as well. The ties between Egypt as a whole and the fortresses are represented in the seals of the great granary of King Sesostris III. The suggested existence of a dual and shared viziership in Egypt in the Late Middle Kingdom is also seen in a seal found stating “office of the vizier of the Head-of-the South”. |
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Some other items found at Uronarti include seal impressions, mud stamps, pottery, papyrus fragments, and stelae.<ref name=":8" /> Most papyrus fragments include only a few characters, and while they are thus largely illegible, they attest to the high level of documentation of the administrative activities of the fortress (see the [[Semna Despatches]] for better preserved records of this type of activity). The large number of sealings reflects administrative activities, and can track changes in leadership through the fort's use.<ref name=":8" /> |
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Site FC is an extramural site some 250m south of the walls of the fortress. Discovered in 2012 and partly excavated in 2013 and 2015, it is significantly different from the fort although it appears to be contemporary with it. Occupying two low hills near the current east shore of the island, the site consists of at least 25 concentrations of stones that excavation has shown to be the remains of dry-stone huts constructed of local stone. Some huts were single rooms, some more elaborate groupings of rooms. The rooms range from 2.5 meters to 4 meters in diameter and were circular or semi-circular. Site FC as observed covers an area of approximately 2000 meters^2, but aerial photographs taken in the 1950s suggest that the original site may have extended along the eastern shore of the island in its entirety. |
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One excavated hut had a hearth in it and a windbreak protecting large storage vessels. The ceramics from both survey and excavation are a domestic assemblage of Egyptian pottery from the Twelfth Dynasty. They are thus contemporary with the early phase of the occupation of the fortress, though they are also poorer than the assemblage found at the fort, lacking some common forms and showing indication of breakage and wear to a greater extent than the fortress pottery. This pottery in combination with the architecture of FC, which is very different than that of the fortress and of a type more usually connected to [[C-Group culture|C-Group]] Nubian settlements, raises as many questions as it answers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://journal.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/bestock344|title=Living Beyond the Walls: new evidence for Egyptian Colonialism at Uronarti, Nubia|last=Bestock|first=Laurel|last2=Knoblauch|first2=Christian|date=April 2015|website=Antiquity}}</ref> |
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Site FC is an site some 250m south of the walls of the fortress.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoblauch |first1=Christian |last2=Bestock |first2=Laurel |date=2013 |title=The Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: final report of the 2012 survey |journal=Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo |volume=69 |pages=103–42}}</ref> Discovered in 2012 and partly excavated in 2013 and 2015, it is significantly different from the fort although it appears to be contemporary with it.<ref name=":03" /> Occupying two low hills near the current east shore of the island, the site consists of the remains of at least 25 dry-stone huts constructed of local stone.<ref name=":23">[https://sites.brown.edu/urap/ Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project]</ref> Some huts were single rooms, some more elaborate groupings of rooms. <ref name=":03" /> |
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One excavated hut had a hearth and a windbreak protecting large storage vessels.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |last1=Bestock |first1=Laurel |last2=Knoblauch |first2=Christian |date=April 2015 |title=Living Beyond the Walls: new evidence for Egyptian Colonialism at Uronarti, Nubia |url=http://journal.antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/bestock344 |website=Antiquity}}</ref> This site was most likely contemporary with the early phase of the occupation of the fortress.<ref name=":62" /> |
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== The "Campaign Palace" == |
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In addition to the fortress, Uronarti had some other mud brick constructions, the largest of which was a rectangular building that is discussed in scholarly literature as the "Campaign Palace". (An idealized plan based on excavated remains can be found at [http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/dlcontent/aegaron/pdf/0079.pdf aegaron].) Excavated in 10 days by Wheeler, its architecture and the associated finds were insufficient to provide conclusive evidence of either its date or function; the idea that it was a place for Senusret III to stay while on campaign against Nubians farther to the south is a colorful but unprovable suggestion. This area of this structure now lies in the area that is annually inundated by the rise in the Nile, and is thus covered either by water or by silt. The URAP conducted magnetometry at low water to try to see if remains of the "palace" were still extant; results were inconclusive.<ref name=":0" /> |
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== The |
=== The "Campaign Palace" === |
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In addition to the fortress, Uronarti had some other mud brick constructions, the largest of which was a rectangular building that is discussed in scholarly literature as the "Campaign Palace".<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Dunham |first=Dows |title=Second Cataract Forts II: Uronarti, Shalfak, Mirgissa |publisher=Boston Museum of Fine Arts |year=1967}}</ref> Before the construction of Lake Nasser, this rectangular building was interpreted as a palace that the king could have stayed at while on campaign.<ref name=":1" /> However, there is little evidence to support this analysis. We can see this is a larger building than others, and that could have indicated status.<ref name=":022">{{Cite journal |last1=Knoblauch |first1=Christian |last2=Bestock |first2=Laurel |date=2013 |title=The Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: final report of the 2012 survey |journal=Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo |volume=69 |pages=103–42}}</ref> Unfortunately, this area is annually flooded, so studying it can be difficult. The URAP conducted studies at low water to see how much of the "palace" remained, but results were inconclusive.<ref name=":022" /> |
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A near-duplicate of the text of the Semna stela of Senusret III was found at Uronarti by [[Georg Steindorff]], [[Ludwig Borchardt]] and H. Schäfer. The inscription states that the Nubians attacked first and that Senusret forced them to retreat. The stela measures 1.50 meters in height and 0.80 meters in breadth and is of brown sandstone. A discussion, transcription, and translation were published by J. Janssen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Janssen|first=Jozef|date=1953|title=The Stela (Khartoum Museum No. 3) from Uronarti|url=|journal=Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Studies|volume=12:1|pages=51–5|via=JSTOR}}</ref> The stela, one of the treasures of the [[National Museum of Sudan]], reads: |
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=== The Exterior Wall === |
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“Horus: Divine of Forms; the Two Ladies: Divine of Birth; the Golden Horus: He has Come into Being(?); The King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Re is Appearing of Ka’s granted life, stability and wealth like Re eternally; The Son of Re of his (own) Body: Sesostris (III), granted life, stability, and wealth like Re eternally! |
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A massive boundary wall runs the length of the exterior, and extends several hundred meters to the south toward the Semna fortress. <ref name=":1" /> |
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== The Boundary Stela of Senusret III == |
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(1) Stela made in year 16, third month of winter, when the fortress “Repelling the Iwentiu” [Uronarti] was built. |
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A near-duplicate of the text of the Semna stela of Senusret III was found at Uronarti by [[Georg Steindorff|Georg Steindorf]], [[Ludwig Borchardt]] and H. Schäfer.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Janssen |first=Jozef |date=1953 |title=The Stela (Khartoum Museum No. 3) from Uronarti |journal=Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=51–5 |doi=10.1086/371111 |s2cid=162350775 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> The inscription states that Senusret III was victorious over a Nubian army, however it is not clear what in this record is militaristic propaganda, and what is recounting of historical events. A discussion, transcription, and translation were published by J. Janssen.<ref name=":7" /> The stela is currently housed in the [[National Museum of Sudan]].<ref name=":7" /> |
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== Similar Sites == |
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(2) I have made the boundary going farther southward than my ancestors and I have exceeded |
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Many similar fortresses, such as [[Buhen]], [[Mirgissa]], [[Shalfak]], [[Askut]], [[Dabenarti]], [[Semna (Nubia)|Semna]], and [[Kumma (Nubia)|Kumma]], were established within signaling distance of each other.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Wegner |first=Josef |date=1995 |title=Regional Control in Middle Kingdom Lower Nubia |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |volume=32 |pages=144–9 |doi=10.2307/40000835 |jstor=40000835}}</ref> Most of the fortresses are now beneath Lake Nasser, however areal surveillance has provided recent views of these sites.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Welsby |first=Derek |date=2004 |title=Hidden Treasures of Lake Nubia |journal=Sudan and Nubia |volume=8 |pages=103–4}}</ref> |
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== External Links == |
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(3) that which was bequeathed to me. I am a king who speaks, (and by it) executes; what my heart plans is done by my hand; |
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https://sites.brown.edu/urap/ |
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== See Also == |
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(4) aggressive to conquer; acting resolute with success; in whose heart the world does not sleep, |
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[[Buhen]] |
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[[Mirgissa]] |
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(5) (but) one thinking of his clients who trust on mildness; not being mild against the enemy who attacks him; attacking |
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[[Shalfak]] |
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(6) when he is attacked; keeping silence if one is silent (against him); answering a word according to that what has happened in it (i.e., who gives an answer according to the nature of the question). For |
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[[Askut]] |
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(7) to desist after being attacked boldness the heart of the enemy. To be aggressive is to be brave, to retreat is timidity. |
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[[Dabenarti]] |
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(8) Really unvirille is he who is debarred from his frontier, since the Nubian hears |
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[[Semna (Nubia)|Semna]] |
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(9) to fall at a word (i.e., the Nubian hardly hears or he falls at the [first] word.); the answering of him causes him to retire. If one is aggressive against him, he turns his back; if one retreats, he falls |
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[[Kumma (Nubia)|Kumma]] |
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(10) into aggression. They are not people one must fear; they are wretches, broken of heart. My Majesty has seen them, |
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[[Semna Despatches|Semna Dispatches]] |
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(11) there is no untruth. (For) I have captured their wives, and I have brought back their inhabitants, ascended to their wells |
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(12) and slain their bulls. I have pulled up their barley and set the flame in it. As my father lives for me; |
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{{Reflist}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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(13)I speak in truth, without a word of boasting therein issuing from my mouth. Now as for every son of mine |
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(14) who shall strengthen this boundary which My Majesty (life, prosperity and health); has made, he is my son, [and he is born to] |
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(15) My Majesty (life, prosperity and health); good is a son, the helper of his father, and who strengthens [the boundary of] |
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(16) him that begot him. Now as for him who shall lose it and shall not fight [on behalf of it], |
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(17) he is not my son and he is not born to me. Now [My Majesty (life, prosperity and health) has caused] |
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(18) the erection of a statue of My Majesty (life, prosperity and health) on this frontier [which My Majesty (life, prosperity and health) made] |
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(19) in order that you may persevere on it and in order that [you might fight on behalf of it]. |
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<references /> |
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[[Category:History of Nubia]] |
[[Category:History of Nubia]] |
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Latest revision as of 21:47, 25 November 2024
 Uronarti. | |
  Shown within Sudan | |
| Location | Northern, Sudan |
|---|---|
| Region | Middle Kingdom |
| Coordinates | 21°31′33″N 30°59′25″E / 21.52583°N 30.99028°E |
| Type | Fortress |
Uronarti is an island and archaeological site in the Nile just south of the Second Cataract in the north of Sudan. The site features a massive ancient fortress that still stands on its northern end. This fortress is one of many constructed along the Nile in Lower Nubia during the Middle Kingdom, beginning under the reign of Senusret I.
This site was thought to be submerged under Lake Nasser, however parts remain above water and recently seen the establishment of new archaeological projects.[1] The discoveries of the project include an extramural settlement contemporary with the fortress, called Site FC, and further details on the settlement itself.[1]
Archaeological Research
[edit]Uronarti has been researched for over 100 years.[2] Uronarti was first excavated by British archaeologist Noel F. Wheeler under the nominal supervision of George Andrew Reisner in 1924. [3] The results of these excavations were published by Dows Dunham.[3]
After the Aswan High Dam was built, it believed that this site was submerged under Lake Nasser. Recently, the fortress was recently rediscovered by Derek Welsby.[2] In 2012, the Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project (URAP) was formed by Dr Laurel Bestock and Dr Christian Knoblauch to investigate Uronarti.[1] The project, which is ongoing, focuses on colonial relations and the lived experience of ancient people on Uronarti and in the surrounding region. [4]
The Fortress
[edit]The triangular shaped fortress of Uronarti is situated high on a rocky island, where it took advantage of the narrow passage of the Nile River in an area with the modern name Batn-El-Hajar - the Belly of Rocks.[5] Conforming closely to the topography, the fort is an example of the Terrain type of Middle Kingdom forts. It was largely constructed of sun-dried mud brick.[6]
The initial mapping of Uronarti was completed by Dows Dunham.[3] The interior of the fortress has streets paved with stone.[3] Sections of the fort include large granaries, buildings thought to be an administrative center, a governor's house, and barracks.[7][3] The barracks are similar in plan to small houses known at other Middle Kingdom settlements that were planned by the state[6] Many of the buildings inside the fortress saw substantial modifications over time, indicating shifts in both social life and administration.[4] The ceramics from dumps at Uronarti suggest an occupation history into the very late Middle Kingdom or very early Second Intermediate Period, but not beyond.[6]
Aside from the architecture itself, the overwhelming majority of archaeological finds from Uronarti fortress are ceramics.[8]
Some other items found at Uronarti include seal impressions, mud stamps, pottery, papyrus fragments, and stelae.[8] Most papyrus fragments include only a few characters, and while they are thus largely illegible, they attest to the high level of documentation of the administrative activities of the fortress (see the Semna Despatches for better preserved records of this type of activity). The large number of sealings reflects administrative activities, and can track changes in leadership through the fort's use.[8]
Site FC
[edit]Site FC is an site some 250m south of the walls of the fortress.[9] Discovered in 2012 and partly excavated in 2013 and 2015, it is significantly different from the fort although it appears to be contemporary with it.[9] Occupying two low hills near the current east shore of the island, the site consists of the remains of at least 25 dry-stone huts constructed of local stone.[10] Some huts were single rooms, some more elaborate groupings of rooms. [9]
One excavated hut had a hearth and a windbreak protecting large storage vessels.[11] This site was most likely contemporary with the early phase of the occupation of the fortress.[11]
The "Campaign Palace"
[edit]In addition to the fortress, Uronarti had some other mud brick constructions, the largest of which was a rectangular building that is discussed in scholarly literature as the "Campaign Palace".[3] Before the construction of Lake Nasser, this rectangular building was interpreted as a palace that the king could have stayed at while on campaign.[3] However, there is little evidence to support this analysis. We can see this is a larger building than others, and that could have indicated status.[12] Unfortunately, this area is annually flooded, so studying it can be difficult. The URAP conducted studies at low water to see how much of the "palace" remained, but results were inconclusive.[12]
The Exterior Wall
[edit]A massive boundary wall runs the length of the exterior, and extends several hundred meters to the south toward the Semna fortress. [3]
The Boundary Stela of Senusret III
[edit]A near-duplicate of the text of the Semna stela of Senusret III was found at Uronarti by Georg Steindorf, Ludwig Borchardt and H. Schäfer.[13] The inscription states that Senusret III was victorious over a Nubian army, however it is not clear what in this record is militaristic propaganda, and what is recounting of historical events. A discussion, transcription, and translation were published by J. Janssen.[13] The stela is currently housed in the National Museum of Sudan.[13]
Similar Sites
[edit]Many similar fortresses, such as Buhen, Mirgissa, Shalfak, Askut, Dabenarti, Semna, and Kumma, were established within signaling distance of each other.[14] Most of the fortresses are now beneath Lake Nasser, however areal surveillance has provided recent views of these sites.[2]
External Links
[edit]See Also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ a b c Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project
- ^ a b c Welsby, Derek (2004). "Hidden Treasures of Lake Nubia". Sudan and Nubia. 8: 103–4.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Dunham, Dows (1967). Second Cataract Forts II: Uronarti, Shalfak, Mirgissa. Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
- ^ a b Knoblauch, Christian; Bestock, Laurel (2017). "Evolving Communities: the Egyptian fortress on Uronarti in the Late Middle Kingdom". Sudan and Nubia. 21: 50–8.
- ^ Bestock, Laurel; Knoblauch, Christian (April 2015). "Living Beyond the Walls: new evidence for Egyptian Colonialism at Uronarti, Nubia". Antiquity.
- ^ a b c Knoblauch, Christian; Bestock, Laurel (2013). "The Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: final report of the 2012 survey". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo. 69: 103–42.
- ^ Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project
- ^ a b c Penacho, Susan (2015). Deciphering Sealing Practices at Uronarti and Askut: a Spatial Analysis of the Built Environment and Individual Sealers. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Chicago.
- ^ a b c Knoblauch, Christian; Bestock, Laurel (2013). "The Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: final report of the 2012 survey". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo. 69: 103–42.
- ^ Uronarti Regional Archaeology Project
- ^ a b Bestock, Laurel; Knoblauch, Christian (April 2015). "Living Beyond the Walls: new evidence for Egyptian Colonialism at Uronarti, Nubia". Antiquity.
- ^ a b Knoblauch, Christian; Bestock, Laurel (2013). "The Uronarti Regional Archaeological Project: final report of the 2012 survey". Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Kairo. 69: 103–42.
- ^ a b c Janssen, Jozef (1953). "The Stela (Khartoum Museum No. 3) from Uronarti". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Studies. 12 (1): 51–5. doi:10.1086/371111. S2CID 162350775 – via JSTOR.
- ^ Wegner, Josef (1995). "Regional Control in Middle Kingdom Lower Nubia". Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt. 32: 144–9. doi:10.2307/40000835. JSTOR 40000835.
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