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{{Short description|1526–1752 wars between the Mughal Empire and Afghans}}
{{Short description|1526–1752 wars between the Mughal Empire and Afghans}}
{{Infobox military conflict
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Afghan-Mughal Wars
| conflict = Mughal–Afghan Wars
| date = 1526–1752
| date = [[First Battle of Panipat|21 April 1526]] – [[Battle of Lahore (1752)|3 April 1752]]
| place = [[Afghanistan]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]]
| place = [[Afghanistan]] and [[Early modern India|India]]
| image = The battle of Panipat and the death of Sultan Ibrāhīm, the last of the Lōdī Sultans of Delhi.jpg
⚫
| result = *Lodi, Sur and Karrani kingdoms annexed by Mughal Empire (1526–1576)
* Durrani Afghans seize control of [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]] and Parts of [[India]] (1748–1761)
| caption = [[First Battle of Panipat]] from the manuscripts of [[Baburnama]] (Memoirs of Babur)
⚫
| result = *Lodi, Sur and Karrani kingdoms annexed by Mughal Empire (1526–1576) and Mughal annexation of Kabul, Kandahar and Balkh for a time period.
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Mughal Empire]] (1526–1857)
* Durrani Afghans seize control of [[Afghanistan]] as well as parts of [[Pakistan]] and [[India]] (1748–1761)
| combatant2 =
* [[File:Sultan of Delhi Flag according to the Catalan Atlas (1375).png|25px]] [[Lodi Dynasty]] (1451–1526)
| combatant1 = [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Mughal Empire]]
*[[File:Flag of Jaipur.svg|20px]] [[Kingdom of Amber]]
⚫
* Eastern Afghan Confederacy (1526–1612){{cn|date=October 2023}}
| combatant2 = * [[File:Sultan of Delhi Flag according to the Catalan Atlas (1375).png|25px]] [[Delhi Sultanate]] ([[Lodi Dynasty|Lodi dynasty]])
⚫
* [[Sur Empire]] (1534–1556),
⚫
* Eastern Afghan Confederacy
⚫
* [[Sur Empire]]
* [[Malwa Sultanate]]{{cn|date=October 2023}}
* [[Malwa Sultanate]]{{cn|date=October 2023}}
* [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] Yusufzai Chieftaincy (1520–1675)
* [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] [[Yusufzai#Yusufzai Chieftaincy|Yusufzai Chieftaincy]]
* {{flagicon image|Bengal_Sultanate_Flag.gif}} [[Karrani dynasty]] (1564–1576),
* {{flagicon image|Bengal_Sultanate_Flag.gif}} [[Bengal Sultanate]] ([[Karrani dynasty]])
* [[File:Abdali flag.png|40px]][[Durrani Empire]] (1747–1823)
* [[Durrani Empire]]
* [[Noohani dynasty]]
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Humayun]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Babur]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Akbar]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Shah Jahan]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Aurangzeb Alamgir]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Ahmad Shah Bahadur]] <br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Bairam Khan]]{{Assassinated}}<br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]][[Pir Muhammad Khan Shirwani]]{{KIA}}<br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Raja Ali Khan]]<br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Mir Khalifa]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Zain Khan Koka]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Raja Birbal]]{{KIA}}<br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah]]{{KIA}}<br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Shujaat Khan{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Man Singh <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Jaswant Singh{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Muhabat Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Shamshir Khan{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Pir Paie{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Fidai Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Mukarram Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Amin Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Syed Khan{{KIA}} <br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Khwajah Asmatullah Khan{{KIA}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Public Resource |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.282887/page/n83/mode/2up |title=Studies In Later Mughal History Of The Punjab 1707 To 1793 : Hari Ram Gupta : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive |date= |accessdate=2023-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Public Resource |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5426/page/n63/mode/2up |title=Ahmad shah durrani, father of modern Afghanistan : Singh, Ganda : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive |date= |accessdate=2023-08-22}}</ref> <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Zafar Khan
| commander1 = [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Babur]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Humayun]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Akbar]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Shah Jahan]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Aurangzeb]]<br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Ahmad Shah Bahadur]] <br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Bairam Khan]]{{Assassinated}}<br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]][[Pir Muhammad Khan Shirwani]]{{KIA}}<br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Raja Ali Khan]]<br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Mir Khalifa]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Zain Khan Koka]] <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Raja Birbal]]{{KIA}}<br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] [[Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah]]{{KIA}}<br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Shujaat Khan{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of Jaipur.svg|25px]] [[Man Singh I]]<br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Jaswant Singh{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Muhabat Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Shamshir Khan{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Pir Paie{{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Fidai Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Mukarram Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Amin Khan <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Syed Khan{{KIA}} <br />[[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Khwajah Asmatullah Khan{{KIA}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Public Resource |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.282887/page/n83/mode/2up |title=Studies In Later Mughal History Of The Punjab 1707 To 1793 : Hari Ram Gupta : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive |date= |accessdate=2023-08-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Public Resource |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.5426/page/n63/mode/2up |title=Ahmad shah durrani, father of modern Afghanistan : Singh, Ganda : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive |date= |accessdate=2023-08-22}}</ref> <br /> [[File:Flag of the Mughal Empire.png|25px]] Zafar Khan
| commander2 = [[File:Sultan of Delhi Flag according to the Catalan Atlas (1375).png|25px]] [[Ibrahim Lodi]] {{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] [[Malak Ahmad Khan Yusufzai]] <br /> [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] [[Gaju Khan |Malak Gaju Khan Yusufzai]]<br /> [[Sher Shah Sur]]<br /> {{flagicon image|Bengal_Sultanate_Flag.gif}} [[Taj Khan Karrani]] <br />[[Pir Roshan]] {{KIA}}<br /> Pir Jalal <br /> [[Bibi Alalay]] <br /> [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] [[Kalu Khan Yousafzai]] <br /> [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] Mirwas Khan Yusufzai <br />[[Khwaja Usman]]{{DOW}}<br /> [[Bahaku Khan Yusufzai]] <br /> [[Aimal Khan Mohmand]] <br /> [[Khushal Khan Khattak]] <br /> [[Darya Khan Afridi]] <br /> [[File:Abdali flag.png|40px]] [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]]<br/>[[Bayazid of Sylhet]]
| commander2 = [[File:Sultan of Delhi Flag according to the Catalan Atlas (1375).png|25px]] [[Ibrahim Lodi]] {{KIA}} <br /> [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] [[Malak Ahmad Khan Yusufzai]] <br /> [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] [[Gaju Khan|Gaju Khan Yousafzai]]<br /> [[Sher Shah Sur]]<br /> {{flagicon image|Bengal_Sultanate_Flag.gif}} [[Taj Khan Karrani]] <br />[[Pir Roshan]] {{KIA}}<br /> Pir Jalal <br /> Bibi Alalay <br /> [[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] [[Kalu Khan Yousafzai]] <br /> {{nowrap|[[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] Mirwais Khan Yusufzai}} <br />[[Khwaja Usman]]{{DOW}}<br /> {{nowrap|[[File:Yusufzaiflag.jpg|25px]] Bahaku Khan Yusufzai}} <br /> [[Aimal Khan Mohmand]] <br /> [[Khushal Khan Khattak]] <br /> [[Darya Khan Afridi]] <br /> [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]]<br/>[[Bayazid of Sylhet]]<br />[[Isa Khan]]<br>Bahar Khan Noohani<br>[[Tatar Khan Naghir]]
| caption =
| image_size =
| image_size =
}}
}}


The '''Afghan-Mughal wars''' were a series of wars that took place during the 16th and 18th centuries between the [[Mughal Empire]] of India and different [[Pashtun tribes|Afghan tribes]] and [[List of Pashtun empires and dynasties|kingdoms]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jalali |first=Ali Ahmad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGrEAAAQBAJ&dq=afghan+mughal+wars+16th+century&pg=PA260 |title=Afghanistan: A Military History from the Ancient Empires to the Great Game |date=2021-12-15 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-3263-3 |page=260 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boon |first1=Kristen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QOdMAgAAQBAJ&dq=afghan+mughal+wars+16th+century&pg=PA401 |title=Assessing President Obama's National Security Strategy |last2=Lovelace |first2=Douglas |last3=Huq |first3=Aziz |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975824-1 |page=401 |language=en}}</ref>
The '''Mughal–Afghan wars''' were a series of wars that took place during the 16th and 18th centuries between the [[Mughal Empire]] of India and different [[Pashtun tribes|Afghan tribes]] and [[List of Pashtun empires and dynasties|kingdoms]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jalali |first=Ali Ahmad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NBGrEAAAQBAJ&dq=afghan+mughal+wars+16th+century&pg=PA260 |title=Afghanistan: A Military History from the Ancient Empires to the Great Game |date=2021-12-15 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-3263-3 |page=260 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Boon |first1=Kristen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QOdMAgAAQBAJ&dq=afghan+mughal+wars+16th+century&pg=PA401 |title=Assessing President Obama's National Security Strategy |last2=Lovelace |first2=Douglas |last3=Huq |first3=Aziz |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-975824-1 |page=401 |language=en}}</ref>


The conflict over the lands in modern-day [[Afghanistan]], which were crucial from a strategic standpoint for both sides, served as the primary catalyst for these conflicts. The Afghans struggled to protect their independence and resisted Mughal expansion while the Mughals worked to enlarge their empire and take control of the area.{{cn|date=October 2023}}
The conflict over the lands in modern-day [[Afghanistan]], which were crucial from a strategic standpoint for both sides, served as the primary catalyst for these conflicts. The Afghans struggled to protect their independence and resisted Mughal expansion while the Mughals worked to enlarge their empire and take control of the area.{{cn|date=October 2023}}
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The [[Karlani|Karranis]], under the leadership of their king [[Daud Khan Karrani]], put up a fierce fight against the Mughal forces and were able to cause significant casualties in the [[Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal army]]. However, in the end, the Mughals were able to defeat the Karranis and capture their capital, [[Gauḍa (city)|Gaur]].
The [[Karlani|Karranis]], under the leadership of their king [[Daud Khan Karrani]], put up a fierce fight against the Mughal forces and were able to cause significant casualties in the [[Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal army]]. However, in the end, the Mughals were able to defeat the Karranis and capture their capital, [[Gauḍa (city)|Gaur]].


There are also rebellions from the [[Roshani movement]], as in 1570, a deviant Sufism movement which preaching Wahdat al-Wujud grow in [[Peshawar]], which founded by their charismatic leader [[Pir Roshan]].<ref name=Bosin2009>{{cite book|last1=Bosin|first1=Yury V|editor1-last=Ness|editor1-first=Immanuel|title=International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest|date=2009|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=9781405184649|page=2869|url=http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/uid=3/tocnode?id=g9781405184649_yr2011_chunk_g97814051846491281|access-date=23 November 2015|chapter=Roshaniya movement and the Khan Rebellion}}</ref><ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era.">{{cite journal |author1=Alam, Nadia |author2=Al-Azhari, Ali Akbar |author3=Ghani, Hafiz Abdul |author4=Riaz, Muhammad |title=Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era. |journal=Journal of Positive School Psychology |date=2023 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1280 |url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/articles/edb__163977411 |access-date=21 March 2024 |publisher=Academic Social Research Research India }}</ref> The [[Roshani movement]] played an important part in politically in resisting the increasing influence of Mughals in Afghan region as they gained popular supports from the Afghanis.<ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era." /> Pir Roshan spent his life in conflict with the Mughals unti his death in 1572.<ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era." /> His successors continued his struggle against the Mughals, and even captured [[Ghazni]] city at one point, prompting emperor Jahangir to deal with the rebellion more seriously, which after constant battles against the sect, the movement eventually weakened and ended.<ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era." />
There are also rebellions from the [[Roshani movement]], as in 1570, a deviant Sufism movement which preaching Wahdat al-Wujud grow in [[Peshawar]], which founded by their charismatic leader [[Pir Roshan]].<ref name=Bosin2009>{{cite book|last1=Bosin|first1=Yury V|editor1-last=Ness|editor1-first=Immanuel|title=International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest|date=2009|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=9781405184649|page=2869|url=http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/uid=3/tocnode?id=g9781405184649_yr2011_chunk_g97814051846491281|access-date=23 November 2015|chapter=Roshaniya movement and the Khan Rebellion}}</ref><ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era.">{{cite journal |author1=Alam, Nadia |author2=Al-Azhari, Ali Akbar |author3=Ghani, Hafiz Abdul |author4=Riaz, Muhammad |title=Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era. |journal=Journal of Positive School Psychology |date=2023 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1280 |url=https://searchworks.stanford.edu/articles/edb__163977411 |access-date=21 March 2024 |publisher=Academic Social Research Research India }}</ref> The [[Roshani movement]] played an important part in politically in resisting the increasing influence of Mughals in Afghan region as they gained popular supports from the Afghanis.<ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era." /> Pir Roshan spent his life in conflict with the Mughals until his death in 1572.<ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era." /> His successors continued his struggle against the Mughals, and even captured [[Ghazni]] city at one point, prompting emperor Jahangir to deal with the rebellion more seriously, which after constant battles against the sect, the movement eventually weakened and ended.<ref name="Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era." />


The Karrani-Mughal conflicts were not limited to Bengal, as the Karranis and other Afghan groups also resisted Mughal rule in other parts of the empire, such as the northwest frontier region in 1612 At the time of the Mughal invasion of the [[Greater Sylhet]] region, [[Bayazid of Sylhet|Bayazid Karrani II]], a member of the [[Karrani dynasty]] of Bengal,{{sfnp|Ali|1965|pp=67–69}} was among the most powerful leaders of the Eastern Afghani Confederates, independently ruling its eastern half with his capital in Pratapgarh.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc8BAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Anwarkhan+of+Baniachang;+and+Bayazid+Karrani+of+Sylhet+were+the+more+powerful+leaders+of+the+Afghans%22 367]}}{{sfnp|Ali|1954|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66554/page/n293/mode/2up 278]}} continuing the struggle against Mughal expansion of the previous generation under Isa Khan.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n75/mode/2up 62]}} Bayazid was among those who had been granted lands as part of the maintenance of this alliance by the latter's son, Musa Khan.{{sfnp|Rizvi|1969|p=61}} Bayazid formed alliance with [[Khwaja Usman]] from [[Kamalganj Upazila|Usmangarh]] (and [[Taraf Kingdom|Taraf]]) and Anwar Khan of [[Baniachong Upazila|Baniachong]].{{sfnp|Rizvi|1970|p=61]}} It was in light of this close alliance that [[Islam Khan I]], the Mughal governor of [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], dispatched an imperial force against Bayazid so as to prevent the latter from providing aid.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n115/mode/2up 103]}}{{sfnp|Sarkar|1948|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56807/page/n291/mode/2up 275]}} Ghiyas Khan was appointed to lead the expedition, though due to his diffidence, command was later entrusted to [[Shaikh Kamal]]. He was assisted by officers such as [[Mubariz Khan (Bengal)|Mubariz Khan]], Tuqmaq Khan, [[Mirak Bahadur Jalair]] and Mir Abdur Razzaq Shirazi. Mir Ali Beg was made the [[bakshi|bakhshi (paymaster)]] of this Mughal command.<ref name=borah>{{cite book|title=Baharistan-I-Ghaybi – Volume 1|author=M. I. Borah|year=1936|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84864/page/n201|page=163}}</ref> The host consisted of four thousand [[Matchlock|matchlock-men]], one thousand picked cavalry of Islam Khan I, one hundred imperial war elephants and the fleet of Musa Khan and his confederates, who had surrendered to the Mughals the previous year.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n103/mode/2up 92]}}{{sfnp|Khan|2012}} Bayazid's side consisted of the forces sworn to him and his brother Yaqub, as well as several hill-tribe chieftains (likely [[Kuki people|Kukis]]).{{sfnp|Ali|1965|p=67}} The host consisted of four thousand [[Matchlock|matchlock-men]], one thousand picked cavalry of Islam Khan I, one hundred imperial war elephants and the fleet of Musa Khan and his confederates, who had surrendered to the Mughals the previous year.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n103/mode/2up 92]}}{{sfnp|Khan|2012}} The intense conflict rages between the alliance with the Mughal force, {{sfnp|Roy|1968|pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n115/mode/2up 103–04]}}{{sfnp|Rizvi|1970|p=67}} until Khwaja Usman slain in one of clashes.<ref name=khabor>{{cite news|url=http://www.bangladesherkhabor.net/History-Heritage/11610|script-title=bn:খাজা উসমান|last=Islam|first=Nazrul|language=bn|newspaper=Bangladesher Khabor|date=16 Apr 2018}}</ref> The death of Khwaja Usman greatly demoralized the Afghan, prompting Bayazid to surrender.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n115/mode/2up 104–05]}} Soon after, Anwar Khan also submitted,{{sfnp|Rizvi|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GntCAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Soon+after+Anwar+Khan+and+Hussain+Khan+of+Baniachong+also+surrendered+after+the+submission+of+Bayazid+of+Sylhet%22 60]}} thus bringing Sylhet for the first time under the control of the Mughal empire.{{sfnp|Ali|1954|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66554/page/n293/mode/2up 278]}}
The Karrani-Mughal conflicts were not limited to Bengal, as the Karranis and other Afghan groups also resisted Mughal rule in other parts of the empire, such as the northwest frontier region in 1612 At the time of the Mughal invasion of the [[Greater Sylhet]] region, [[Bayazid of Sylhet|Bayazid Karrani II]], a member of the [[Karrani dynasty]] of Bengal,{{sfnp|Ali|1965|pp=67–69}} was among the most powerful leaders of the Eastern Afghani Confederates, independently ruling its eastern half with his capital in Pratapgarh.{{sfnp|Tripathi|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc8BAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Anwarkhan+of+Baniachang;+and+Bayazid+Karrani+of+Sylhet+were+the+more+powerful+leaders+of+the+Afghans%22 367]}}{{sfnp|Ali|1954|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66554/page/n293/mode/2up 278]}} continuing the struggle against Mughal expansion of the previous generation under Isa Khan.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n75/mode/2up 62]}} Bayazid was among those who had been granted lands as part of the maintenance of this alliance by the latter's son, Musa Khan.{{sfnp|Rizvi|1969|p=61}} Bayazid formed alliance with [[Khwaja Usman]] from [[Kamalganj Upazila|Usmangarh]] (and [[Taraf Kingdom|Taraf]]) and Anwar Khan of [[Baniachong Upazila|Baniachong]].{{sfnp|Rizvi|1970|p=61]}} It was in light of this close alliance that [[Islam Khan I]], the Mughal governor of [[Bengal Subah|Bengal]], dispatched an imperial force against Bayazid so as to prevent the latter from providing aid.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n115/mode/2up 103]}}{{sfnp|Sarkar|1948|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56807/page/n291/mode/2up 275]}} Ghiyas Khan was appointed to lead the expedition, though due to his diffidence, command was later entrusted to [[Shaikh Kamal]]. He was assisted by officers such as [[Mubariz Khan (Bengal)|Mubariz Khan]], Tuqmaq Khan, [[Mirak Bahadur Jalair]] and Mir Abdur Razzaq Shirazi. Mir Ali Beg was made the [[bakshi|bakhshi (paymaster)]] of this Mughal command.<ref name=borah>{{cite book|title=Baharistan-I-Ghaybi – Volume 1|author=M. I. Borah|year=1936|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.84864/page/n201|page=163}}</ref> The host consisted of four thousand [[Matchlock|matchlock-men]], one thousand picked cavalry of Islam Khan I, one hundred imperial war elephants and the fleet of Musa Khan and his confederates, who had surrendered to the Mughals the previous year.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n103/mode/2up 92]}}{{sfnp|Khan|2012}} Bayazid's side consisted of the forces sworn to him and his brother Yaqub, as well as several hill-tribe chieftains (likely [[Kuki people|Kukis]]).{{sfnp|Ali|1965|p=67}} The host consisted of four thousand [[Matchlock|matchlock-men]], one thousand picked cavalry of Islam Khan I, one hundred imperial war elephants and the fleet of Musa Khan and his confederates, who had surrendered to the Mughals the previous year.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n103/mode/2up 92]}}{{sfnp|Khan|2012}} The intense conflict rages between the alliance with the Mughal force, {{sfnp|Roy|1968|pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n115/mode/2up 103–04]}}{{sfnp|Rizvi|1970|p=67}} until Khwaja Usman slain in one of clashes.<ref name=khabor>{{cite news|url=http://www.bangladesherkhabor.net/History-Heritage/11610|script-title=bn:খাজা উসমান|last=Islam|first=Nazrul|language=bn|newspaper=Bangladesher Khabor|date=16 Apr 2018}}</ref> The death of Khwaja Usman greatly demoralized the Afghan, prompting Bayazid to surrender.{{sfnp|Roy|1968|pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/page/n115/mode/2up 104–05]}} Soon after, Anwar Khan also submitted,{{sfnp|Rizvi|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GntCAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Soon+after+Anwar+Khan+and+Hussain+Khan+of+Baniachong+also+surrendered+after+the+submission+of+Bayazid+of+Sylhet%22 60]}} thus bringing Sylhet for the first time under the control of the Mughal empire.{{sfnp|Ali|1954|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66554/page/n293/mode/2up 278]}}
Line 68: Line 70:
{{Main|Battle of the Malandari Pass (1586)}}
{{Main|Battle of the Malandari Pass (1586)}}


During the reign of Akbar King, Akbar was willing to invade one of the Yousufzai country "Afghania". Akbar laid a siege to invade the Yousafzai country but Mughals army was failed. The siege took more than two months. The Akbar than sent one of his most intelligent and closest Minister whose name was Raja Birbal. But the Yousufzai tribesmen defeated the Mughal forces led by Birbal and Shujat Khan. This was the biggest Disaster to Mughal Empire in the reign of Akbar. According to Mughal historian [[Khafi Khan]], More than 40,000 Mughals Soldiers and officers was killed by Yousufzai Afghans while [[Abd al-Qadir Badayuni]]'s claim thats more than 8,000 Mughal soldiers and officers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA49 |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=49–51 |language=en}}</ref> were killed at the Karakar and Malandari Pass was consider one of the greatest military loss to Akbar and in Mughal History.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Janik |first=Vicki K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLtoRB9Wy-sC&pg=PA91 |title=Fools and Jesters in Literature, Art, and History: A Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook |date=1998-05-21 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-29785-4 |pages=91–96 |language=en}}</ref> Due to this Disaster, Akbar fell into grief and did not eat or drink for two days.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Otto |first=Beatrice K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BglxUD6Q6kC&pg=PA16 |title=Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World |date=April 2001 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-64091-4 |language=en}}</ref>
During the reign of Akbar King, Akbar was willing to invade one of the Yousufzai country "Afghania". Akbar laid a siege to invade the Yousafzai country but Mughals army was failed. The siege took more than two months. The Akbar than sent one of his most intelligent and closest Minister whose name was Raja Birbal. But the Yousufzai tribesmen defeated the Mughal forces led by Birbal and Shujat Khan. This was the biggest Disaster to Mughal Empire in the reign of Akbar. According to Mughal historian [[Khafi Khan]], more than 40,000 Mughals soldiers and officers were killed by Yousufzai Afghans while [[Abd al-Qadir Badayuni]]'s claims more than 8,000 Mughal soldiers and officers<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA49 |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=49–51 |language=en}}</ref> were killed at the Karakar and Malandari Pass. It was considered one of the greatest military losses to Akbar and in Mughal History.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Janik |first=Vicki K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yLtoRB9Wy-sC&pg=PA91 |title=Fools and Jesters in Literature, Art, and History: A Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook |date=1998-05-21 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-29785-4 |pages=91–96 |language=en}}</ref> Due to this disaster, Akbar fell into grief and did not eat or drink for two days.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Otto |first=Beatrice K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BglxUD6Q6kC&pg=PA16 |title=Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World |date=April 2001 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-64091-4 |language=en}}</ref>
Akbar learned about the disaster two days later and an army under Rajah Todar Mal set off on 19 February to exact retribution against the Yusufzais, killing a large number of them and selling many survivors to [[Turan]] and [[Persia]], as "the countries of Swat, Bajaur and Buner were cleansed of evildoers."{{sfnp|Sarkar|1948|p=275]}}


=== Sixth Phase ===
=== Sixth Phase ===
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*{{cite book|last=Rizvi|first=S. N. H.|title=East Pakistan District Gazetteers: Sylhet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=43tCAAAAYAAJ|year=1970|publisher=East Pakistan Government Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Rizvi|first=S. N. H.|title=East Pakistan District Gazetteers: Sylhet|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=43tCAAAAYAAJ|year=1970|publisher=East Pakistan Government Press}}
*{{cite book|last=Roy|first=Atul Chandra|title=History of Bengal: Mughal Period, 1526-1765 A.D.|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/mode/2up|year=1968|publisher=Nababharat Publishers|location=Calcutta}}
*{{cite book|last=Roy|first=Atul Chandra|title=History of Bengal: Mughal Period, 1526-1765 A.D.|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.532589/mode/2up|year=1968|publisher=Nababharat Publishers|location=Calcutta}}
*{{cite book|last=Sarkar|first=Jadunath|authorlink=Jadunath Sarkar|title=The History of Bengal|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56807/page/n5/mode/2up|edition=First|volume=II|year=1948|publisher=The University of Dacca|location=Dacca}}
*{{cite book|last=Sarkar|first=Jadunath<!--|authorlink=Jadunath Sarkar-->|title=The History of Bengal|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56807/page/n5/mode/2up|edition=First|volume=II|year=1948|publisher=The University of Dacca|location=Dacca}}
*{{cite book|last=Tripathi|first=Ram Prasad|title=Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc8BAAAAMAAJ|year=1960|publisher=Central Book Depot|location=Allahabad}}
*{{cite book|last=Tripathi|first=Ram Prasad|title=Rise and Fall of the Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uc8BAAAAMAAJ|year=1960|publisher=Central Book Depot|location=Allahabad}}


Latest revision as of 10:14, 26 November 2024

Mughal–Afghan Wars

First Battle of Panipat from the manuscripts of Baburnama (Memoirs of Babur)
Date21 April 1526 – 3 April 1752
Location
Afghanistan and India
Result
  • Lodi, Sur and Karrani kingdoms annexed by Mughal Empire (1526–1576) and Mughal annexation of Kabul, Kandahar and Balkh for a time period.
  • Durrani Afghans seize control of Afghanistan as well as parts of Pakistan and India (1748–1761)
Belligerents

Mughal Empire

  • Delhi Sultanate (Lodi dynasty)
  • Eastern Afghan Confederacy
  • Sur Empire
  • Malwa Sultanate[citation needed]
  • Yusufzai Chieftaincy
  • Bengal Sultanate (Karrani dynasty)
  • Durrani Empire
  • Noohani dynasty
    • Commanders and leaders
    Babur
    Humayun
    Akbar
    Shah Jahan
    Aurangzeb
    Ahmad Shah Bahadur
    Bairam Khan X
    Pir Muhammad Khan Shirwani †
    Raja Ali Khan
    Mir Khalifa
    Zain Khan Koka
    Raja Birbal †
    Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah †
    Shujaat Khan †
    Man Singh I
    Jaswant Singh †
    Muhabat Khan
    Shamshir Khan †
    Pir Paie †
    Fidai Khan
    Mukarram Khan
    Amin Khan
    Syed Khan †
    Khwajah Asmatullah Khan †[1][2]
    Zafar Khan    		 Ibrahim Lodi  †
    Malak Ahmad Khan Yusufzai
    Gaju Khan Yousafzai
    Sher Shah Sur
    Taj Khan Karrani
    Pir Roshan  †
    Pir Jalal
    Bibi Alalay
    Kalu Khan Yousafzai
    Mirwais Khan Yusufzai
    Khwaja Usman (DOW)
    Bahaku Khan Yusufzai
    Aimal Khan Mohmand
    Khushal Khan Khattak
    Darya Khan Afridi
    Ahmad Shah Abdali
    Bayazid of Sylhet
    Isa Khan
    Bahar Khan Noohani
    Tatar Khan Naghir

    The Mughal–Afghan wars were a series of wars that took place during the 16th and 18th centuries between the Mughal Empire of India and different Afghan tribes and kingdoms.[3][4]

    The conflict over the lands in modern-day Afghanistan, which were crucial from a strategic standpoint for both sides, served as the primary catalyst for these conflicts. The Afghans struggled to protect their independence and resisted Mughal expansion while the Mughals worked to enlarge their empire and take control of the area.[citation needed]

    Background

    [edit]

    The Afghan-Mughal Wars had their roots in the complex political and military history of the Indian subcontinent in the 16th century. The Mughal Empire, under the leadership of Emperor Babur, had established its rule in northern India by defeating the Delhi Sultanate in 1526. However, the Mughals faced constant threats from various regional powers, including the Afghans, who controlled parts of present-day Afghanistan.

    The Afghans, particularly the Pashtuns, were a tribal people who had a long history of resistance to foreign rule. They had previously fought against the Persian Safavids and the Uzbek Shaybanids, and were now opposed to Mughal expansionism. The Afghans had also suffered a major defeat against the Mughals in the Battle of Panipat in 1526, and had been forced to pay tribute to the Mughals.

    However, the Mughal Empire was not immune to internal strife and conflict. In the 16th century, the Mughal Emperor Akbar faced rebellions from various regional governors and religious sects. This provided an opportunity for the Afghans to launch raids into India and destabilize Mughal rule.

    History and phases

    [edit]

    First Phase

    [edit]
    Main article: First Battle of Panipat

    Between Babur's fledgling Mughal Empire and the Lodi family-run Delhi Sultanate, there was a significant conflict known as the first phase Mughal-Afghan War that started in 1526.[5]

    At the time, a substantial portion of northern India had been governed by the Delhi Sultanate, a strong Muslim monarchy.[6] However, internal conflicts and disagreements among the nobles made it weak and exposed to outside dangers.[7]

    The founder of the Mughal Empire and a descendant of Genghis Khan, Babur saw a chance to extend his realm and launched an invasion of India.[8] On April 21, 1526, he led his army across the Hindu Kush mountain passes and overcame the Lodi dynasty's armies at the first Battle of Panipat.[9]

    The Mughal army's superior firepower and discipline, as well as its access to cutting-edge weapons like muskets and artillery, rendered the Lodi forces helpless against them. In the conflict, the Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi was murdered,[10] and Babur took control of Delhi and parts of northern India.[11][10]

    Second Phase

    [edit]
    Main article: Battle of Chausa

    The second phase of the Mughal–Afghan Wars composed of Mughal and Sur empire conflicts.[12] The Sur Empire was a short-lived Afghan dynasty that ruled over northern India from 1540 to 1556.[13] The Sur Empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri,[14][15][16] who had risen to power after defeating the Mughal Emperor Humayun in the Battle of Chausa in 1539 and again in the Battle of Kanauj in 1540.[17]

    Third Phase

    [edit]

    The first major conflict between the Sur Empire and the Mughal Empire occurred during the reign of Akbar, the third Mughal emperor. In 1555, Akbar launched an invasion of the Sur Empire and defeated the Sur forces in the Battle of Sirhind.[18]

    The Sur-Mughal conflict would continue for several years, with both sides experiencing victories and defeats. However, the Mughals were ultimately able to prevail due to their superior military technology, organization, and resources. In 1556, Akbar's forces defeated the Sur army in the Battle of Machhiwara, and the Sur Empire collapsed soon after.

    The Sur-Mughal conflict was a significant chapter in the history of northern India, as it marked the transition from the Sur Empire to the Mughal Empire and the consolidation of Mughal power over much of the subcontinent.

    Fourth Phase

    [edit]

    During the reign of Emperor Akbar, the Mughal Empire launched several military campaigns against the Karrani dynasty in an effort to expand its territory and assert its authority over Bengal.[19] In 1575, the Mughals under the command of the governor of Bihar, Todar Mal, marched into Bengal and engaged the Karrani forces in a series of battles.

    The Karranis, under the leadership of their king Daud Khan Karrani, put up a fierce fight against the Mughal forces and were able to cause significant casualties in the Mughal army. However, in the end, the Mughals were able to defeat the Karranis and capture their capital, Gaur.

    There are also rebellions from the Roshani movement, as in 1570, a deviant Sufism movement which preaching Wahdat al-Wujud grow in Peshawar, which founded by their charismatic leader Pir Roshan.[20][21] The Roshani movement played an important part in politically in resisting the increasing influence of Mughals in Afghan region as they gained popular supports from the Afghanis.[21] Pir Roshan spent his life in conflict with the Mughals until his death in 1572.[21] His successors continued his struggle against the Mughals, and even captured Ghazni city at one point, prompting emperor Jahangir to deal with the rebellion more seriously, which after constant battles against the sect, the movement eventually weakened and ended.[21]

    The Karrani-Mughal conflicts were not limited to Bengal, as the Karranis and other Afghan groups also resisted Mughal rule in other parts of the empire, such as the northwest frontier region in 1612 At the time of the Mughal invasion of the Greater Sylhet region, Bayazid Karrani II, a member of the Karrani dynasty of Bengal,[22] was among the most powerful leaders of the Eastern Afghani Confederates, independently ruling its eastern half with his capital in Pratapgarh.[23][24] continuing the struggle against Mughal expansion of the previous generation under Isa Khan.[25] Bayazid was among those who had been granted lands as part of the maintenance of this alliance by the latter's son, Musa Khan.[26] Bayazid formed alliance with Khwaja Usman from Usmangarh (and Taraf) and Anwar Khan of Baniachong.[27] It was in light of this close alliance that Islam Khan I, the Mughal governor of Bengal, dispatched an imperial force against Bayazid so as to prevent the latter from providing aid.[28][29] Ghiyas Khan was appointed to lead the expedition, though due to his diffidence, command was later entrusted to Shaikh Kamal. He was assisted by officers such as Mubariz Khan, Tuqmaq Khan, Mirak Bahadur Jalair and Mir Abdur Razzaq Shirazi. Mir Ali Beg was made the bakhshi (paymaster) of this Mughal command.[30] The host consisted of four thousand matchlock-men, one thousand picked cavalry of Islam Khan I, one hundred imperial war elephants and the fleet of Musa Khan and his confederates, who had surrendered to the Mughals the previous year.[31][32] Bayazid's side consisted of the forces sworn to him and his brother Yaqub, as well as several hill-tribe chieftains (likely Kukis).[33] The host consisted of four thousand matchlock-men, one thousand picked cavalry of Islam Khan I, one hundred imperial war elephants and the fleet of Musa Khan and his confederates, who had surrendered to the Mughals the previous year.[31][32] The intense conflict rages between the alliance with the Mughal force, [34][35] until Khwaja Usman slain in one of clashes.[36] The death of Khwaja Usman greatly demoralized the Afghan, prompting Bayazid to surrender.[37] Soon after, Anwar Khan also submitted,[38] thus bringing Sylhet for the first time under the control of the Mughal empire.[24]

    Fifth Phase

    [edit]
    Main article: Battle of the Malandari Pass (1586)

    During the reign of Akbar King, Akbar was willing to invade one of the Yousufzai country "Afghania". Akbar laid a siege to invade the Yousafzai country but Mughals army was failed. The siege took more than two months. The Akbar than sent one of his most intelligent and closest Minister whose name was Raja Birbal. But the Yousufzai tribesmen defeated the Mughal forces led by Birbal and Shujat Khan. This was the biggest Disaster to Mughal Empire in the reign of Akbar. According to Mughal historian Khafi Khan, more than 40,000 Mughals soldiers and officers were killed by Yousufzai Afghans while Abd al-Qadir Badayuni's claims more than 8,000 Mughal soldiers and officers[39] were killed at the Karakar and Malandari Pass. It was considered one of the greatest military losses to Akbar and in Mughal History.[40] Due to this disaster, Akbar fell into grief and did not eat or drink for two days.[41] Akbar learned about the disaster two days later and an army under Rajah Todar Mal set off on 19 February to exact retribution against the Yusufzais, killing a large number of them and selling many survivors to Turan and Persia, as "the countries of Swat, Bajaur and Buner were cleansed of evildoers."[42]

    Sixth Phase

    [edit]
    Main articles: Battle of Lahore (1748) and Battle of Lahore (1752)

    A territorial dispute over the Punjab region, which was strategically significant due to its location on the border between the two empires, started the conflict between the Durrani Empire and the Mughal Empire. Ahmad Shah Durrani and his forces invaded India in 1748 and 1752 and captured Lahore from Mughals.[43]

    References

    [edit]
    1. ^ Public Resource. "Studies In Later Mughal History Of The Punjab 1707 To 1793 : Hari Ram Gupta : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive". Retrieved 2023-08-22.
    2. ^ Public Resource. "Ahmad shah durrani, father of modern Afghanistan : Singh, Ganda : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive". Retrieved 2023-08-22.
    3. ^ Jalali, Ali Ahmad (2021-12-15). Afghanistan: A Military History from the Ancient Empires to the Great Game. University Press of Kansas. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-7006-3263-3.
    4. ^ Boon, Kristen; Lovelace, Douglas; Huq, Aziz (2011). Assessing President Obama's National Security Strategy. Oxford University Press. p. 401. ISBN 978-0-19-975824-1.
    5. ^ Jalali, Ali Ahmad (2021-12-15). Afghanistan: A Military History from the Ancient Empires to the Great Game. University Press of Kansas. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-7006-3263-3.
    6. ^ Wink, André (2020-08-06). The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: c.700–1800 CE. Cambridge University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-108-41774-7.
    7. ^ Schmidt, Karl J. (2015-05-20). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-317-47681-8.
    8. ^ Chandra, Satish (2005). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II. Har-Anand Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9.
    9. ^ Mahajan, V. D. (2007). History of Medieval India. S. Chand Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-81-219-0364-6.
    10. ^ a b Jayapalan, N. (2001). History of India. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. ISBN 978-81-7156-928-1.
    11. ^ Gupta, Aditya (2008-09-15). Babur and Humayun: Modern Learning Organisation. Lulu.com. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-557-00896-4.
    12. ^ Yaqubi, Himayatullah (2015). Mughal-Afghan Relations in South Asia: History and Developments. National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research, Centre of Excellence, Quaid-i-Azam University. ISBN 978-969-415-115-1.
    13. ^ Dhir, Krishna S. (2022-01-01). The Wonder That Is Urdu. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 487. ISBN 978-81-208-4301-1.
    14. ^ Sahni, Janmenjay (2020-07-30). Magbook Indian History 2020. Arihant Publications India limited. p. 77. ISBN 978-93-241-9930-0.
    15. ^ Augustson, Kent (2021-05-27). The Twenty-five Years that Changed the World: Our Place in Time Volume II. Outskirts Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-9772-3231-1.
    16. ^ Britannica Guide to India. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 2009-03-01. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-59339-847-7.
    17. ^ Singh, Pashaura; Fenech, Louis E. (March 2014). The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies. OUP Oxford. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-19-969930-8.
    18. ^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (2008-11-01). History of India: Mediaeval India from the Mohammedan Conquest to the Reign of Akbar the Great. Cosimo, Inc. p. 250. ISBN 978-1-60520-495-6.
    19. ^ Numismatic Digest. Numismatic Society of Bombay. 2000.
    20. ^ Bosin, Yury V (2009). "Roshaniya movement and the Khan Rebellion". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.). International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest. Blackwell Publishing. p. 2869. ISBN 9781405184649. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
    21. ^ a b c d Alam, Nadia; Al-Azhari, Ali Akbar; Ghani, Hafiz Abdul; Riaz, Muhammad (2023). "Muslim Deviant Thought And Reform Efforts By Muslim Scholars In Mughal Era". Journal of Positive School Psychology. 7 (4). Academic Social Research Research India: 1280. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
    22. ^ Ali (1965), pp. 67–69.
    23. ^ Tripathi (1960), p. 367.
    24. ^ a b Ali (1954), p. 278.
    25. ^ Roy (1968), p. 62.
    26. ^ Rizvi (1969), p. 61.
    27. ^ Rizvi (1970), p. 61].
    28. ^ Roy (1968), p. 103.
    29. ^ Sarkar (1948), p. 275.
    30. ^ M. I. Borah (1936). Baharistan-I-Ghaybi – Volume 1. p. 163.
    31. ^ a b Roy (1968), p. 92.
    32. ^ a b Khan (2012).
    33. ^ Ali (1965), p. 67.
    34. ^ Roy (1968), pp. 103–04.
    35. ^ Rizvi (1970), p. 67.
    36. ^ Islam, Nazrul (16 Apr 2018). খাজা উসমান. Bangladesher Khabor (in Bengali).
    37. ^ Roy (1968), pp. 104–05.
    38. ^ Rizvi (1969), p. 60.
    39. ^ Richards, John F. (1993). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 49–51. ISBN 978-0-521-56603-2.
    40. ^ Janik, Vicki K. (1998-05-21). Fools and Jesters in Literature, Art, and History: A Bio-Bibliographical Sourcebook. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 91–96. ISBN 978-0-313-29785-4.
    41. ^ Otto, Beatrice K. (April 2001). Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester Around the World. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-64091-4.
    42. ^ Sarkar (1948), p. 275].
    43. ^ VSM, D. S. Saggu (2018-06-07). Battle Tactics And War Manoeuvres of the Sikhs. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-64249-006-0.

    Bibliography

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