Robeson County, North Carolina: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|County in North Carolina, United States}} |
{{Short description|County in North Carolina, United States}} |
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{{Use mdy dates|date= |
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2024}} |
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{{Infobox U.S. county |
{{Infobox U.S. county |
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| county = Robeson County |
| county = Robeson County |
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| population_as_of = 2020 |
| population_as_of = 2020 |
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| population_total = 116530 |
| population_total = 116530 |
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| pop_est_as_of = |
| pop_est_as_of = 2023 |
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| population_est = |
| population_est = 117365 |
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| population_density_sq_mi = 123.01 |
| population_density_sq_mi = 123.01 |
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| coordinates = {{coord|34. |
| coordinates = {{coord|34.64|-79.10|type:adm2nd_region:US-NC_source:USCensusBureau2020gazetteerfiles|display=inline,title}} |
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| web = www. |
| web = www.robesoncountync.gov |
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| district = 7th |
| district = 7th |
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| time zone = Eastern |
| time zone = Eastern |
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'''Robeson County''' ({{IPAc-en|'|r|ɒ|b|ɪ|s|ə|n}} {{respell|ROB|ih|sun}})<ref name="North Carolina Collection">[https://library.unc.edu/wilson/ncc/talk-like-a-tar-heel/ Talk Like a Tarheel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622041633/http://www.lib.unc.edu/ncc/ref/resources/tlth.html |date= |
'''Robeson County''' ({{IPAc-en|'|r|ɒ|b|ɪ|s|ə|n}} {{respell|ROB|ih|sun}})<ref name="North Carolina Collection">[https://library.unc.edu/wilson/ncc/talk-like-a-tar-heel/ Talk Like a Tarheel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622041633/http://www.lib.unc.edu/ncc/ref/resources/tlth.html |date=June 22, 2013 }}, from the North Carolina Collection website at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]. Retrieved August 16, 2023.</ref> is a [[County (United States)|county]] in the southern part of the U.S. state of [[North Carolina]] and is its largest county by land area. Its [[county seat]] and largest community is [[Lumberton, North Carolina|Lumberton]]. The county was formed in 1787 from part of [[Bladen County, North Carolina|Bladen County]] and named in honor of Thomas Robeson, a colonel who had led [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] forces in the area during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. As of the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]], the county's population was 116,530. It is a [[majority-minority]] county; its residents are approximately 38 percent [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], 22 percent white, 22 percent black, and 10 percent Hispanic. It is included in the [[Fayetteville, North Carolina|Fayetteville]]-Lumberton-[[Pinehurst, North Carolina|Pinehurst]], NC [[Fayetteville, North Carolina metropolitan area|Combined Statistical Area]]. The state-recognized [[Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina]] is headquartered in [[Pembroke, North Carolina|Pembroke]]. |
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The area eventually comprising Robeson was |
The area eventually comprising Robeson was initially inhabited by Native Americans, though little is known about them. By the mid-1700s, a Native community had coalesced around the swamps near [[Lumber River]], which bisects the area. Later in the century, Scottish, English, and French settlers occupied the other lands. The population remained sparse for decades due to the lack of suitable land for farming, and timber and [[naval stores]] formed a crucial part of the early economy. The proliferation of the [[cotton gin]] and rising demand for cotton led Robeson County to become one of the state's major cotton-producing counties throughout the 1800s. The [[Lowry War]] was fought between a group of mostly-Native American outlaws and local authorities during the latter stages of the [[American Civil War]] and through the [[Reconstruction era]]. After Reconstruction ended, a unique system of tripartite racial segregation was instituted in the county to separate whites, blacks, and Native Americans. |
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In the early 20th century, Robeson developed significant tobacco and textile industries |
In the early 20th century, Robeson developed significant tobacco and textile industries while many of its swamp lands were drained and roads were paved. From the 1950s to the 1970s, the county experienced tensions over racial desegregation. During the same period, local agriculture mechanized, and the manufacturing industry grew. The new sector was unable to provide stable enough employment to locals, and by the 1980s, Robeson was heavily afflicted by [[cocaine]] trafficking. The narcotics trade fueled violence, social unrest, political tensions, and police corruption and caused the county's statewide reputation to suffer. The county's economy was further damaged by significant declines in the tobacco and textile industries in the 1990s and early 2000s, which have now been supplanted by the supply of fossil fuels, poultry farming, [[biogas]] and bio-mass facilities, and logging. Robeson continues to rank low on several statewide socioeconomic indicators. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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===Early history and colonial era=== |
===Early history and colonial era=== |
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[[File:LumberRiverStatePark.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Lumber River]] as seen from the boat launch at Princess Ann near [[Orrum, North Carolina|Orrum]].]] |
[[File:LumberRiverStatePark.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The [[Lumber River]] as seen from the boat launch at Princess Ann near [[Orrum, North Carolina|Orrum]].]] |
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[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous people]] have lived in the region as early as 20,000 |
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous people]] have lived in the region as early as 20,000 BCE,<ref name= lumberriversp/> though little is known about those who lived there in the pre-colonial and early colonial eras.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=21}} Archeological excavations in the area eventually encompassing Robeson County have uncovered [[glass bead]]s—often used by Native Americans in trade, pottery, and clay pipes.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=34}} Archeologist Stanley Knick concluded that the land had been inhabited continuously from 12,000 BCE in the early [[Paleo-Indian]] period through the [[Archaic period (North America)|Archaic]] and [[Woodland period]]s and up to the present.<ref name= stilling>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/lumbee/origins| title = Lumbee Indians Part ii: Theories of Lumbee Origins| last = Stilling| first = Glenn Ellen Starr | date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> The earliest written mention of Native Americans in the area is a 1725 map compiled by John Herbert, which identified four [[Siouan]]-speaking communities near Drowning Creek—later known as the [[Lumber River]].<ref>{{cite news| last = McDonald| first = Thomasi| title = North Carolina Tribes Clash on Recognizing Lumbees| newspaper = Indy Week| date = December 9, 2020| url = https://indyweek.com/news/northcarolina/federal-lumbee-recognition/| access-date = December 6, 2022}}</ref> |
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The Native American/American Indian-descent people{{efn|There are various theories on the origins of this group.<ref name= stilling/> The descendants of this community have historically described themselves as "Indian" and been labeled as such in historical documents |
The Native American/American Indian-descent people{{efn|There are various theories on the origins of this group.<ref name= stilling/> The descendants of this community have historically described themselves as "Indian" and been labeled as such in historical documents. However, younger generations in the 21st century often identify themselves as "Native American".{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=11}}}} in the Lumber River valley eventually coalesced into a series of farming communities collectively dubbed "[[Scuffletown, North Carolina|Scuffletown]]" by whites but known by inhabitants as "the Settlement".{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=28–29}} The date of Scuffletown's formation is unknown{{sfn|Magdol|1973|p=261}} as was its actual location. Some scholars believe it was in the vicinity of the later town of [[Pembroke, North Carolina|Pembroke]] while others place it at [[Moss Neck, North Carolina|Moss Neck]]. Historians [[Adolph Dial]] and David K. Eliades believed it was a mobile community. Others still believe the name applied broadly to any concentration of Indians in the area.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=48}} Culturally, the Scuffletonians were similar to other Europeans in their dress and style of homes. They were Protestant Christians and spoke English,{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=28}} though they spoke an "older form", which set them apart from later settlers.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=28, 31}} Not viewed as Native Americans by the state of North Carolina until the 1880s, these people were generally dubbed "[[mulatto]]s" by locals and in federal documents throughout the mid-1800s to distinguish them from blacks.{{sfn|Magdol|1973|p=262}} The original Scuffletonians were joined by some whites and blacks in the mid-1700s, including some escaping enslavement.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=28–29}}{{efn|The true extent to which these people are actually of Native descent is sometimes disputed by some white and black Robesonians and some other indigenous groups, who assert that this community is really of mixed African and European ancestry.{{sfn|Wolfram|Reaser|2014|pp=221–223}}<ref name= rab>{{cite news| last = Rab| first = Lisa | title = What Makes Someone Native American?| newspaper = The Washington Post| date = August 20, 2018| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/style/wp/2018/08/20/feature/what-makes-someone-native-american-one-tribes-long-struggle-for-full-recognition/| access-date = December 3, 2022}}</ref>}} The earliest written record of white settlement dates from 1747 land deed applications.<ref name= registerofdeeds/> |
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The area eventually comprising Robeson County was not heavily settled by whites until about |
The area eventually comprising Robeson County was not heavily settled by whites until about ten years before the [[American Revolution]], when [[Highland Scots]] moved into the area. They formed a separate community from the Scuffletonians. The immigrants encompassed a range of class distinctions, from literate and aristocratic English-speaking families to poorer [[Scottish Gaelic]]-speakers, many of whom were indentured servants. The latter were called "Buckskins" due to their reputation for wearing pants made of deer leather.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=30}} Gaelic remained spoken in the area as late as the 1860s.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=30–31}} English and a few French settlers moved into the eastern portion of the eventual county.{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} Despite the increase in settlement, population levels in the Lumber River valley remained low for many years, as swamps and thick vegetation divided [[arable land]] and made transportation difficult.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=21}} The production of timber and [[naval stores]] formed a key part of the area's early economy, with logs being floated down the river for sale in [[Georgetown, South Carolina]], in the late 1700s.{{sfn|Tyner|2005|pp=24, 26}} During the [[American Revolutionary War]], control over the Lumber River valley was heavily contested by [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|British Loyalists]] and [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]].<ref name= smith>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/biography/robeson-thomas-jr| title = Robeson, Thomas, Jr.| last = Smith| first = Maud Thomas| date = 1994| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = November 27, 2022}}</ref> Tensions raised by the war caused some whites to migrate out of the area, moving as far away as [[Canada]].{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} |
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===Creation=== |
===Creation=== |
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Robeson County was created by the [[North Carolina General Assembly]] in 1787 out of a western section of [[Bladen County, North Carolina|Bladen County]]. It was named for Thomas Robeson, a colonel who had led Patriot forces in the area during the Revolutionary War.{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=419}}<ref name= smith/>{{efn|Some historians wrote that the county was named for Robeson, an influential political figure, in an attempt to get his support for its creation.{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} He died in 1785 |
Robeson County was created by the [[North Carolina General Assembly]] in 1787 out of a western section of [[Bladen County, North Carolina|Bladen County]]. It was named for Thomas Robeson, a colonel who had led Patriot forces in the area during the Revolutionary War.{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=419}}<ref name= smith/>{{efn|Some historians wrote that the county was named for Robeson, an influential political figure, in an attempt to get his support for its creation.{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} He died in 1785 before the county was created.<ref name= registerofdeeds>{{cite web| url = http://rod.co.robeson.nc.us/| title = Welcome To The Robeson County Register Of Deeds Website!| publisher = Robeson County Register of Deeds| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref>}} General John Willis, owner of the Red Banks plantation, lobbied to have the county's new seat of government located on his land. The site, to be known as [[Lumberton, North Carolina|Lumberton]], was chosen due to its central location in the county, proximity to a reliable [[Ford (crossing)|ford]] of the Lumber River, and as it was where several roads intersected. The first county courthouse was a wooden residence sold by Willis, which was moved into place after the land was cleared.<ref name= lottery/> Lumberton served as county residents' primary area of commerce for much of the area's early history, as transportation links with major regional cities elsewhere were tenuous.{{sfn|Land potential study, Robeson County|1969|p=6}} The [[1790 United States census]] recorded 5,356 county residents.{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} The county's first [[U.S. Post Office]] was established there by 1796.<ref name= lottery>{{cite news | title = Lumberton Lots Disposed Of By Lottery; By 1852 Town Had Mayor, Three Stores; Growth Phenomenal In Last Century| newspaper = The Robesonian | page = 1A| date = February 26, 1951| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/112525594/the-robesonian/}}</ref> That year settlers moved up the Lumber River and established Robeson's second white community, Princess Anne.<ref name= lumberriversp>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/lumber-river-state-park| title = Lumber River State Park| date = 2015| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> Much of the county's geography was not officially understood by surveyors until the early 1800s.<ref name= yeoman/> The county's boundaries were modified and remarked several times between 1788 and 1832.{{sfn|Corbitt|2000|pp=183–184}} |
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===Antebellum=== |
===Antebellum=== |
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Initially, wheat, corn, rice, sugar cane, and potatoes were popular crops among Robesonian farmers. The proliferation of the [[cotton gin]] and rising demand for cotton led it to be rapidly adopted,{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} and Robeson County became one of the state's major cotton-producing counties throughout much of the 1800s.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/agriculture/ag-products| title = Agriculture Part iv: Field Crops, Livestock, and Other Agricultural Products| last = Hill| first = Michael| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> Wealthy white planters held the best land in the county, and often outcompeted [[smallholding]] Indian and white farmers due to the aid of |
Initially, wheat, corn, rice, sugar cane, and potatoes were popular crops among Robesonian farmers. The proliferation of the [[cotton gin]] and rising demand for cotton led it to be rapidly adopted,{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} and Robeson County became one of the state's major cotton-producing counties throughout much of the 1800s.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/agriculture/ag-products| title = Agriculture Part iv: Field Crops, Livestock, and Other Agricultural Products| last = Hill| first = Michael| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> Wealthy white planters held the best land in the county, and often outcompeted [[smallholding]] Indian and white farmers due to the aid of enslaved labor, creating stark class divisions.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=31–32}} Cotton demand facilitated the growth of slavery and the expansion of plantations. By 1850, the county had a population of 7,290 whites, 4,365 enslaved people, and 1,171 [[free people of color|free persons of color]].{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} |
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[[North Carolina Constitutional Convention of 1835|In 1835]] a new [[Constitution of North Carolina]] was ratified, which restricted the ability of "free persons of color" and "free persons of mixed blood" to vote and bear arms.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=32, 34}} While having previously enjoyed the same political rights as white people, the |
[[North Carolina Constitutional Convention of 1835|In 1835]] a new [[Constitution of North Carolina]] was ratified, which restricted the ability of "free persons of color" and "free persons of mixed blood" to vote and bear arms.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=32, 34}} While having previously enjoyed the same political rights as white people, the new constitution disenfranchised Native Americans.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=41, 43}} White farmers in Robeson County also sought ways to obtain Native Americans' land or labor. According to Indian oral tradition, the "tied mule" incidents were emblematic of this. In these scenarios, a farmer would tie his mule to an Indian's land and release some of his cattle there before bringing local authorities to the scene to accuse the Indian landowner of theft. Doubtful of a fair trial in the courts, an Indian would settle with the farmer by offering him a portion of land or free labor.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=45}} By the 1860s, many Indians were landless.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=31}} The legal discrimination and exploitative practices heightened racial tensions in the area.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Magdol|1973|p=268}} |
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In 1848 a new county courthouse was constructed to replace the original building.{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=68}} Lumberton was formally incorporated four years later.{{sfn|Tyner|2014|p=9}} In 1860, the [[Wilmington Subdivision|Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad]] was laid through the county as its first railway.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=142}} By April 1861, the line reached the town of Shoe Heel—later known as [[Maxton, North Carolina|Maxton]].{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=33}} The introduction of the railroad facilitated the creation of new towns in the county.{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} |
In 1848, a new county courthouse was constructed to replace the original building.{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=68}} Lumberton was formally incorporated four years later.{{sfn|Tyner|2014|p=9}} In 1860, the [[Wilmington Subdivision|Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad]] was laid through the county as its first railway.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=142}} By April 1861, the line reached the town of Shoe Heel—later known as [[Maxton, North Carolina|Maxton]].{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=33}} The introduction of the railroad facilitated the creation of new towns in the county.{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=4}} |
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===Civil War=== |
===Civil War=== |
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North Carolina seceded from the United States in 1861 and joined the [[Confederate States of America]] to fight in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Townsend |first=Bob |title=Yellow fever caused panic in Wilmington 150 years ago |url=https://www.wect.com/story/19667861/yellow-fever |access-date= |
North Carolina seceded from the United States in 1861 and joined the [[Confederate States of America]] to fight in the [[American Civil War]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Townsend |first=Bob |title=Yellow fever caused panic in Wilmington 150 years ago |url=https://www.wect.com/story/19667861/yellow-fever |access-date=May 25, 2022 |website=wect.com |date=September 28, 2012 |language=en}}</ref> Many Indians and Buckskin whites were unenthusiastic about the war;{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=33, 58}} most local supporters of the Confederate cause were wealthy or well-educated.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=42}} Some Indian men enlisted in the [[Confederate States Army]], though it is unknown whether they were accepted as recognized Indians or [[Passing (racial identity)|passed]] as white.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=46}} Major white enslavers were exempted from service, as were those wealthy enough to pay for surrogates to serve in their place.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=33}} In 1863, Confederate authorities began conscripting the Indians and other free persons of color for labor along the coast, especially at [[Fort Fisher]].{{sfn|Magdol|1973|p=268}}{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=34}} The Indians were usually tasked to either construct batteries or grind salt. Most found the work dangerous and monotonous, and the conditions at the labor camps were poor. Many consequently fled into the swamps of Robeson County to avoid conscription. Though some Indians still sought to serve in the army during this time, by late 1863, most had concluded that the Confederacy was an oppressive regime. This change in attitudes was brought on by their contact with Union [[prisoner-of-war]] escapees from the [[Florence Stockade]], {{convert|60|miles|km}} away in South Carolina. Indians became increasingly willing to help the Union soldiers escape and avoid recapture.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=46}} |
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As time progressed some of the swamp deserters—including Indians, blacks, and Union soldiers—formed bands to raid and steal from area farms, though this was mostly out of a desire to survive and had little to do with challenging the Confederacy.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=57–58}} The Indians' aid to the Union escapees and their attempts to dodge labor conscription drew the attention of the [[Confederate Home Guard]], a paramilitary force tasked with maintaining law and order in the South during the war.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=47–48}} In early March 1865, Union troops led by General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] [[Campaign of the Carolinas|entered North Carolina]].{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=50}} The Union escapees left to join them, and the bands became predominantly Indian.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=50, 57–58}} Union forces entered Lumberton on March 9, burning two bridges and a depot.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=45–46}} They also foraged off |
As time progressed, some of the swamp deserters—including Indians, blacks, and Union soldiers—formed bands to raid and steal from area farms, though this was mostly out of a desire to survive and had little to do with challenging the Confederacy.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=57–58}} The Indians' aid to the Union escapees and their attempts to dodge labor conscription drew the attention of the [[Confederate Home Guard]], a paramilitary force tasked with maintaining law and order in the South during the war.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=47–48}} In early March 1865, Union troops led by General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] [[Campaign of the Carolinas|entered North Carolina]].{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=50}} The Union escapees left to join them, and the bands became predominantly Indian.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=50, 57–58}} Union forces entered Lumberton on March 9, burning two bridges and a depot.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=45–46}} They also foraged off the locals' goods, seizing draft animals, cattle, and crops.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=47–49}} The bulk of Confederate forces [[Battle of Appomattox Court House|surrendered at Appomattox]], Virginia shortly thereafter.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=51–52}} On May 15, enslaved people in Robeson were declared emancipated.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=55}} |
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===Reconstruction and Lowry War=== |
===Reconstruction and Lowry War=== |
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{{Main|Lowry War}} |
{{Main|Lowry War}} |
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In 1864, during the latter stages of the Civil War, Confederate postmaster James P. Barnes accused some sons of Allen Lowry, a prominent Indian farmer, of stealing two of his hogs and butchering them to feed Union escapees. He ordered the Lowry family to stay off his land under threat of being shot.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=46–47}} In December, Barnes was ambushed and shot as he made his way to work. Shortly before he succumbed to his wounds he accused William and [[Henry Berry Lowry]], two sons of Allen, of committing the attack.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=47}} The following January, Confederate Home Guard officer James Brantly Harris was ambushed and shot following his involvement in the deaths of three Lowrys.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=49–50}} Fearing Harris' death would lead to retaliation from the Home Guard, local Indians began preparing for violence. Short on food and weapons, they |
In 1864, during the latter stages of the Civil War, Confederate postmaster James P. Barnes accused some sons of Allen Lowry, a prominent Indian farmer, of stealing two of his hogs and butchering them to feed Union escapees. He ordered the Lowry family to stay off his land under threat of being shot.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=46–47}} In December, Barnes was ambushed and shot as he made his way to work. Shortly before he succumbed to his wounds, he accused William and [[Henry Berry Lowry]], two sons of Allen, of committing the attack.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=47}} The following January, Confederate Home Guard officer James Brantly Harris was ambushed and shot following his involvement in the deaths of three Lowrys.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=49–50}} Fearing Harris' death would lead to retaliation from the Home Guard, local Indians began preparing for violence. Short on food and weapons, they started stealing from white-owned farms and plantations.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=50}} Supplies intended for the guard were stolen from the courthouse in Lumberton.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=41–42}} |
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White citizens were infuriated by the decline in law and order, and the Home Guard suspected that the Lowry family was |
White citizens were infuriated by the decline in law and order, and the Home Guard suspected that the Lowry family was primarily responsible.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=50}} On March 3, 1865, a Home Guard detachment arrested Allen Lowry and several others.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=50–51}} Following an impromptu tribunal, the guardsmen executed Allen and his son William for allegedly possessing stolen goods.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=52–53}} The Home Guard was briefly disrupted by the incursion of Sherman's troops several days later but resumed investigating the Lowry family thereafter.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=46–47, 49}} These events initiated the Lowry War,{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=16}} a conflict which dominated Robeson County throughout the Reconstruction period.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=58, 89}} |
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[[File:Lowry Gang in the swamp.png|thumb|right|Artist's depiction of the Lowry Gang in a swamp from ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', 1872]] |
[[File:Lowry Gang in the swamp.png|thumb|right|Artist's depiction of the Lowry Gang in a swamp from ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', 1872]] |
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The situation in Robeson County briefly calmed with the Union victory, as locals focused on rebuilding their livelihoods.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=58}} The region suffered an economic downturn brought on by an agricultural depression and the destruction of the turpentine industry by Union troops.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=137}} Some white Robesonians moved down the Lumber River into South Carolina in search of new farmland,{{sfn|Montgomery|Mishoe|1999|p=242}} while others moved west. Many black freedmen turned to [[tenant farming]].{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=5}} Local government in Robeson mostly continued as it had during the war, with rich white men of prominence dominating public offices, especially the [[North Carolina justice of the peace|justices of the peace]] who constituted the county court.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=57–58}} The Home Guard was formally dissolved but was replaced by a similar institution, the Police Guard.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=59–60}} |
The situation in Robeson County briefly calmed with the Union victory, as locals focused on rebuilding their livelihoods.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=58}} The region suffered an economic downturn brought on by an agricultural depression and the destruction of the turpentine industry by Union troops.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=137}} Some white Robesonians moved down the Lumber River into South Carolina in search of new farmland,{{sfn|Montgomery|Mishoe|1999|p=242}} while others moved west. Many black freedmen turned to [[tenant farming]].{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=5}} Local government in Robeson mostly continued as it had during the war, with rich white men of prominence dominating public offices, especially the [[North Carolina justice of the peace|justices of the peace]] who constituted the county court.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=57–58}} The Home Guard was formally dissolved but was replaced by a similar institution, the Police Guard.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=59–60}} |
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In December the Police Guard arrested Henry Berry Lowry at his wedding and held him on charges of murdering Barnes.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=59}} He shortly thereafter escaped custody and avoided the authorities by hiding in swamps with a group of associates which became known as the Lowry Gang.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=59–60}} Although a somewhat fluid band at times numbering 20–30 men,{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=60–61}} the gang usually operated with six to eight men.{{sfn|Bradley|2009|p=252}}{{sfn|Magdol|1973|p=270}} The principle members were |
In December, the Police Guard arrested Henry Berry Lowry at his wedding and held him on charges of murdering Barnes.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=59}} He shortly thereafter escaped custody and avoided the authorities by hiding in swamps with a group of associates, which became known as the Lowry Gang.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=59–60}} Although a somewhat fluid band at times numbering 20–30 men,{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=60–61}} the gang usually operated with six to eight men.{{sfn|Bradley|2009|p=252}}{{sfn|Magdol|1973|p=270}} The principle members were primarily relatives of Lowry, though the gang also included two blacks and a poor white.{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=16}} They usually stayed in improvised shelters in Back Swamp, a ten-mile-long stretch of sparsely-traveled land near Allen Lowry's homestead.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=73}} Throughout 1866 and 1867, the gang conducted raids "in retaliation" for previous wrongs inflicted upon them, but no people were killed.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=63}} |
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Following the passage of federal [[Reconstruction Acts]] in 1867 and the ratification of a new state constitution in North Carolina in 1868, nonwhites in Robeson, both black freedmen and Indians, were re-enfranchised.{{sfn|Magdol|1973|pp=274–275}}{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=16}} The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] won a majority of the vote in elections in Robeson, displacing [[Conservative Party (United States)#Reconstruction-Era South|Conservative]] planter families who had dominated county affairs.{{sfn|Magdol|1973|pp=274–275}} The party relied on the electoral support of black freedmen, Indians, and poor Buckskin whites.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=86–88}} Republican officials were reluctant to take any action concerning the lawlessness in Robeson |
Following the passage of federal [[Reconstruction Acts]] in 1867 and the ratification of a new state constitution in North Carolina in 1868, nonwhites in Robeson, both black freedmen and Indians, were re-enfranchised.{{sfn|Magdol|1973|pp=274–275}}{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=16}} The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] won a majority of the vote in elections in Robeson, displacing [[Conservative Party (United States)#Reconstruction-Era South|Conservative]] planter families who had dominated county affairs.{{sfn|Magdol|1973|pp=274–275}} The party relied on the electoral support of black freedmen, Indians, and poor Buckskin whites.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=86–88}} Republican officials were reluctant to take any action concerning the lawlessness in Robeson since prosecuting former Home Guardsmen for their extrajudicial killings would harm their [[rule of law|law and order]] campaign, while targeting the Lowry Gang would split their local base of support.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=100–101}} Despite this, the new Republican [[Governor of North Carolina]], [[William Woods Holden]] issued a declaration of outlawry against Lowry and some of his associates, dividing the local Republican Party and threatening their hold on county politics.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=102}} |
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In an attempt to broker a solution, local Republicans convinced Lowry to surrender himself to be tried in the postwar court system, but he shortly thereafter escaped.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=63–64}} The Lowry Gang then killed Reuben King, the former sheriff of the county, during a robbery in January 1869,{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=63–64}} ending all attempts by Reconstruction authorities to negotiate a settlement.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=109}} The gang continued its raids |
In an attempt to broker a solution, local Republicans convinced Lowry to surrender himself to be tried in the postwar court system, but he shortly thereafter escaped.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=63–64}} The Lowry Gang then killed Reuben King, the former sheriff of the county, during a robbery in January 1869,{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=63–64}} ending all attempts by Reconstruction authorities to negotiate a settlement.{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=109}} The gang continued its raids. As a result federal troops were dispatched to assist the local authorities.<ref name= Mitchell>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/lowry-band| title = Lowry Band| last = Mitchell| first = Thornton W.| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = October 26, 2021}}</ref> In February 1872, the Lowry Gang committed their largest heist, stealing two safes from downtown Lumberton. Shortly thereafter, Henry Berry Lowry disappeared.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=78–79}} Over the next two years, bounty hunters tracked down the remaining gang members, and the war ended when the last active one was killed in February 1874.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=79–83}} |
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===End of Reconstruction and establishment of racial segregation=== |
===End of Reconstruction and establishment of racial segregation=== |
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[[File:Croatan Normal School in Pates.jpg|thumb|left|First [[Croatan Normal School]] building in [[Pates, North Carolina|Pates]]]] |
[[File:Croatan Normal School in Pates.jpg|thumb|left|First [[Croatan Normal School]] building in [[Pates, North Carolina|Pates]]]] |
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Dissatisfied with the 1868 Reconstruction constitution, Conservatives/[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]{{efn|The state Conservative Party officially changed its name in 1874 to align itself with the national Democratic Party.{{sfn|Paschal|2021|p=67}}}} pushed for a convention to be held in 1875 to revise the document. Elections to determine the delegates to attend were held in August. Early returns indicated that a Republican-majority convention was likely, and the final results from Robeson County were, depending on the outcome, likely to provide either party with their majority. The |
Dissatisfied with the 1868 Reconstruction constitution, Conservatives/[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]{{efn|The state Conservative Party officially changed its name in 1874 to align itself with the national Democratic Party.{{sfn|Paschal|2021|p=67}}}} pushed for a convention to be held in 1875 to revise the document. Elections to determine the delegates to attend were held in August. Early returns indicated that a Republican-majority convention was likely, and the final results from Robeson County were, depending on the outcome, likely to provide either party with their majority. The Democratic state chair telegrammed the local Democrat-dominated elections board, writing, "As you love the state, hold Robeson."<ref name= faulkner>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/government/convention-1875| title = Convention of 1875| last = Faulkner| first = Ronnie W.| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> The board then voted to certify the elections without counting results from four Republican-majority precincts, giving the county's two Democratic delegate candidates a slim margin of victory. With their narrow majority at the convention, the Democrats reversed many of the reforms instituted in the 1868 constitution, making it harder for Republicans and blacks to hold office.<ref name= faulkner/> |
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With Reconstruction thus ended, Democrats reasserted their dominance over politics in the South, but Republicans remained competitive in North Carolina and the Indian population in Robeson continued to support them.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=97–98}} Though Republicans still made up the majority of registered voters in Robeson, disagreements caused by the Lowry War prevented them from solidifying local control.{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=24}} The Indians also resisted being treated the same as blacks under the new socio-political hierarchy, who were relegated to a subordinate position.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=89–90}} Hamilton McMillan, a Robesonian member of the [[North Carolina House of Representatives]] and a Democrat, sought to switch the Indians' allegiance to solidify his party's control over the state.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=97–98}} He convinced the General Assembly to formally recognize the Indians as "Croatoans"—arguing that they descended from English settlers of the [[Lost Colony]] who mixed with [[Croatan]] Indians.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=98}} |
With Reconstruction thus ended, Democrats reasserted their dominance over politics in the South, but Republicans remained competitive in North Carolina, and the Indian population in Robeson continued to support them.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=97–98}} Though Republicans still made up the majority of registered voters in Robeson, disagreements caused by the Lowry War prevented them from solidifying local control.{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=24}} The Indians also resisted being treated the same as blacks under the new socio-political hierarchy, who were relegated to a subordinate position.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=89–90}} Hamilton McMillan, a Robesonian member of the [[North Carolina House of Representatives]] and a Democrat, sought to switch the Indians' allegiance to solidify his party's control over the state.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=97–98}} He convinced the General Assembly to formally recognize the Indians as "Croatoans"—arguing that they descended from English settlers of the [[Lost Colony]] who mixed with [[Croatan]] Indians.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=98}} |
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In 1887, McMillan convinced the legislature to appropriate money |
In 1887, McMillan convinced the legislature to appropriate money to establish a [[Croatan Normal School]] to train teachers who could staff new Indian schools. As a result, most Robeson Indians began to vote for Democrats, and their voting rights were preserved when blacks were disenfranchised by constitutional amendment in 1900.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=98}} This distinction birthed a system of tripartite segregation which was unique in the [[American South]]. However, whites generally regarded both the Indians and blacks as "[[colored]]".<ref name= coffey>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/lumbee-battle-hayes-pond-1958| title = The Lumbee Organize Against the Ku Klux Klan January 18, 1958: The Battle of Hayes Pond, Maxton, N.C.| last1 = Coffey| first1 = Mike| last2 = Agan| first2 = Kelly| date = 2020| website = Anchor| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = October 7, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206153940/https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/lumbee-battle-hayes-pond-1958| archive-date=December 6, 2021| url-status=live}}</ref> Indians and blacks nevertheless maintained separate identities.{{sfn|Lowery|2010|p=84}} Some other county facilities were separated for "Whites", "Negroes", and "Indians",{{sfn|Cunningham|2013|p=33}} including the courthouse in Lumberton.{{sfn|Lowery|2010|pp=20–21}} Under this racial hierarchy, whites constituted the dominant racial caste, and blacks were socially subordinated, while the Indians formed a middle caste and, though retaining more privileges than blacks, were still subject to discrimination.{{sfn|Evans|1971|pp=253–254}} |
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The county's second rail line was established in 1884 by the [[Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley Railway]], connecting [[Lumber Bridge, North Carolina|Lumber Bridge]], [[Red Springs, North Carolina|Red Springs]], and Maxton.{{sfn|Land potential study, Robeson County|1969|p=6}} In 1892, the [[Wilmington and Weldon Railroad]] built a north–south line through the county, intersecting with the Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad at the site of Campbell's Mill. A train station was subsequently built and a strong trading community was established.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=142}} It was incorporated in 1895 as the town of [[Pembroke, North Carolina|Pembroke]] and in 1909 the Croatan Normal School was moved there from its original location in [[Pates, North Carolina|Pates]].{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=142–143}} Pembroke became a center for Indian commercial activity.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=146}} Due to the Indians' predominance in the community, the town lacked strict adherence to many [[Jim Crow]] norms common in the rest of the county and the wider South in the early-to-mid 20th century.{{sfn|Lowery|2010|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=156–157}} [[St. Pauls, North Carolina|St. Pauls]] and Red Springs developed as white-majority towns hostile to nonwhites, while the towns of [[Fairmont, North Carolina|Fairmont]] and [[Rowland, North Carolina|Rowland]] retained significant black labor forces.{{sfn|Sider|2015|p=205}} In 1913 the General Assembly reclassified the Indians as [[Cherokee]]s.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|p=58}} |
The county's second rail line was established in 1884 by the [[Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley Railway]], connecting [[Lumber Bridge, North Carolina|Lumber Bridge]], [[Red Springs, North Carolina|Red Springs]], and Maxton.{{sfn|Land potential study, Robeson County|1969|p=6}} In 1892, the [[Wilmington and Weldon Railroad]] built a north–south line through the county, intersecting with the Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad at the site of Campbell's Mill. A train station was subsequently built, and a strong trading community was established.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=142}} It was incorporated in 1895 as the town of [[Pembroke, North Carolina|Pembroke]], and in 1909, the Croatan Normal School was moved there from its original location in [[Pates, North Carolina|Pates]].{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=142–143}} Pembroke became a center for Indian commercial activity.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=146}} Due to the Indians' predominance in the community, the town lacked strict adherence to many [[Jim Crow]] norms common in the rest of the county and the wider South in the early-to-mid 20th century.{{sfn|Lowery|2010|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=156–157}} [[St. Pauls, North Carolina|St. Pauls]] and Red Springs developed as white-majority towns hostile to nonwhites, while the towns of [[Fairmont, North Carolina|Fairmont]] and [[Rowland, North Carolina|Rowland]] retained significant black labor forces.{{sfn|Sider|2015|p=205}} In 1913 the General Assembly reclassified the Indians as [[Cherokee]]s.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|p=58}} |
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===Economic development and Great Depression=== |
===Economic development and Great Depression=== |
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[[File:Taking tobacco to market in Fairmont.jpg|thumb|right|Farmers taking tobacco to market in [[Fairmont, North Carolina|Fairmont]] in the early 1900s]] |
[[File:Taking tobacco to market in Fairmont.jpg|thumb|right|Farmers taking tobacco to market in [[Fairmont, North Carolina|Fairmont]] in the early 1900s]] |
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Following the stagnation of cotton prices in the 1890s, farmers in Robeson County began rapidly adopting tobacco as a regular crop.{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=37}}{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=146}} Many tobacco warehouses were built, and the town of Fairmont became the county's primary market town for the crop.{{sfn|Tyner|2005|pp=22, 37}} Significant tobacco markets were also established in Rowland and Lumberton.{{sfn|Sider|2015|p=205}}{{sfn|Tyner|2014|p=9}} The county's first cotton mill opened in 1897,{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=5}} and St. Pauls subsequently developed as the county's primary textile center.{{sfn|Quinterno|2006|p=7}} In the early 1900s |
Following the stagnation of cotton prices in the 1890s, farmers in Robeson County began rapidly adopting tobacco as a regular crop.{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=37}}{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=146}} Many tobacco warehouses were built, and the town of Fairmont became the county's primary market town for the crop.{{sfn|Tyner|2005|pp=22, 37}} Significant tobacco markets were also established in Rowland and Lumberton.{{sfn|Sider|2015|p=205}}{{sfn|Tyner|2014|p=9}} The county's first cotton mill opened in 1897,{{sfn|Sharpe|1952|p=5}} and St. Pauls subsequently developed as the county's primary textile center.{{sfn|Quinterno|2006|p=7}} In the early 1900s, farmers organized a trade association and convinced the county government to appoint a local commissioner for agriculture.{{sfn|Land potential study, Robeson County|1969|p=7}} |
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In 1909, Robeson County's third courthouse was constructed.{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=68}} Two years later a portion of the county was split off and combined with a section of [[Cumberland County, North Carolina|Cumberland County]] to form [[Hoke County, North Carolina|Hoke County]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/geography/hoke| title = Hoke County| last = Vocci| first = Robert Blair| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 4, 2022}}</ref> Bouts of typhoid, hookworm, smallpox, and a high infant mortality rate led Robeson's government to organize the first county-level public health department in the United States in 1912.{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=69}} Following the passage of a state drainage law in 1909, many swamps in the county were drained to increase usable farmland, improve transportation,<ref name= wetmore>{{cite news|last=Wetmore|first=E. F.| title = Drained Lands of Robeson County offer Opportunity Unexcelled for Capitalist Or Sturdy Pioneer| newspaper = The Robesonian| page = 25| date = May 6, 1915| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113443819/draining-robeson-county-swamps/}}</ref><ref name= dreilinger/> and reduce malaria cases.{{sfn|Maxwell|2017|p=25}} Work on the drainage of the nearly 22,000-acre Back Swamp was completed in 1918.{{sfn|Maxwell|2017|pp=10, 17}} Most major roads in the county were paved with state support between the 1920s and 1947.{{sfn|Land potential study, Robeson County|1969|pp=6–7}} In 1929, Robeson became the first county in the United States to appoint a [[County administrator|county manager]].{{sfn|Jenne|1998|p=13}} |
In 1909, Robeson County's third courthouse was constructed.{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=68}} Two years later a portion of the county was split off and combined with a section of [[Cumberland County, North Carolina|Cumberland County]] to form [[Hoke County, North Carolina|Hoke County]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/geography/hoke| title = Hoke County| last = Vocci| first = Robert Blair| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 4, 2022}}</ref> Bouts of typhoid, hookworm, smallpox, and a high infant mortality rate led Robeson's government to organize the first county-level public health department in the United States in 1912.{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=69}} Following the passage of a state drainage law in 1909, many swamps in the county were drained to increase usable farmland, improve transportation,<ref name= wetmore>{{cite news|last=Wetmore|first=E. F.| title = Drained Lands of Robeson County offer Opportunity Unexcelled for Capitalist Or Sturdy Pioneer| newspaper = The Robesonian| page = 25| date = May 6, 1915| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113443819/draining-robeson-county-swamps/}}</ref><ref name= dreilinger/> and reduce malaria cases.{{sfn|Maxwell|2017|p=25}} Work on the drainage of the nearly 22,000-acre Back Swamp was completed in 1918.{{sfn|Maxwell|2017|pp=10, 17}} Most major roads in the county were paved with state support between the 1920s and 1947.{{sfn|Land potential study, Robeson County|1969|pp=6–7}} In 1929, Robeson became the first county in the United States to appoint a [[County administrator|county manager]].{{sfn|Jenne|1998|p=13}} |
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Like the rest of the country, local agriculture suffered throughout the 1920s following [[World War I]] due to decreased demand and limited crop market opportunities.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=151}} The [[Great Depression]] led to a severe decline in tobacco prices.{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=22}} Area farmers responded by increasing their output, but the expanded agricultural supply only lowered crop prices.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=152}} Robesonians dubbed the time period the "[[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]] Days".{{sfn|Wolfram|Reaser|2014|p=234}} In response to the downturn, in 1936, the federal government created Pembroke Farms, a resettlement community for struggling Indian farmers.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=152}}{{sfn|Sider|2003|pp=138–139}} In 1938, the government offered loans for the establishment of a second project, the Red Banks Mutual Association.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=153}}{{sfn|Sider|2003|p=139}} The association served as a cooperative with multiple Indian households farming common land from which profits would be attained and then divided among the members.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=153}} Neither project proved successful, and by the 1940s, both faced neglect from the government, though the mutual association persisted into the 1960s before it finally collapsed.{{sfn|Sider|2003|p=138}}{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|pp=154–155}} |
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===Civil rights and desegregation=== |
===Civil rights and desegregation=== |
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Hundreds of Indians from Robeson County fought for the United States during [[World War II]] in white units (blacks were segregated into different outfits). Many returned with a willingness to pursue social change.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|pp=57–58}} Some of them, especially the war veterans, disliked Robeson County's segregation.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|p=72}} In 1945 a group of Indians petitioned the governor to support the restoration of an elected municipal government in Pembroke, which had been swapped for an appointive system in 1917 at the behest of the community's white minority. Two years later, the town returned to an elected government and Pembroke chose its first Indian mayor.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=143}} Other Indian leaders lobbied |
Hundreds of Indians from Robeson County fought for the United States during [[World War II]] in white units (blacks were segregated into different outfits). Many returned with a willingness to pursue social change.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|pp=57–58}} Some of them, especially the war veterans, disliked Robeson County's segregation.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|p=72}} In 1945, a group of Indians petitioned the governor to support the restoration of an elected municipal government in Pembroke, which had been swapped for an appointive system in 1917 at the behest of the community's white minority. Two years later, the town returned to an elected government, and Pembroke chose its first Indian mayor.{{sfn|Dial|Eliades|1996|p=143}} Other Indian leaders lobbied to adopt a unique name to identify their group. In 1952, the name Lumbee, inspired by the Lumbee/Lumber River, was approved by the Indians in a referendum, and the following year, the General Assembly formally recognized the label.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|p=58}} In 1956, the [[United States Congress]] formally extended partial recognition to the Lumbee Tribe, affirming their existence as an Indigenous community but disallowing them from the use of federal funds and services available to other Native American groups.{{sfn|Oakley|2008|pp=58–59}} Other Indians rejected the Lumbee designation and identified themselves as Tuscarora—stressing a connection to the [[Tuscarora people]] who had populated North Carolina in the 1700s—intending to secure a better chance at full federal recognition.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=121, 135–136}} |
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[[File:White men and Robeson County indians (Lumbee Indians) in fight-armed skirmish (State's Exhibit No.6). Photo taken by Bill Shaw, Fayetteville Observer newspaper photographer. Photo used as state's (8224422682).jpg|thumb|left|[[Lumbee|Lumbee Indians]] fighting [[Ku Klux Klan]]smen during the [[Battle of Hayes Pond]]]] |
[[File:White men and Robeson County indians (Lumbee Indians) in fight-armed skirmish (State's Exhibit No.6). Photo taken by Bill Shaw, Fayetteville Observer newspaper photographer. Photo used as state's (8224422682).jpg|thumb|left|[[Lumbee|Lumbee Indians]] fighting [[Ku Klux Klan]]smen during the [[Battle of Hayes Pond]]]] |
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In 1954 the [[United States Supreme Court]] issued its decision in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', ruling that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The ruling sparked a significant amount of pro-segregation activity among whites in the South, including a resurgence in [[white supremacist]] [[Ku Klux Klan]] (KKK) activity.{{sfn|Cunningham|2013|pp=30–32}} Klan activity and violence increased in Robeson in the early 1950s before being suppressed under pressure from the district solicitor and the federal government.{{sfn|Chalmers|2005|p=10}}<ref name="Jacobs">{{cite news|url=http://www.fayobserver.com/special/battle_of_maxton_field/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214174030/http://www.fayobserver.com/special/battle_of_maxton_field/|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 14, 2008|title= The Night The Klan Met Its Match| last1 = Jacobs| first1 = Chick| last2 = Jenkins| first2 = Venita|newspaper=The Fayetteville Observer|date=January 18, 2008|access-date=October 10, 2021}}</ref> In early 1958, Klan leader [[James W. "Catfish" Cole]] of South Carolina attempted to revive the Klan in Robeson County.{{sfn|Cunningham|2013|pp=32–33}} His group [[cross burning|burned crosses]] in St. Pauls and Lumberton to intimidate the Lumbee community before advertising a rally to be held at Hayes Pond, near Maxton.<ref name="Jacobs"/> The rally was held on the evening of January 18, attended by about 50 Klansmen—most not from the county, and joined by several hundred armed Lumbees.<ref name="coffey" /><ref name="Jacobs"/> The Lumbees opened fire, inflicting minor injuries and causing the Klansmen to disperse. The event, dubbed by the press as the "[[Battle of Hayes Pond]]", garnered national media attention and led Klan activity against the Lumbees to cease.<ref name= coffey/> |
In 1954, the [[United States Supreme Court]] issued its decision in ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', ruling that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The ruling sparked a significant amount of pro-segregation activity among whites in the South, including a resurgence in [[white supremacist]] [[Ku Klux Klan]] (KKK) activity.{{sfn|Cunningham|2013|pp=30–32}} Klan activity and violence increased in Robeson in the early 1950s before being suppressed under pressure from the district solicitor and the federal government.{{sfn|Chalmers|2005|p=10}}<ref name="Jacobs">{{cite news|url=http://www.fayobserver.com/special/battle_of_maxton_field/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080214174030/http://www.fayobserver.com/special/battle_of_maxton_field/|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 14, 2008|title= The Night The Klan Met Its Match| last1 = Jacobs| first1 = Chick| last2 = Jenkins| first2 = Venita|newspaper=The Fayetteville Observer|date=January 18, 2008|access-date=October 10, 2021}}</ref> In early 1958, Klan leader [[James W. "Catfish" Cole]] of South Carolina attempted to revive the Klan in Robeson County.{{sfn|Cunningham|2013|pp=32–33}} His group [[cross burning|burned crosses]] in St. Pauls and Lumberton to intimidate the Lumbee community before advertising a rally to be held at Hayes Pond, near Maxton.<ref name="Jacobs"/> The rally was held on the evening of January 18, attended by about 50 Klansmen—most not from the county, and joined by several hundred armed Lumbees.<ref name="coffey" /><ref name="Jacobs"/> The Lumbees opened fire, inflicting minor injuries and causing the Klansmen to disperse. The event, dubbed by the press as the "[[Battle of Hayes Pond]]", garnered national media attention and led Klan activity against the Lumbees to cease.<ref name= coffey/> |
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Pembroke State College (formerly the Croatan Normal School) racially integrated in the 1950s and 1960s.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=156}} After 1965, the rate of black and Native American voter registration substantially increased. By 1968, black and Native voters outnumbered whites.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=149}} In 1970 the federal government ordered the county school board to integrate its institutions. The board responded by dissolving special Native American districts and consolidating Native students with black and white schools. This did not affect most white students in the county, who were largely served by independent municipal school districts.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=146}} Feeling a loss of control over their traditional schools, many Lumbees and Tuscaroras protested integration and resisted the assignment of black staff and white and black students to their institutions.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=147–148}} |
Pembroke State College (formerly the Croatan Normal School) was racially integrated in the 1950s and 1960s.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=156}} After 1965, the rate of black and Native American voter registration substantially increased. By 1968, black and Native voters outnumbered whites.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=149}} In 1970, the federal government ordered the county school board to integrate its institutions. The board responded by dissolving special Native American districts and consolidating Native students with black and white schools. This did not affect most white students in the county, who were largely served by independent municipal school districts.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=146}} Feeling a loss of control over their traditional schools, many Lumbees and Tuscaroras protested integration and resisted the assignment of black staff and white and black students to their institutions.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=147–148}} |
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In early 1973, dozens of buildings in the county, most of them owned by whites, were set ablaze. In March, [[Old Main (University of North Carolina at Pembroke)|Old Main]], a historic building on Pembroke State's campus which had symbolic importance to the Native American community, was burned.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=158–159}} In 1974, a federal court ruled that the "double voting" system used by the county school board, whereby both county residents and municipal residents could vote for board members—despite the latter not being served by the county school system, was unconstitutional.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=158}} Following a bitter 1986 referendum which received national attention,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/civil-rights-movement/continued-battles| title = Civil Rights Movement Part 6: Continued Civil Rights Battles in the State| last1 = Powell| first1 = William S.| last2 = Criner| first2 = Allyson C.| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> the municipal systems were merged with the county system in 1988.<ref name= nagemracism>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = In one of America's most diverse counties, the wounds of racism run deep| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = February 23, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/wounds-of-racism-run-deep-in-robeson-county-nc/| access-date = November 20, 2022}}</ref> |
In early 1973, dozens of buildings in the county, most of them owned by whites, were set ablaze. In March, [[Old Main (University of North Carolina at Pembroke)|Old Main]], a historic building on Pembroke State's campus, which had symbolic importance to the Native American community, was burned.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=158–159}} In 1974, a federal court ruled that the "double voting" system used by the county school board, whereby both county residents and municipal residents could vote for board members—despite the latter not being served by the county school system, was unconstitutional.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=158}} Following a bitter 1986 referendum which received national attention,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/civil-rights-movement/continued-battles| title = Civil Rights Movement Part 6: Continued Civil Rights Battles in the State| last1 = Powell| first1 = William S.| last2 = Criner| first2 = Allyson C.| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> the municipal systems were merged with the county system in 1988.<ref name= nagemracism>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = In one of America's most diverse counties, the wounds of racism run deep| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = February 23, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/wounds-of-racism-run-deep-in-robeson-county-nc/| access-date = November 20, 2022}}</ref> |
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Pembroke State College was elevated to university |
Pembroke State College was elevated to university in 1971 and was grouped under the [[University of North Carolina System]] the following year.<ref name= fletcher>{{cite web| url = https://blogs.lib.unc.edu/morton/2020/01/14/save-old-main/| title = "Save Old Main"| last = Fletcher| first = Stephen| date = January 14, 2020| website = A View to Hugh| publisher = UNC University Libraries| access-date = August 14, 2022}}</ref> In 1974 the county courthouse was demolished.<ref>{{cite news| last1 = Goodyear| first1 = Toni| last2 = Vela| first2 = Karen| title = Robeson Kept Moving in '74.. And It Was Usually Forward| newspaper = The Robesonian| page = 9| date = January 3, 1975| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113539797/robeson-county-1974/}}</ref> It was replaced with a new structure in 1976.<ref>{{cite news| last = Vela| first = Karen| title = New Careers Begin In Robeson County's New Court House| newspaper = The Robesonian| page = 4| date = September 6, 1976| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113539901/new-robeson-county-courthouse/}}</ref>{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=11}} |
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===Drug trafficking and economic stagnation=== |
===Drug trafficking and economic stagnation=== |
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Robeson County became one of the top [[moonshine]]-producing counties in North Carolina in the 20th century. The prevalence of poverty enticed many Robesonians to sell moonshine to supplement their incomes, and the large number of isolated swamps and woods offered many places where [[still]]s could be concealed.{{sfn|Pierce|2019|pp=59–60}} Many Lumbees and Tuscaroras produced moonshine into the 1970s.{{sfn|Pierce|2019|p=60}} The trade of marijuana eventually supplanted moonshine before being overtaken by cocaine trafficking in the 1980s, which was enabled by the county's midway location between Miami and New York City along [[Interstate 95]].{{sfn|Pierce|2019|p=249}}{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=168}} The drug trade was fueled by worsening economic prospects in the region which began with the [[1970s energy crisis]] and increased living costs. By the mid-1980s, local agriculture was in decline;{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=166–168}} reliance on [[ |
Robeson County became one of the top [[moonshine]]-producing counties in North Carolina in the 20th century. The prevalence of poverty enticed many Robesonians to sell moonshine to supplement their incomes, and the large number of isolated swamps and woods offered many places where [[still]]s could be concealed.{{sfn|Pierce|2019|pp=59–60}} Many Lumbees and Tuscaroras produced moonshine into the 1970s.{{sfn|Pierce|2019|p=60}} The trade of marijuana eventually supplanted moonshine before being overtaken by cocaine trafficking in the 1980s, which was enabled by the county's midway location between Miami and New York City along [[Interstate 95]].{{sfn|Pierce|2019|p=249}}{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=168}} The drug trade was fueled by worsening economic prospects in the region which began with the [[1970s energy crisis]] and increased living costs. By the mid-1980s, local agriculture was in decline;{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=166–168}} reliance on [[mechanized agriculture]] and the consolidation of [[smallholding]] farms into larger corporate operations led to the loss of work for many farmers and their laborers.{{sfn|Blu|2001|p=16}} Newer manufacturing jobs did not provide residents sufficient employment and stability to make up for the shift. Over a quarter of county residents lived below the [[Poverty threshold#United States|poverty threshold]], over half of adults over the age of 25 [[High school dropouts in the United States|lacked a high school diploma]], and the local unemployment rate was higher than the state average.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=166–168}} |
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Native Americans and blacks suffered disproportionately from the lack of prosperity, and many Native Americans partook in the drug trade.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=168–169}} Narcotics-related activities led to murders and stoked social unrest, political tensions, and police corruption.{{sfn|Pierce|2019|p=249}} Robeson's homicide rate grew to four times worse than the national average{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=169}} and the county had the highest numbers of drug-related arrests in the state in 1985 and 1986.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=172}} In February 1988, two Tuscaroras held the staff of the county newspaper, ''[[The Robesonian]]'', [[The Robesonian takeover|hostage]] to protest local corruption.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=187–188}} Shortly thereafter, Lumbee judicial candidate [[Julian Pierce]] was murdered under disputed circumstances, and [[James R. Jordan Sr.|the father]] of basketball player [[Michael Jordan]] was murdered in Robeson in 1993.<ref name= nagemoccupied/> The county's reputation among North Carolinians suffered |
Native Americans and blacks suffered disproportionately from the lack of prosperity, and many Native Americans partook in the drug trade.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=168–169}} Narcotics-related activities led to murders and stoked social unrest, political tensions, and police corruption.{{sfn|Pierce|2019|p=249}} Robeson's homicide rate grew to four times worse than the national average{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=169}} and the county had the highest numbers of drug-related arrests in the state in 1985 and 1986.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=172}} In February 1988, two Tuscaroras held the staff of the county newspaper, ''[[The Robesonian]]'', [[The Robesonian takeover|hostage]] to protest local corruption.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|pp=187–188}} Shortly thereafter, Lumbee judicial candidate [[Julian Pierce]] was murdered under disputed circumstances, and [[James R. Jordan Sr.|the father]] of basketball player [[Michael Jordan]] was murdered in Robeson in 1993.<ref name= nagemoccupied/> The county's reputation among North Carolinians suffered due to these events.{{sfn|Haladay|Hicks|2017|pp=20–21}}<ref name= martin>{{cite news| last = Martin| first = Edward| title = This is the place| newspaper = Business North Carolina| date = September 15, 2014| url = https://businessnc.com/this-is-the-place/| access-date = November 14, 2022}}</ref><ref name= nagemoccupied>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = He occupied an NC newspaper 35 years ago to protest corruption. Now he has more to say| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = January 30, 2023| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-newspaper-takeover-35-years-later/| access-date = January 30, 2023}}</ref> Political action motivated by discontent led to an increasing number of blacks and Native Americans to run for office.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=198}} In 2002, the [[North Carolina State Bureau of Investigation]] opened an inquiry into corruption allegations in the Robeson County Sheriff's Office. Their subsequent Operation Tarnished Badge became the largest police corruption investigation in state history and led to 22 officers, including the sheriff, being convicted for various crimes.<ref name= rockett>{{cite news| last = Rockett| first = Ali| title = Operation Tarnished Badge: Years later, tarnish remains| newspaper = The Fayetteville Observer| date = June 10, 2013| url = https://www.fayobserver.com/article/20130610/news/306109815| access-date = October 5, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914220459/https://www.fayobserver.com/article/20130610/News/306109815|archive-date= September 14, 2019}}</ref> |
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===Deindustrialization and hurricanes=== |
===Deindustrialization and hurricanes=== |
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[[File:I-95 flooding in Lumberton, 2016.png|thumb|Flooding in Lumberton from [[Hurricane Matthew]], 2016]] |
[[File:I-95 flooding in Lumberton, 2016.png|thumb|Flooding in Lumberton from [[Hurricane Matthew]], 2016]] |
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Following the passage of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] in 1992, Robeson County lost thousands of manufacturing jobs, followed shortly by a knock-on loss of employment in other sectors.<ref name= yeoman/>{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|p=2250}} Deindustrialization coupled with the decline in the tobacco industry prompted by the [[Fair and Equitable Tobacco Reform Act]] of 2004 caused deep economic and social damage, with increasing [[underemployment]], rising poverty, growing [[welfare dependency]], and an increase in certain types of crimes.<ref>{{cite news| last = Tester| first = Brandon| title = Up in smoke: Tobacco's decline| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = April 14, 2018| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/109907/109907| access-date = December 1, 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|p=2250}} Economic development thereafter increasingly focused on the supply of fossil fuels, poultry farming, biogas and |
Following the passage of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] in 1992, Robeson County lost thousands of manufacturing jobs, followed shortly by a knock-on loss of employment in other sectors.<ref name= yeoman/>{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|p=2250}} Deindustrialization coupled with the decline in the tobacco industry prompted by the [[Fair and Equitable Tobacco Reform Act]] of 2004 caused deep economic and social damage, with increasing [[underemployment]], rising poverty, growing [[welfare dependency]], and an increase in certain types of crimes.<ref>{{cite news| last = Tester| first = Brandon| title = Up in smoke: Tobacco's decline| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = April 14, 2018| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/109907/109907| access-date = December 1, 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|p=2250}} Economic development thereafter increasingly focused on the supply of fossil fuels, poultry farming, biogas and biomass facilities, and logging.{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|p=2251}} The Latino population also increased as Mexican immigrants—many of them [[Undocumented immigrant population of the United States|undocumented]]—supplanted black agricultural workers.{{sfn|Sider|2015|pp=55–56}} |
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In 2016, the county was impacted by [[Hurricane Matthew]], leading to record flooding in Lumberton. In 2018, the county was struck by [[Hurricane Florence]], which broke the record.<ref name= dreilinger/> The storms heavily damaged thousands of residences throughout the county, and entire streets in south and west Lumberton were left abandoned.{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|pp=2248–2249}} The destruction of significant |
In 2016, the county was impacted by [[Hurricane Matthew]], leading to record flooding in Lumberton. In 2018, the county was struck by [[Hurricane Florence]], which broke the record.<ref name= dreilinger/> The storms heavily damaged thousands of residences throughout the county, and entire streets in south and west Lumberton were left abandoned.{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|pp=2248–2249}} The destruction of significant affordable housing accelerated a population decline in the county, which had begun in 2013.{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|pp=2249–2250}} Falling student enrollments in the county school system and declining state education subsidies led the county school board to close nine schools in 2019.{{sfn|Marson|Legerton|2021|p=2250}} During the [[2020 United States presidential election|2020 presidential election]], President [[Donald Trump]] held a rally in Robeson County, marking the first time a sitting president had ever held a formal appearance there.<ref name= samuels/> |
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==Geography and physical features== |
==Geography and physical features== |
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According to the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], the county has a total area of {{convert|949.26|sqmi}}, of which {{convert|947.30|sqmi}} is land and {{convert|1.96|sqmi}} (0.21%) is water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 23, 2022 |title=2020 County Gazetteer Files – North Carolina |url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_counties_37.txt |access-date=September 9, 2023 |publisher=United States Census Bureau}}</ref><ref name= censusprofile>{{cite web| url = https://data.census.gov/profile/Robeson_County,_North_Carolina?g=0500000US37155| title = Robeson County, North Carolina| publisher = [[U.S. Census Bureau]]| access-date = September 15, 2023}}</ref> It is the largest county in North Carolina by area.<ref name= censusprofile/>{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=7}} Owing to its large size, the county was historically sometimes referred to informally as the "State of Robeson".<ref>{{cite news| title = State of Robeson| newspaper = The Robesonian| page = 8| date = April 21, 1969| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113435993/state-of-robeson/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last = Noblitt| first = Bill| title = North Carolina Can Boast Plenty of Trails For Citizens| newspaper = Rocky Mount Telegram| page = 4| date = October 28, 1978| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113436202/rocky-mount-telegram/}}</ref> It is bordered by the North Carolina counties of [[Bladen County, North Carolina|Bladen]], [[Columbus County, North Carolina|Columbus]], [[Cumberland County, North Carolina|Cumberland]], [[Hoke County, North Carolina|Hoke]], and [[Scotland County, North Carolina|Scotland]],{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=419}} and the South Carolina counties of [[Dillon County, South Carolina|Dillon]], [[Horry County, South Carolina|Horry]], and [[Marlboro County, South Carolina|Marlboro]].<ref name= censusprofile/> |
According to the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], the county has a total area of {{convert|949.26|sqmi}}, of which {{convert|947.30|sqmi}} is land and {{convert|1.96|sqmi}} (0.21%) is water.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 23, 2022 |title=2020 County Gazetteer Files – North Carolina |url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/docs/maps-data/data/gazetteer/2020_Gazetteer/2020_gaz_counties_37.txt |access-date=September 9, 2023 |publisher=United States Census Bureau}}</ref><ref name= censusprofile>{{cite web| url = https://data.census.gov/profile/Robeson_County,_North_Carolina?g=0500000US37155| title = Robeson County, North Carolina| publisher = [[U.S. Census Bureau]]| access-date = September 15, 2023}}</ref> It is the largest county in North Carolina by area.<ref name= censusprofile/>{{sfn|Tyner|2003|p=7}} Owing to its large size, the county was historically sometimes referred to informally as the "State of Robeson".<ref>{{cite news| title = State of Robeson| newspaper = The Robesonian| page = 8| date = April 21, 1969| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113435993/state-of-robeson/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last = Noblitt| first = Bill| title = North Carolina Can Boast Plenty of Trails For Citizens| newspaper = Rocky Mount Telegram| page = 4| date = October 28, 1978| url = https://www.newspapers.com/clip/113436202/rocky-mount-telegram/}}</ref> It is bordered by the North Carolina counties of [[Bladen County, North Carolina|Bladen]], [[Columbus County, North Carolina|Columbus]], [[Cumberland County, North Carolina|Cumberland]], [[Hoke County, North Carolina|Hoke]], and [[Scotland County, North Carolina|Scotland]],{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=419}} and the South Carolina counties of [[Dillon County, South Carolina|Dillon]], [[Horry County, South Carolina|Horry]], and [[Marlboro County, South Carolina|Marlboro]].<ref name= censusprofile/> |
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Robeson is located in the [[Eastern North Carolina|state's Coastal Plain region]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/geography/robeson| title = Robeson County| last = Mazzocchi| first = Jay| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> and is one of the state's ten counties within the [[Sandhills (Carolina)|Sandhills]] region, characterized by sandy and fertile soil.<ref name= augillard>{{cite web| url = https://archleague.org/article/lumbee-river-north-carolina-intro/| title = Along the Lumbee River: An Introduction| last1 = Augillard| first1 = Morgan| last2 = Swerdlin| first2 = Joey| publisher = [[Architectural League of New York]]| access-date = November 20, 2022}}</ref> It hosts 11 major soil types, mostly sandy [[loam]]s.{{sfn|Rains|2010|pp=10–11, 19}} It has a [[temperate climate]] and rarely experiences snowfall.{{sfn|Rains|2010|p=11}} The county hosts many [[pocosin]]s,{{sfn|Blu|2001|p=9}} [[bald cypress]] forests,<ref name= yeoman>{{Cite web |last=Yeoman |first=Barry |date= |
Robeson is located in the [[Eastern North Carolina|state's Coastal Plain region]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/geography/robeson| title = Robeson County| last = Mazzocchi| first = Jay| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> and is one of the state's ten counties within the [[Sandhills (Carolina)|Sandhills]] region, characterized by sandy and fertile soil.<ref name= augillard>{{cite web| url = https://archleague.org/article/lumbee-river-north-carolina-intro/| title = Along the Lumbee River: An Introduction| last1 = Augillard| first1 = Morgan| last2 = Swerdlin| first2 = Joey| publisher = [[Architectural League of New York]]| access-date = November 20, 2022}}</ref> It hosts 11 major soil types, mostly sandy [[loam]]s.{{sfn|Rains|2010|pp=10–11, 19}} It has a [[temperate climate]] and rarely experiences snowfall.{{sfn|Rains|2010|p=11}} The county hosts many [[pocosin]]s,{{sfn|Blu|2001|p=9}} [[bald cypress]] forests,<ref name= yeoman>{{Cite web |last=Yeoman |first=Barry |date=September 22, 2021 |title=The Contested Swamps of Robeson County |url=http://www.theassemblync.com/environment/the-contested-swamps-of-robeson-county/ |access-date=November 13, 2022 |website=The Assembly NC |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Carolina bay]]s, creeks<ref>{{cite web| url = https://northcarolinahistory.org/encyclopedia/robeson-county-1787/| title = Robeson County (1787)| last = Martin| first = Jonathan| date = 2011| website = North Carolina History Project| publisher = John Locke Foundation| access-date = November 19, 2022}}</ref> (including Shoe Heel and Big Shoe Heel{{sfn|Powell|1976|pp=47, 452}}), and 50 swamps.<ref name= dreilinger>{{cite news| last = Dreilinger| first = Danielle| title = Learning to live with water, again: Lumbee face hard decisions about nature and NC storms| newspaper = The Fayetteville Observer| date = October 28, 2022| url = https://www.fayobserver.com/story/news/2022/10/28/can-lumbee-tribe-learn-to-live-with-flooding-hurricanes-north-carolina/10249791002/| archive-date=October 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221028101102/https://eu.fayobserver.com/story/news/2022/10/28/can-lumbee-tribe-learn-to-live-with-flooding-hurricanes-north-carolina/10249791002/}}</ref> The swamps feed into the Lumber River, which flows eastward from the northwest corner of the county to the southeast corner.{{sfn|Blu|2001|pp=8–9}} Portions of the [[Lumber River State Park]] are located in Robeson,<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncparks.gov/state-parks/lumber-river-state-park| title = Lumber River State Park| website = North Carolina State Parks| publisher = NC Division of Parks & Recreation| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> as is the entirety of the [[List of North Carolina state parks#State Natural Areas|Warwick Mill Bay State Natural Area]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://nc.audubon.org/news/warwick-mill-bay-forever-protected-wildlife-preservation| title = Warwick Mill Bay is Forever Protected for Wildlife Preservation| date = December 9, 2016| publisher = National Audubon Society| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> The two [[North Carolina game land|state game lands]] in the county are Bullard and Branch Hunting Preserve and Robeson Game Land.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NCWRC Game Lands |url=https://www.ncpaws.org/ncwrcmaps/gamelands |access-date=March 30, 2023 |publisher=North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lumber River, North Carolina |url=https://www.rivers.gov/rivers/lumber.php |access-date=March 22, 2023|website=National Wild and Scenic Rivers System|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230105153751/https://www.rivers.gov/rivers/lumber.php|archive-date=January 5, 2023|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service}}</ref> |
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Most of Robeson County lies within the Lumber River basin.{{sfn|Emanuel|2019|p=32}} The river and its banks support many flora and fauna. Resident mammals include deer, raccoons, muskrats, beavers, minks, and otters. The river also supports wild turkeys and several varieties of ducks. Local fish include catfish, robin, perch, pike, bluegill bream, jack, |
Most of Robeson County lies within the Lumber River basin.{{sfn|Emanuel|2019|p=32}} The river and its banks support many flora and fauna. Resident mammals include deer, raccoons, muskrats, beavers, minks, and otters. The river also supports wild turkeys and several varieties of ducks. Local fish include catfish, robin, perch, pike, bluegill bream, jack, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass,<ref name= aboutriver/> black crappie, and redbreast sunfish.{{sfn|Rains|2010|p=10}} Reptilian life includes [[Eastern copperhead|copperhead snakes]] and some [[water snake (disambiguation)|water snakes]] including [[Agkistrodon piscivorus|cottonmouths]].<ref name= aboutriver>{{cite web| url = https://www.lumbertonnc.gov/244/About-the-River| title = About the River| publisher = City of Lumberton| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> Robeson County is also one of the westernmost regular habitats in the state for [[American alligators]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/alligators| title = Alligators| last = Dough| first = Wynne| date = 2006| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> Plant life supported by the river includes bald cypress, gum, poplar, [[loblolly-bay]], and juniper trees. Ferns, [[Virginia creeper]], [[Spanish moss]], [[Sarracenia|pitcher plants]], and [[Venus flytrap]]s also reside along the river and its tributaries.<ref name= aboutriver/> |
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==Demographics== |
==Demographics== |
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As of the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]], there were 116,530 people residing in the county.<ref name= censusprofile/> Lumberton was the most populous community, with 19,025 residents. About 51 percent of county |
As of the [[2020 United States census|2020 census]], there were 116,530 people residing in the county.<ref name= censusprofile/> Lumberton was the most populous community, with 19,025 residents. About 51 percent of county residents were women.<ref name=johnsonpopulation/> Racially, 30,041 identified as white, 26,424 identified as black or African American, 44,871 identified as American Indian, 908 identified as Asian, and 79 identified as Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 8,192 identified as other, and 6,015 identified as two or more races.<ref name=2020censusrace>{{cite web| url = https://data.census.gov/table?g=0500000US37155&y=2020&d=DEC+Redistricting+Data+(PL+94-171)&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P1| title = P1 Race : 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) Robeson County, North Carolina| publisher = U.S. Census Bureau| access-date = December 10, 2022}}</ref> Of the total among the races, 11,757 people identified as Hispanic or Latino.<ref name= 2020censushispanic>{{cite web| url = https://data.census.gov/table?g=0500000US37155&y=2020&d=DEC+Redistricting+Data+(PL+94-171)&tid=DECENNIALPL2020.P2| title = P2 Hispanic or Latino, and not Hispanic or Latino by race 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) Robeson County, North Carolina| publisher = U.S. Census Bureau| access-date = December 10, 2022}}</ref> In proportions, the county was approximately 38 percent Native American, 22 percent white, 22 percent black, and 10 percent Hispanic.<ref name=johnsonpopulation/> It is a [[majority-minority]] county<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.wunc.org/education/2022-08-29/north-carolina-leandro-case-everything-need-know-court-schools| title = North Carolina's Leandro case: Everything you need to know| last = Tiberii| first = Jeff| date = August 29, 2022| website = WUNC 91.5| publisher = WUNC North Carolina Public Radio| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> and proportionately has the largest Native American population of any North Carolina county<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncdemography.org/2021/11/10/native-american-population-sees-notable-increase-in-2020-census/| title = Native American Population Sees Notable Increase in 2020 Census| last = Cline| first = Michael| date = November 10, 2021| website = Carolina Demography| publisher = University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill| access-date = December 18, 2022}}</ref> and the smallest white population.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://myfox8.com/news/north-carolina/what-is-the-racial-breakdown-of-north-carolinas-100-counties/| title = What is the racial breakdown of North Carolina’s 100 counties?| last = Melrose| first = Justyn| date = June 28, 2023| website = Fox 8| publisher = Nexstar Media Group, Inc.| access-date = October 24, 2023}}</ref> |
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Robeson County is included in the [[Fayetteville, North Carolina|Fayetteville]]-Lumberton-[[Laurinburg, North Carolina|Pinehurst]], NC [[Fayetteville, North Carolina metropolitan area|Combined Statistical Area]].<ref name="2023OMB">{{Cite web |date=July 21, 2023 |title=OMB Bulletin No. 23-01: Revised Delineations of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Micropolitan Statistical Areas, and Combined Statistical Areas, and Guidance on Uses of the Delineations of These Areas |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/OMB-Bulletin-23-01.pdf |
Robeson County is included in the [[Fayetteville, North Carolina|Fayetteville]]-Lumberton-[[Laurinburg, North Carolina|Pinehurst]], NC [[Fayetteville, North Carolina metropolitan area|Combined Statistical Area]].<ref name="2023OMB">{{Cite web |date=July 21, 2023 |title=OMB Bulletin No. 23-01: Revised Delineations of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Micropolitan Statistical Areas, and Combined Statistical Areas, and Guidance on Uses of the Delineations of These Areas |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/OMB-Bulletin-23-01.pdf |access-date=August 10, 2023 |website=[[United States Office of Management and Budget]]}}</ref> |
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===Demographic change=== |
===Demographic change=== |
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|2010= 134168 |
|2010= 134168 |
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|2020= 116530 |
|2020= 116530 |
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|estimate= |
|estimate=117365 |
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|estref=<ref name="2020CensusQuickFacts"/> |
|estref=<ref name="2020CensusQuickFacts"/> |
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|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html|title=U.S. Decennial Census|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref><br />1790–1960<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu|title=Historical Census Browser|publisher=University of Virginia Library|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref> 1900–1990<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/nc190090.txt|title=Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990|publisher=United States Census Bureau|editor-last=Forstall|editor-first=Richard L.|date=March 27, 1995|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref><br />1990–2000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc-t4/tables/tab02.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327165705/http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc-t4/tables/tab02.pdf |archive-date= |
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census.html|title=U.S. Decennial Census|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref><br />1790–1960<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu|title=Historical Census Browser|publisher=University of Virginia Library|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref> 1900–1990<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/nc190090.txt|title=Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990|publisher=United States Census Bureau|editor-last=Forstall|editor-first=Richard L.|date=March 27, 1995|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref><br />1990–2000<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc-t4/tables/tab02.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327165705/http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc-t4/tables/tab02.pdf |archive-date=March 27, 2010 |url-status=live|title=Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000|publisher=United States Census Bureau|date=April 2, 2001|access-date=January 19, 2015}}</ref> 2010<ref name="QF">{{cite web|title=State & County QuickFacts|url=http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/37/37155.html|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=October 29, 2013|archive-date=August 11, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811074406/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/37/37155.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> 2020<ref name="2020CensusQuickFacts">{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/robesoncountynorthcarolina|title=QuickFacts: Robeson County, North Carolina|publisher=United States Census Bureau|access-date=March 22, 2024}}</ref> |
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Robeson County experienced a loss of 17,638 people between 2010 and 2020,<ref name=johnsonpopulation/> a decline of 13.1 percent<ref>{{cite news| last = Schofield| first = Ivey| title = Columbus leaders react to disappointing census results| newspaper = The News Reporter| date = August 17, 2021| url = https://www.nrcolumbus.com/archives/columbus-leaders-react-to-disappointing-census-results/article_fb925f8a-a942-5bbb-a139-5c6eea020e06.html| access-date = January 25, 2023}}</ref> and the largest numerical decline among North Carolina's counties.<ref name=johnsonpopulation>{{cite news| last = |
Robeson County experienced a loss of 17,638 people between 2010 and 2020,<ref name=johnsonpopulation/> a decline of 13.1 percent<ref>{{cite news| last = Schofield| first = Ivey| title = Columbus leaders react to disappointing census results| newspaper = The News Reporter| date = August 17, 2021| url = https://www.nrcolumbus.com/archives/columbus-leaders-react-to-disappointing-census-results/article_fb925f8a-a942-5bbb-a139-5c6eea020e06.html| access-date = January 25, 2023}}</ref> and the largest numerical decline among North Carolina's counties.<ref name=johnsonpopulation>{{cite news| last = Johnson| first = Kristen| title = Robeson County lost the most people in the state from 2010 to 2020, Census results show| newspaper = The Fayetteville Observer| date = August 12, 2021| url = https://www.fayobserver.com/story/news/2021/08/12/census-shows-robeson-county-lost-residents-2010-2020/5538969001/| access-date = December 10, 2022}}</ref> Between the 2010 and 2020 censuses, the white demographic experienced the largest decrease in size, while Hispanics and people who identify as two or more races experienced the most significant increases.<ref name= nagemracism/> The proportion of county residents under the age of 18 dropped by 22 percent.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Broadband, entrepreneurs, faith: What would it take for rural NC to regain population?| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = August 20, 2021| url = https://borderbelt.org/broadband-entrepreneurs-faith-what-would-it-take-for-rural-nc-to-regain-population/| access-date = December 19, 2022}}</ref> The North Carolina Rural Center reported a 0.91 percent increase in the county's population between 2020 and 2023.<ref>{{cite news| last = Rappaport| first = Ben| title = Robeson and Scotland counties are growing, slowly, for the first time in years| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = June 12, 2024| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-scotland-counties-nc-grew-during-pandemic/| access-date = June 30, 2024}}</ref> |
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==Law and government== |
==Law and government== |
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[[File:Robeson County Administration Center (May 2023) 3.jpg|thumb|left|Robeson County Administration Center in Lumberton]] |
[[File:Robeson County Administration Center (May 2023) 3.jpg|thumb|left|Robeson County Administration Center in Lumberton]] |
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[[File:Robeson County Commissioners Building (May 2023) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Robeson County Commissioners Building in Lumberton]] |
[[File:Robeson County Commissioners Building (May 2023) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Robeson County Commissioners Building in Lumberton]] |
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Robeson County is run by a [[Council–manager government|commission–manager government]]. The county commission comprises eight members elected from [[single-member district]]s in four-year staggered terms. Presided over by a |
Robeson County is run by a [[Council–manager government|commission–manager government]]. The county commission comprises eight members elected from [[single-member district]]s in four-year staggered terms. Presided over by a chair elected by the commissioners from among their members for one year, the commission has legislative and policy-making authority over county government. The commissioners appoint a county manager with executive authority over county administration and implement the commission's decisions. The manager appoints directors of county government departments.{{sfn|Finance Department of Robeson County|2021|pp=12–13}} The county government supplies emergency services, social services, public health services, recreation, and economic development in its jurisdiction. It also maintains a water system and landfill.{{sfn|Finance Department of Robeson County|2021|pp=13–14}} A local property tax funds the county government.<ref>{{cite news| last = Horne| first = Jessica| title = Robeson County Commissioners approve FY2022-23 budget| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = June 6, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/235195/robeson-county-commissioners-approve-fy2022-23-budget| access-date = November 13, 2022}}</ref> Several county departments are headquartered in the Robeson County Administration Center in Lumberton.<ref name= horneRCAC>{{cite news| last = Horne| first = Jessica| title = Robeson County officials host grand opening of the county's administration center| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = December 8, 2021| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/152272/robeson-county-officials-host-grand-opening-of-the-countys-administration-center| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
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Robeson County is a member of the [[Councils of governments in North Carolina|Lumber River Council of Governments]], a regional planning board representing five counties.<ref>{{cite news| title = Richardson explains role of LRCOG to Rotary Club| newspaper = [[The Laurinburg Exchange]]| date = January 28, 2020| url = https://www.laurinburgexchange.com/news/33084/richardson-explains-role-of-lrcog-to-rotary-club| access-date = July 21, 2022}}</ref> The county also has |
Robeson County is a member of the [[Councils of governments in North Carolina|Lumber River Council of Governments]], a regional planning board representing five counties.<ref>{{cite news| title = Richardson explains role of LRCOG to Rotary Club| newspaper = [[The Laurinburg Exchange]]| date = January 28, 2020| url = https://www.laurinburgexchange.com/news/33084/richardson-explains-role-of-lrcog-to-rotary-club| access-date = July 21, 2022}}</ref> The county also has a Soil and Water Conservation District led by an elected supervisor.<ref name= jacobsetal/> Robeson County is located in [[North Carolina's 7th congressional district]],<ref name= Nagem1/> the [[North Carolina Senate]]'s [[North Carolina's 24th Senate district|24th district]], and the [[North Carolina House of Representatives]]' [[North Carolina's 46th House district|46th]] and [[North Carolina's 47th House district|47th]] district.<ref name= jacobsetal>{{cite news| last1 = Jacobs| first1 = Copeland| last2 = Sinclair| first2 = Tomeka| last3 = Stiles| first3 = Chris| title = Votes face slew of candidates| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = October 29, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/239289/votes-face-slew-of-candidates| access-date = November 13, 2022}}</ref> Robeson is one of the four counties within the jurisdiction of the [[Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina]]. Tribal members within the county elect some members of the tribal council.{{sfn|Lowery|2018|p=222}} Its headquarters is in Pembroke.<ref name= martin/> |
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=== Law enforcement and judicial system === |
=== Law enforcement and judicial system === |
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Robeson County lies within the bounds of North Carolina's 20th Prosecutorial District, the 16B [[North Carolina Superior Court|Superior Court]] District, and the 16B [[North Carolina District Courts|District Court]] District.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.nccourts.gov/locations/robeson-county| title = Robeson County| publisher = North Carolina Judicial Branch| access-date = November 29, 2022}}</ref> County residents elect a county sheriff, [[Court clerk|clerk of Superior Court]], and district attorney.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Election Day in Robeson County is Nov. 8. Here's who is on the ballot| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = October 17, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-nc-midterm-election/| access-date = December 10, 2022}}</ref> Judicial officials work out of the Robeson County Courthouse in Lumberton.<ref name= horneRCAC/> Law enforcement is provided across the county by the sheriff's office, while the University of North Carolina at Pembroke and the towns of Lumberton, St. Pauls, Maxton, Red Springs, Rowland, Pembroke, and Fairmont retain |
Robeson County lies within the bounds of North Carolina's 20th Prosecutorial District, the 16B [[North Carolina Superior Court|Superior Court]] District, and the 16B [[North Carolina District Courts|District Court]] District.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.nccourts.gov/locations/robeson-county| title = Robeson County| publisher = North Carolina Judicial Branch| access-date = November 29, 2022}}</ref> County residents elect a county sheriff, [[Court clerk|clerk of Superior Court]], and district attorney.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Election Day in Robeson County is Nov. 8. Here's who is on the ballot| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = October 17, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-nc-midterm-election/| access-date = December 10, 2022}}</ref> Judicial officials work out of the Robeson County Courthouse in Lumberton.<ref name= horneRCAC/> Law enforcement is provided across the county by the sheriff's office, while the University of North Carolina at Pembroke and the towns of Lumberton, St. Pauls, Maxton, Red Springs, Rowland, Pembroke, and Fairmont retain police departments.<ref>{{cite news| last = Horne| first = Jessica| title = Staff shortages hit law enforcement| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = May 13, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/200023/staff-shortages-hit-law-enforcement| access-date = December 10, 2022}}</ref> According to an October 2021 report issued by the State Bureau of Investigation, in 2020 Robeson experienced the highest violent crime rate of the state's counties at 1,190 incidents per 100,000 people, and the third-worst overall crime rate.<ref>{{cite news| last = Horne| first = Jessica| title = Robeson County again top in violent crime rates across the state| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = December 27, 2021| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/152804/robeson-county-again-top-in-violent-crime-rates-across-the-state| access-date = December 10, 2022}}</ref> |
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===Politics=== |
===Politics=== |
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[[File:State Capitol Protest in Raleigh (2020 Nov) (50603498261).jpg|thumb|Republican presidential candidate [[Donald Trump]] won Robeson County in 2016 and 2020 with the support of many Lumbees.]] |
[[File:State Capitol Protest in Raleigh (2020 Nov) (50603498261).jpg|thumb|Republican presidential candidate [[Donald Trump]] won Robeson County in 2016 and 2020 with the support of many Lumbees.]] |
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{| role="presentation |
{| role="presentation" |
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| <strong>Historical presidential election returns</strong> |
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| {{PresHead|place=Robeson County, North Carolina|whig=no|source1=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS|title=Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections|last=Leip|first=David|website=uselectionatlas.org|access-date= |
| {{PresHead|place=Robeson County, North Carolina|whig=no|source1=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS|title=Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections|last=Leip|first=David|website=uselectionatlas.org|access-date=March 17, 2018}}</ref>|source2=<ref>{{cite web |title=Géographie Électorale |url=http://geoelections.free.fr/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051118120032/http://geoelections.free.fr/|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 18, 2005|access-date=January 13, 2021}}</ref>}} |
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<!-- PresRow should be {{PresRow|Year|Winning party|GOP/Whig vote #|Dem vote #|3rd party vote #|State}} --> |
<!-- PresRow should be {{PresRow|Year|Winning party|GOP/Whig vote #|Dem vote #|3rd party vote #|State}} --> |
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{{PresRow|2024|Republican|29,647|16,728|395|North Carolina}} |
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{{PresRow|2020|Republican|27,806|19,020|362|North Carolina}} |
{{PresRow|2020|Republican|27,806|19,020|362|North Carolina}} |
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{{PresRow|2016|Republican|20,762|19,016|1,080|North Carolina}} |
{{PresRow|2016|Republican|20,762|19,016|1,080|North Carolina}} |
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Politically, Robeson County has historically been dominated by the Democratic Party. A majority of Robesonians voted for Republican presidential candidate [[Richard Nixon]] [[1972 United States presidential election|in 1972]], but then voted for Democratic presidential candidates in the next nine elections.<ref name= harrison>{{cite web| url = https://www.wfae.org/politics/2020-10-19/democrats-hope-rural-robeson-county-goes-blue-again| title = Democrats Hope Rural Robeson County Goes Blue Again| last = Harrison| first = Steve| date = October 19, 2020| website = WFAE 90.7|publisher = WFAE| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> The local Republican Party grew in the early 21st century, fueled by prevailing religious conservatism in the county and discontent with the loss of manufacturing jobs. Many of the Democrats who remained with their party were [[Conservative Democrat|conservative]].<ref name= samuels>{{cite news| last = Samuels| first = Robert| title = Their county was once a bellwether. Now, these Obama-Trump voters wonder what the future holds.| newspaper = The Washington Post| date = November 10, 2020| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/robeson-obama-trump-voters/2020/11/09/17b83d4e-2272-11eb-a381-7400aa2eda00_story.html| access-date = November 14, 2022}}</ref> Democrats continued to win state and local races by large margins in the 2000s but their margins of victory in presidential and congressional races decreased. In 2016 and 2020, county voters favored Republican [[Donald Trump]], who won over majorities of white and Lumbee voters by championing socially conservative issues, criticizing [[free trade]] agreements, and declaring his support for full federal recognition of the Lumbee Tribe.<ref name= kruse>{{cite news| last = Kruse| first = Michael| title = How Trump Won One of America's Most Diverse Counties — By a Lot| newspaper = Politico| date = December 10, 2020| url = https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/12/10/robeson-county-rural-rainbow-coalition-north-carolina-trump-republicans-443978| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> The area also began increasingly voting for Republican state and local candidates,<ref>{{cite news| last = Yeoman| first = Barry| title = The best political strategist in Robeson County might be this high school senior| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = May 24, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/the-best-political-strategist-in-robeson-county-might-be-this-high-school-senior/| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> with Robesonians in 2016 electing their first Republican state senator since Reconstruction.<ref name= kruse/> In 2020, Republicans won most races in the county.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = In an effort to keep Robeson County red, GOP makes big push to win over Lumbee voters| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = January 29, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/rnc-opens-office-in-nc-to-woo-lumbee-voters/| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last1 = Sinclair| first1 = Tomeka| last2 = Horne| first2 = Jessica| title = Election shows Robeson County has shifted red politically| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = November 4, 2020| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/139430/election-shows-robeson-county-has-shifted-red-politically| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> As of April 2022, Robeson hosts about 70,400 registered voters, comprising about 36,500 registered Democrats, 12,300 registered Republicans and 21,300 unaffiliated.<ref name= Nagem1>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Robeson County voters will go to the polls May 17. Here are some primary races to watch| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = April 20, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-primary-election-2022/| access-date = July 21, 2022}}</ref> |
Politically, Robeson County has historically been dominated by the Democratic Party. A majority of Robesonians voted for Republican presidential candidate [[Richard Nixon]] [[1972 United States presidential election|in 1972]], but then voted for Democratic presidential candidates in the next nine elections.<ref name= harrison>{{cite web| url = https://www.wfae.org/politics/2020-10-19/democrats-hope-rural-robeson-county-goes-blue-again| title = Democrats Hope Rural Robeson County Goes Blue Again| last = Harrison| first = Steve| date = October 19, 2020| website = WFAE 90.7|publisher = WFAE| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> The local Republican Party grew in the early 21st century, fueled by prevailing religious conservatism in the county and discontent with the loss of manufacturing jobs. Many of the Democrats who remained with their party were [[Conservative Democrat|conservative]].<ref name= samuels>{{cite news| last = Samuels| first = Robert| title = Their county was once a bellwether. Now, these Obama-Trump voters wonder what the future holds.| newspaper = The Washington Post| date = November 10, 2020| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/robeson-obama-trump-voters/2020/11/09/17b83d4e-2272-11eb-a381-7400aa2eda00_story.html| access-date = November 14, 2022}}</ref> Democrats continued to win state and local races by large margins in the 2000s but their margins of victory in presidential and congressional races decreased. In 2016 and 2020, county voters favored Republican [[Donald Trump]], who won over majorities of white and Lumbee voters by championing socially conservative issues, criticizing [[free trade]] agreements, and declaring his support for full federal recognition of the Lumbee Tribe.<ref name= kruse>{{cite news| last = Kruse| first = Michael| title = How Trump Won One of America's Most Diverse Counties — By a Lot| newspaper = Politico| date = December 10, 2020| url = https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2020/12/10/robeson-county-rural-rainbow-coalition-north-carolina-trump-republicans-443978| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> The area also began increasingly voting for Republican state and local candidates,<ref>{{cite news| last = Yeoman| first = Barry| title = The best political strategist in Robeson County might be this high school senior| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = May 24, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/the-best-political-strategist-in-robeson-county-might-be-this-high-school-senior/| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> with Robesonians in 2016 electing their first Republican state senator since Reconstruction.<ref name= kruse/> In 2020, Republicans won most races in the county.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = In an effort to keep Robeson County red, GOP makes big push to win over Lumbee voters| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = January 29, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/rnc-opens-office-in-nc-to-woo-lumbee-voters/| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last1 = Sinclair| first1 = Tomeka| last2 = Horne| first2 = Jessica| title = Election shows Robeson County has shifted red politically| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = November 4, 2020| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/139430/election-shows-robeson-county-has-shifted-red-politically| access-date = November 15, 2022}}</ref> As of April 2022, Robeson hosts about 70,400 registered voters, comprising about 36,500 registered Democrats, 12,300 registered Republicans and 21,300 unaffiliated.<ref name= Nagem1>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Robeson County voters will go to the polls May 17. Here are some primary races to watch| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = April 20, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-primary-election-2022/| access-date = July 21, 2022}}</ref> Trump won the county again in 2024.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Robeson County, home to Lumbee tribe, sees small voter turnout but big support for Trump| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = November 6, 2024| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-nc-sees-low-turnout-support-for-trump/| access-date = November 12, 2024}}</ref> With an estimated voter turnout rate of 59 percent, the county had the lowest turnout of any county in the 2024 elections.<ref>{{cite news| last = Rappaport| first = Ben| title = Rural southeastern NC, already known for low voter turnout, sees further drop| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = November 6, 2024| url = https://borderbelt.org/rural-southeastern-nc-drops-voter-turnout/| access-date = November 12, 2024}}</ref> |
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== Economy == |
== Economy == |
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[[File:Cotton field outside of Rex.jpg|thumb|left|A cotton field near [[Rex, North Carolina|Rex]]]] |
[[File:Cotton field outside of Rex.jpg|thumb|left|A cotton field near [[Rex, North Carolina|Rex]]]] |
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Robeson County |
Robeson County largely relied on the textile and tobacco industries throughout the 20th century.<ref name= barkin/> Agriculture predominated in employment in 1960, and the county earned the second-highest agriculture-related revenue among all [[Southern United States|Southern]] counties, though its per-capita income remained low. By 1970, agriculture had been overtaken by manufacturing, and the completion of Interstate 95 within several years accelerated industrialization. By 1990, fewer than 2,300 Robesonians worked in agriculture, and manufacturing accounted for a third of the county's employment.<ref name= martin/> The tobacco and manufacturing sectors rapidly declined in the 1990s and 2000s, with manufacturing especially adversely impacted by several national [[free trade]] agreements.<ref name= barkin>{{cite news| last = Barkin| first = Dan| title = Point taken: New industrial park sparks optimism in southeastern N.C.| newspaper = Business North Carolina | date = September 1, 2022| url = https://businessnc.com/point-taken-new-industrial-park-sparks-optimism-in-southeastern-n-c/| access-date = November 14, 2022}}</ref><ref name= martin/> The Robeson County Office of Economic Development determined that the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement led to the closure of 32 manufacturing facilities and the loss of over 6,000 jobs between 1995 and 2005.<ref>{{cite news| title = NAFTA turns 20| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = January 31, 2014| url = https://www.robesonian.com/archive/27171/news-home_top-news-3533128-nafta-turns-20-2| access-date = November 14, 2022}}</ref> From 1997 to 2007, the county lost 22,860 acres in farmland.{{sfn|Rains|2010|p=28}} |
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Tobacco is still grown in the county, as are corn, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts, and cotton.{{sfn|Finance Department of Robeson County|2021|p=14}} Some local landowners raise pine trees and sell them as timber.<ref name= dreilinger/> Poultry farming has also rapidly increased since the 1990s.<ref>{{cite news| last1 = Alexander| first1 = Ames| last2 = Off| first2 = Gavin| last3 = Wagner| first3 = Adam| title = With no power to fend off poultry farms, neighbors live with stench and nuisances| newspaper = The Charlotte Observer | date = December 8, 2022| url = https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/state/north-carolina/article267894887.html| access-date = December 12, 2022}}</ref> In recent years commercial activity has grown along the Interstate 95 corridor,{{sfn|Finance Department of Robeson County|2021|p=14}} Chicken processing, pork processing, and the [[pellet fuel]] industry have supplanted much of the former textile industry.<ref name= dreilinger/> The significant presence of such high-pollution industries in the county has led some residents to describe the area as a [[sacrifice zone]].<ref name= yeoman/> Health care/social assistance, manufacturing, retail, education, and accommodation/food service are the largest-employing sectors in Robeson County.<ref>{{cite news| last = Kennard| first = David| title = Health Care industry providing most jobs in Robeson County| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = December 23, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/241189/health-care-industry-providing-most-jobs-in-robeson-county| access-date = January 12, 2023}}</ref> According to the 2022 American Community Survey one-year estimate, the median household income was $38,610.<ref name="2020CensusQuickFacts"/> As of 2023, 28 percent of local residents are impoverished, making Robeson one of the poorest counties in the state.<ref>{{cite news| last = Weaver| first = Kerria| title = Robeson County environmental advocates call for more regulations on poultry farms| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = May 5, 2023| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-environmental-advocates-call-for-more-regulations-on-poultry-farms/| access-date = May 8, 2023}}</ref> |
Tobacco is still grown in the county, as are corn, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts, and cotton.{{sfn|Finance Department of Robeson County|2021|p=14}} Some local landowners raise pine trees and sell them as timber.<ref name= dreilinger/> Poultry farming has also rapidly increased since the 1990s.<ref>{{cite news| last1 = Alexander| first1 = Ames| last2 = Off| first2 = Gavin| last3 = Wagner| first3 = Adam| title = With no power to fend off poultry farms, neighbors live with stench and nuisances| newspaper = The Charlotte Observer | date = December 8, 2022| url = https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/state/north-carolina/article267894887.html| access-date = December 12, 2022}}</ref> In recent years commercial activity has grown along the Interstate 95 corridor,{{sfn|Finance Department of Robeson County|2021|p=14}} Chicken processing, pork processing, and the [[pellet fuel]] industry have supplanted much of the former textile industry.<ref name= dreilinger/> The significant presence of such high-pollution industries in the county has led some residents to describe the area as a [[sacrifice zone]].<ref name= yeoman/> Health care/social assistance, manufacturing, retail, education, and accommodation/food service are the largest-employing sectors in Robeson County.<ref>{{cite news| last = Kennard| first = David| title = Health Care industry providing most jobs in Robeson County| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = December 23, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/241189/health-care-industry-providing-most-jobs-in-robeson-county| access-date = January 12, 2023}}</ref> According to the 2022 American Community Survey one-year estimate, the median household income was $38,610.<ref name="2020CensusQuickFacts"/> As of 2023, 28 percent of local residents are impoverished, making Robeson one of the poorest counties in the state.<ref>{{cite news| last = Weaver| first = Kerria| title = Robeson County environmental advocates call for more regulations on poultry farms| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = May 5, 2023| url = https://borderbelt.org/robeson-county-environmental-advocates-call-for-more-regulations-on-poultry-farms/| access-date = May 8, 2023}}</ref> In its 2024 county economic tier ratings, the [[North Carolina Department of Commerce]] classified Robeson as tied with two other counties for the third-most economically distressed county in the state.<ref name= skinner>{{cite web| last = Skinner| first = Victor| title = Edgecombe most distressed, Currituck the least in new tier designations| website = The Center Square| date = December 1, 2023| url = https://www.thecentersquare.com/north_carolina/article_95b82d3a-907e-11ee-9b07-d7a9397c4ff3.html| access-date = December 3, 2023}}</ref> |
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==Transportation== |
==Transportation== |
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{{maplink|frame=yes|zoom=8|id=Q507733|type=shape-inverse|text=Interactive map of Robeson County}} |
{{maplink|frame=yes|zoom=8|id=Q507733|type=shape-inverse|text=Interactive map of Robeson County}} |
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Robeson County is served by [[Interstate 95]], which travels north–south through the county |
Robeson County is served by [[Interstate 95]], which travels north–south through the county; and [[Interstate 74 in North Carolina|Interstate 74]] (incomplete),<ref name="NAHW">{{cite press release |author=North Carolina Department of Transportation |date=November 18, 2010 |url=https://apps.dot.state.nc.us/pio/releases/details.aspx?r=4259 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121225124123/https://apps.dot.state.nc.us/pio/releases/details.aspx?r=4259 |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 25, 2012 |title=I-74 'The American Indian Highway' Naming Ceremony |publisher=North Carolina Department of Transportation |access-date=December 31, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=September 26, 2008 |title=Stretch of I-74 opens in Robeson County |url=https://www.wral.com/traffic/story/3623389/ |access-date=December 13, 2022 |website=WRAL-TV|publisher=Capitol Broadcasting Company |language=en}}</ref> which travels east–west. The two routes intersect to the southwest of Lumberton.<ref name= barkin/> It is also served by [[U.S. Route 74]] ([[Special routes of U.S. Route 74#Maxton–Lumberton alternate route|Alt.]]) ([[Special routes of U.S. Route 74#Laurinburg–Maxton business loop|Bus.]]),<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chavis|first=Robert |date=July 27, 2015 |title=Effort finally succeeds to name U.S. 74 American Indian Highway |url=https://www.robesonian.com/archive/60784/view-full_story-2534103-article-effort_finally_succeeds_to_name_u-s-_74_american_indian_highway |access-date=December 13, 2022|newspaper=The Robesonian |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=October 5, 2007 |title=Route Changes (2007-10-05) |url=https://connect.ncdot.gov/resources/safety/Route%20Changes/2007_10_05.pdf |access-date=July 10, 2014 |publisher=North Carolina Department of Transportation }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=November 1, 1984 |title=Route Changes (1984-11-01) |url=https://connect.ncdot.gov/resources/safety/Route%20Changes/1984_11_01.pdf |access-date=July 10, 2014 |publisher=North Carolina Department of Transportation }}</ref> [[U.S. Route 301 in North Carolina|US 301]], [[U.S. Route 501|US 501]], and [[List of state highways in North Carolina|North Carolina Highways]] [[North Carolina Highway 20|20]], [[North Carolina Highway 41|41]], [[North Carolina Highway 71|71]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Joseph |first=Miller |date=April 2015 |title=NC 71-211 Red Springs bypass from NC 71 southwest of Red Springs to NC 72-710 south of Red Springs, Hoke and Robeson Counties, federal-aid project STP-211(3), state project 34474.1.1, TIP project R-2593 : reevaluation of environmental assessment - Page 18 |url=https://digital.ncdcr.gov/digital/collection/p16062coll9/id/169777/ |access-date=May 10, 2023 |website=digital.ncdcr.gov |language=en}}</ref> [[North Carolina Highway 72|72]], [[North Carolina Highway 83|83]], [[North Carolina Highway 130|130]] ([[North Carolina Highway 130#Fairmont business loop|Bus.]]),<ref>{{cite map|publisher=North Carolina State Highway and Public Works Commission|url=http://dotw-xfer01.dot.state.nc.us/imgdot/DOTStateTravelMapHistoric/STM1940.pdf|format=PDF|title=North Carolina Primary Highway System|cartography=NCSHC|year=1940|accessdate=March 7, 2016}}</ref><ref name="1965change">{{cite web |date=October 8, 1965 |title=Route Change (1965-10-08) |url=https://connect.ncdot.gov/resources/safety/Route%20Changes/1965_10_08.pdf |accessdate=March 7, 2016 |publisher=North Carolina Department of Transportation}}</ref> [[North Carolina Highway 211|211]], [[Interstate 295 (North Carolina)#Route number changes|295]] (to become [[Interstate 295 (North Carolina)|I-295]]),<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 21, 2022 |title=Drivers have new route to use on the Fayetteville Outer Loop; NCDOT opens new section of I-295 |url=https://abc11.com/nc-fayetteville-outer-loop-i295-new-sections-open/12478490/ |access-date=December 13, 2022 |website=ABC11 Raleigh-Durham |language=en}}</ref> [[North Carolina Highway 710|710]], [[North Carolina Highway 711|711]], and [[North Carolina Highway 904|904]].<ref name= stats>{{cite web| url = https://www.robeson.k12.nc.us/page/robeson-county-statistics| title = Robeson County Statistics| publisher = Public Schools of Robeson County| access-date = December 12, 2022}}</ref> County government supports a [[public transport bus service]], the South East Area Transit System.<ref>{{cite news| title = SEATS will seek funding to keep rolling| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = October 4, 2019| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/127789/seats-will-seek-funding-to-keep-rolling| access-date = December 12, 2022}}</ref> Airplane facilities are provided by the [[Lumberton Municipal Airport]] in Lumberton.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Airport : Gateway to Lumberton and Robeson County|url=http://www.ci.lumberton.nc.us/179/Airport |access-date=December 12, 2022 |publisher=City of Lumberton}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last = Bym| first = Jonathan| title = Airport manager says construction of new terminal is weeks from completion| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = August 28, 2020| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/137356/airport-manager-says-construction-of-new-terminal-is-weeks-from-completion| access-date = December 12, 2022}}</ref> The [[Laurinburg–Maxton Airport]], situated in Scotland County near the border with Robeson, serves both the Scotland city of Laurinburg and the Robeson town of Maxton.{{sfn|Bhadury et al.|2015|p=69}}<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.lmairport.com/about-us| title = About Laurinburg-Maxton Airport| publisher = Laurinburg-Maxton Airport| access-date = December 12, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Could the Laurinburg-Maxton Airport become a regional business hub in NC? Leaders hope so| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = June 24, 2021| url = https://borderbelt.org/could-the-laurinburg-maxton-airport-become-a-regional-business-hub-in-nc-leaders-hope-so/| access-date = December 12, 2022}}</ref> Railroads in Robeson County are operated by [[CSX Transportation]].{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=32}} The longest straight stretch of railroad track in the United States, spanning 78.86 miles, passes through Robeson.{{sfn|Tyner|2005|p=34}} |
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==Education== |
==Education== |
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[[File:W.H. Knuckles Elementary School (May 2023) 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|W.H. Knuckles Elementary School in Lumberton]] |
[[File:W.H. Knuckles Elementary School (May 2023) 2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|W.H. Knuckles Elementary School in Lumberton]] |
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The [[Public Schools of Robeson County]] (PSRC) operates public schools |
The [[Public Schools of Robeson County]] (PSRC) operates public schools,{{sfn|Haladay|Hicks|2017|p=23}} with its jurisdiction being the entire county.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st37_nc/schooldistrict_maps/c37155_robeson/DC20SD_C37155.pdf|title=2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: Robeson County, NC|publisher=[[U.S. Census Bureau]]|access-date=2024-10-22}} - [https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st37_nc/schooldistrict_maps/c37155_robeson/DC20SD_C37155_SD2MS.txt Text list]</ref> As of 2022, the system operates 36 schools and serves about 23,000 students.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.robeson.k12.nc.us/o/robeson/page/community| title = Community | publisher = Public Schools of Robeson County| access-date = November 19, 2022}}</ref> The state classifies the PSRC as a low-performing district.<ref>{{cite news| title = PSRC retains low-performing status despite growth| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = September 2, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/237744/psrc-retains-low-performing-status-despite-growth| access-date = November 25, 2022}}</ref> The county hosts two post-secondary institutions: the University of North Carolina at Pembroke and [[Robeson Community College]].<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.robeson.k12.nc.us/page/post-secondary-education| title = Post Secondary Education | publisher = Public Schools of Robeson County| access-date = November 19, 2022}}</ref> Additionally, the PSRC supports the [[Robeson Planetarium and Science Center|Robeson Planetarium]],<ref>{{cite news| last = Horne| first = Jessica| title = PSRC leaders approve student reassignments for 3 schools effective next school year| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = April 12, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/178877/psrc-leaders-approve-student-reassignments-for-3-schools-effective-next-school-year| access-date = December 11, 2022}}</ref> while county government also runs seven libraries.{{sfn|Finance Department of Robeson County|2021|p=12}} A county history museum is located in Lumberton.{{sfn|Tyner|2014|p=10}} According to the 2022 [[American Community Survey]], an estimated 16.4 percent of county residents have attained a bachelor's degree or higher level of education.<ref name= censusprofile/> |
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==Healthcare== |
==Healthcare== |
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Robeson County is served by a single hospital, UNC Health Southeastern, based in Lumberton.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = How safe are the hospitals in North Carolina's Border Belt? New grades released| newspaper = Border Belt Independent | date = November 16, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/how-safe-are-the-hospitals-in-north-carolinas-border-belt-new-grades-released/| access-date = November 28, 2022}}</ref> The Robeson Health Care Corporation also provides medical care to |
Robeson County is served by a single hospital, UNC Health Southeastern, based in Lumberton.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = How safe are the hospitals in North Carolina's Border Belt? New grades released| newspaper = Border Belt Independent | date = November 16, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/how-safe-are-the-hospitals-in-north-carolinas-border-belt-new-grades-released/| access-date = November 28, 2022}}</ref> The Robeson Health Care Corporation also provides medical care to residents through various clinics.<ref name= nagemopiod>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = Robeson County's collaborative effort to fight the opioid epidemic| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = July 26, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/opioid-settlement-robeson-county-nc/| access-date = November 28, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| last = Horne| first = Jessica| title = RHCC breaks ground for future medical center in Fairmont| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = June 2, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/235047/rhcc-breaks-ground-for-future-medical-center-in-fairmont| access-date = November 28, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title = Brayboy retires from Robeson Health Care Corporation after nearly 37 years| newspaper = The Robesonian| date = April 7, 2022| url = https://www.robesonian.com/news/178720/brayboy-retires-from-robeson-health-care-corporation-after-nearly-37-years| access-date = November 28, 2022}}</ref> According to the 2022 County Health Rankings produced by the [[University of Wisconsin]] Population Health Institute, Robeson County had the worst health outcomes of all of North Carolina's counties. Per the ranking, 32 percent of adults say they are in poor or fair health, the average [[life expectancy]] is 72 years—six years lower than the state average, and 19 percent of people under the age of 65 lack [[health insurance]].<ref name=nagemhealth>{{cite news| last = Nagem| first = Sarah| title = The fight for better health (and health care) in rural North Carolina| newspaper = Border Belt Independent| date = May 9, 2022| url = https://borderbelt.org/fight-for-better-health-care-in-rural-nc/| access-date = November 28, 2022}}</ref> The county has been heavily impacted by the [[Opioid epidemic in the United States|opioid epidemic]],<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.wral.com/stein-visits-robeson-county-meets-with-leaders-to-discuss-ideas-for-additional-9-million-they-re-receiving-to-combat-opioid-cris/20248152/| title = Josh Stein meets with Robeson County leaders to discuss ideas for additional $9 million they're receiving to combat opioid crisis| last = Ingersoll| first = Ali| date = April 22, 2022| website = WRAL-TV| publisher = Capitol Broadcasting Company| access-date = November 28, 2022}}</ref> and in 2021 suffered from the highest fatal opioid overdose rate among North Carolina's counties.<ref name= nagemopiod/> |
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== Culture == |
== Culture == |
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Line 322: | Line 323: | ||
* Britts |
* Britts |
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* Burnt Swamp |
* Burnt Swamp |
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* East Howellsville |
* East [[Howellsville, North Carolina|Howellsville]] |
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* Gaddy |
* Gaddy |
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* Parkton |
* Parkton |
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Line 342: | Line 343: | ||
===Census-designated places=== |
===Census-designated places=== |
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[[Image:Parkton photo 2.jpg|thumb|The abandoned corner grocery in downtown Parkton]] |
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* [[Barker Ten Mile, North Carolina|Barker Ten Mile]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/2402664| title = Feature Details : Barker Ten Mile Census Designated Place| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
* [[Barker Ten Mile, North Carolina|Barker Ten Mile]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/2402664| title = Feature Details : Barker Ten Mile Census Designated Place| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
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* [[Elrod, North Carolina|Elrod]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/2402452| title = Feature Details : Elrod Census Designated Place| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
* [[Elrod, North Carolina|Elrod]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/2402452| title = Feature Details : Elrod Census Designated Place| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
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Line 353: | Line 353: | ||
===Unincorporated communities=== |
===Unincorporated communities=== |
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* [[Barnesville, North Carolina|Barnesville]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/980574| title = Feature Details : Barnesville| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
* [[Barnesville, North Carolina|Barnesville]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/980574| title = Feature Details : Barnesville| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
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* [[Bloomingdale, North Carolina|Bloomingdale]]{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=54}} |
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* [[Five Forks, Robeson County, North Carolina|Five Forks]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/985126| title = Feature Details : Five Forks| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
* [[Five Forks, Robeson County, North Carolina|Five Forks]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://edits.nationalmap.gov/apps/gaz-domestic/public/summary/985126| title = Feature Details : Five Forks| publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| access-date = December 16, 2022}}</ref> |
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* [[Red Banks, North Carolina|Red Banks]]{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=406}} |
* [[Red Banks, North Carolina|Red Banks]]{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=406}} |
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* [[Moss Neck, North Carolina|Moss Neck]]{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=336}} |
* [[Moss Neck, North Carolina|Moss Neck]]{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=336}} |
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* [[Pates, North Carolina|Pates]]{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=373}} |
* [[Pates, North Carolina|Pates]]{{sfn|Powell|1976|p=373}} |
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==Notable people== |
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* [[Henry Berry Lowrie|Henry Berry Lowry]] (1845–{{Circa|1872}}), outlaw who disappeared<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.ncpedia.org/biography/lowry-henry| title = Henry Berry Lowry| last = Currie| first = Jefferson| date = 2000| website = NCPedia| publisher = North Carolina Government & Heritage Library| access-date = October 14, 2021}}</ref> |
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* [[Rhoda Strong Lowry]] (1849–1909), wife of Henry{{sfn|Evans|1971|p=61}} |
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* [[Angus Wilton McLean]] (1870–1935), [[Governor of North Carolina]] from 1924 to 1928<ref>{{Cite web |title=McLean, Angus Wilton|url=https://www.ncpedia.org/biography/mclean-angus-wilton |access-date=December 12, 2020|website=NCPedia|date=1991|publisher=North Carolina Government & Heritage Library|last=Underwood|first=Evelyn}}</ref> |
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* [[Francis M. Wishart]] (1837–1872), military officer<ref>{{cite news| last = Barton| first = G. L.| title = The Life and Times of Henry Berry Lowry| newspaper = The Carolina Indian Voice| page = 3| date = December 8, 1977| url = https://newspapers.digitalnc.org/lccn/sn83008090/1977-12-08/ed-1/seq-3/}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* {{cite book| last = Bradley| first = Mark L.| title = Bluecoats and Tar Heels: Soldiers and Civilians in Reconstruction North Carolina| publisher = The University of Kentucky Press| date = 2009| location = Lexington| isbn = 978-0-8131-2507-7}} |
* {{cite book| last = Bradley| first = Mark L.| title = Bluecoats and Tar Heels: Soldiers and Civilians in Reconstruction North Carolina| publisher = The University of Kentucky Press| date = 2009| location = Lexington| isbn = 978-0-8131-2507-7}} |
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* {{cite book|last=Chalmers|first=David Mark|author-link=David Mark Chalmers|title=Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|edition=reprint|date=2005|location=|url=https://archive.org/details/backfirehowkuklu0000chal_k3r5|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-7425-2311-1}} |
* {{cite book|last=Chalmers|first=David Mark|author-link=David Mark Chalmers|title=Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|edition=reprint|date=2005|location=|url=https://archive.org/details/backfirehowkuklu0000chal_k3r5|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-7425-2311-1}} |
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* {{cite book| last = Corbitt| first = David Leroy| title = The formation of the North Carolina counties, 1663-1943| publisher = North Carolina Division of Archives and History | edition = reprint| date = 2000| location = Raleigh| url = https://digital.ncdcr.gov/ |
* {{cite book| last = Corbitt| first = David Leroy| title = The formation of the North Carolina counties, 1663-1943| publisher = North Carolina Division of Archives and History | edition = reprint| date = 2000| location = Raleigh| url = https://digital.ncdcr.gov/Documents/Detail/the-formation-of-the-north-carolina-counties-1663-1943/3692099?item=4553233| oclc= 46398241}} |
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* {{cite book| last = Cunningham| first = David| author-link=David Cunningham (sociologist) | title = Klansville, U.S.A: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-era Ku Klux Klan| publisher = Oxford University Press USA| edition = illustrated, reprint| date = 2013| url = https://archive.org/details/klansvilleusaris0000cunn| url-access=registration| isbn = 978-0-19-975202-7}} |
* {{cite book| last = Cunningham| first = David| author-link=David Cunningham (sociologist) | title = Klansville, U.S.A: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-era Ku Klux Klan| publisher = Oxford University Press USA| edition = illustrated, reprint| date = 2013| url = https://archive.org/details/klansvilleusaris0000cunn| url-access=registration| isbn = 978-0-19-975202-7}} |
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* {{cite book| last1 = Dial| first1 = Adolph L.| author-link=Adolph Dial |last2 = Eliades| first2 = David K.| title = The Only Land I Know: A History of the Lumbee Indians| publisher = Syracuse University Press| edition = 1st Syracuse University Press| date = 1996| location = Syracuse| isbn = 978-0-8156-0360-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RuF4yR8BXeIC}} |
* {{cite book| last1 = Dial| first1 = Adolph L.| author-link=Adolph Dial |last2 = Eliades| first2 = David K.| title = The Only Land I Know: A History of the Lumbee Indians| publisher = Syracuse University Press| edition = 1st Syracuse University Press| date = 1996| location = Syracuse| isbn = 978-0-8156-0360-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RuF4yR8BXeIC}} |
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{{Commons category}} |
{{Commons category}} |
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* {{osmrelation|2528738}} |
* {{osmrelation|2528738}} |
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* {{Official website|https://www.robesoncountync.gov}} |
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* [http://www.ncgenweb.us/robeson/ NCGenWeb Robeson County], genealogy resources for the county |
* [http://www.ncgenweb.us/robeson/ NCGenWeb Robeson County], genealogy resources for the county |
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Latest revision as of 23:43, 26 November 2024
Robeson County | |
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Coordinates: 34°38′N 79°06′W / 34.64°N 79.10°W | |
Country | United States |
State | North Carolina |
Founded | 1787 |
Named for | Thomas Robeson |
Seat | Lumberton |
Largest community | Lumberton |
Area | |
• Total | 949.26 sq mi (2,458.6 km2) |
• Land | 947.30 sq mi (2,453.5 km2) |
• Water | 1.96 sq mi (5.1 km2) 0.21% |
Population (2020) | |
• Total | 116,530 |
• Estimate (2023) | 117,365 |
• Density | 123.01/sq mi (47.49/km2) |
Time zone | UTC−5 (Eastern) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC−4 (EDT) |
Congressional district | 7th |
Website | www |
Robeson County (/ˈrɒbɪsən/ ROB-ih-sun)[1] is a county in the southern part of the U.S. state of North Carolina and is its largest county by land area. Its county seat and largest community is Lumberton. The county was formed in 1787 from part of Bladen County and named in honor of Thomas Robeson, a colonel who had led Patriot forces in the area during the Revolutionary War. As of the 2020 census, the county's population was 116,530. It is a majority-minority county; its residents are approximately 38 percent Native American, 22 percent white, 22 percent black, and 10 percent Hispanic. It is included in the Fayetteville-Lumberton-Pinehurst, NC Combined Statistical Area. The state-recognized Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina is headquartered in Pembroke.
The area eventually comprising Robeson was initially inhabited by Native Americans, though little is known about them. By the mid-1700s, a Native community had coalesced around the swamps near Lumber River, which bisects the area. Later in the century, Scottish, English, and French settlers occupied the other lands. The population remained sparse for decades due to the lack of suitable land for farming, and timber and naval stores formed a crucial part of the early economy. The proliferation of the cotton gin and rising demand for cotton led Robeson County to become one of the state's major cotton-producing counties throughout the 1800s. The Lowry War was fought between a group of mostly-Native American outlaws and local authorities during the latter stages of the American Civil War and through the Reconstruction era. After Reconstruction ended, a unique system of tripartite racial segregation was instituted in the county to separate whites, blacks, and Native Americans.
In the early 20th century, Robeson developed significant tobacco and textile industries while many of its swamp lands were drained and roads were paved. From the 1950s to the 1970s, the county experienced tensions over racial desegregation. During the same period, local agriculture mechanized, and the manufacturing industry grew. The new sector was unable to provide stable enough employment to locals, and by the 1980s, Robeson was heavily afflicted by cocaine trafficking. The narcotics trade fueled violence, social unrest, political tensions, and police corruption and caused the county's statewide reputation to suffer. The county's economy was further damaged by significant declines in the tobacco and textile industries in the 1990s and early 2000s, which have now been supplanted by the supply of fossil fuels, poultry farming, biogas and bio-mass facilities, and logging. Robeson continues to rank low on several statewide socioeconomic indicators.
History
[edit]Early history and colonial era
[edit]Indigenous people have lived in the region as early as 20,000 BCE,[2] though little is known about those who lived there in the pre-colonial and early colonial eras.[3] Archeological excavations in the area eventually encompassing Robeson County have uncovered glass beads—often used by Native Americans in trade, pottery, and clay pipes.[4] Archeologist Stanley Knick concluded that the land had been inhabited continuously from 12,000 BCE in the early Paleo-Indian period through the Archaic and Woodland periods and up to the present.[5] The earliest written mention of Native Americans in the area is a 1725 map compiled by John Herbert, which identified four Siouan-speaking communities near Drowning Creek—later known as the Lumber River.[6]
The Native American/American Indian-descent people[a] in the Lumber River valley eventually coalesced into a series of farming communities collectively dubbed "Scuffletown" by whites but known by inhabitants as "the Settlement".[8] The date of Scuffletown's formation is unknown[9] as was its actual location. Some scholars believe it was in the vicinity of the later town of Pembroke while others place it at Moss Neck. Historians Adolph Dial and David K. Eliades believed it was a mobile community. Others still believe the name applied broadly to any concentration of Indians in the area.[10] Culturally, the Scuffletonians were similar to other Europeans in their dress and style of homes. They were Protestant Christians and spoke English,[11] though they spoke an "older form", which set them apart from later settlers.[12] Not viewed as Native Americans by the state of North Carolina until the 1880s, these people were generally dubbed "mulattos" by locals and in federal documents throughout the mid-1800s to distinguish them from blacks.[13] The original Scuffletonians were joined by some whites and blacks in the mid-1700s, including some escaping enslavement.[8][b] The earliest written record of white settlement dates from 1747 land deed applications.[16]
The area eventually comprising Robeson County was not heavily settled by whites until about ten years before the American Revolution, when Highland Scots moved into the area. They formed a separate community from the Scuffletonians. The immigrants encompassed a range of class distinctions, from literate and aristocratic English-speaking families to poorer Scottish Gaelic-speakers, many of whom were indentured servants. The latter were called "Buckskins" due to their reputation for wearing pants made of deer leather.[17] Gaelic remained spoken in the area as late as the 1860s.[18] English and a few French settlers moved into the eastern portion of the eventual county.[19] Despite the increase in settlement, population levels in the Lumber River valley remained low for many years, as swamps and thick vegetation divided arable land and made transportation difficult.[20] The production of timber and naval stores formed a key part of the area's early economy, with logs being floated down the river for sale in Georgetown, South Carolina, in the late 1700s.[21] During the American Revolutionary War, control over the Lumber River valley was heavily contested by British Loyalists and Patriots.[22] Tensions raised by the war caused some whites to migrate out of the area, moving as far away as Canada.[19]
Creation
[edit]Robeson County was created by the North Carolina General Assembly in 1787 out of a western section of Bladen County. It was named for Thomas Robeson, a colonel who had led Patriot forces in the area during the Revolutionary War.[23][22][c] General John Willis, owner of the Red Banks plantation, lobbied to have the county's new seat of government located on his land. The site, to be known as Lumberton, was chosen due to its central location in the county, proximity to a reliable ford of the Lumber River, and as it was where several roads intersected. The first county courthouse was a wooden residence sold by Willis, which was moved into place after the land was cleared.[24] Lumberton served as county residents' primary area of commerce for much of the area's early history, as transportation links with major regional cities elsewhere were tenuous.[25] The 1790 United States census recorded 5,356 county residents.[19] The county's first U.S. Post Office was established there by 1796.[24] That year settlers moved up the Lumber River and established Robeson's second white community, Princess Anne.[2] Much of the county's geography was not officially understood by surveyors until the early 1800s.[26] The county's boundaries were modified and remarked several times between 1788 and 1832.[27]
Antebellum
[edit]Initially, wheat, corn, rice, sugar cane, and potatoes were popular crops among Robesonian farmers. The proliferation of the cotton gin and rising demand for cotton led it to be rapidly adopted,[19] and Robeson County became one of the state's major cotton-producing counties throughout much of the 1800s.[28] Wealthy white planters held the best land in the county, and often outcompeted smallholding Indian and white farmers due to the aid of enslaved labor, creating stark class divisions.[29] Cotton demand facilitated the growth of slavery and the expansion of plantations. By 1850, the county had a population of 7,290 whites, 4,365 enslaved people, and 1,171 free persons of color.[19]
In 1835 a new Constitution of North Carolina was ratified, which restricted the ability of "free persons of color" and "free persons of mixed blood" to vote and bear arms.[30] While having previously enjoyed the same political rights as white people, the new constitution disenfranchised Native Americans.[31] White farmers in Robeson County also sought ways to obtain Native Americans' land or labor. According to Indian oral tradition, the "tied mule" incidents were emblematic of this. In these scenarios, a farmer would tie his mule to an Indian's land and release some of his cattle there before bringing local authorities to the scene to accuse the Indian landowner of theft. Doubtful of a fair trial in the courts, an Indian would settle with the farmer by offering him a portion of land or free labor.[32] By the 1860s, many Indians were landless.[33] The legal discrimination and exploitative practices heightened racial tensions in the area.[34][35]
In 1848, a new county courthouse was constructed to replace the original building.[36] Lumberton was formally incorporated four years later.[37] In 1860, the Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad was laid through the county as its first railway.[38] By April 1861, the line reached the town of Shoe Heel—later known as Maxton.[39] The introduction of the railroad facilitated the creation of new towns in the county.[19]
Civil War
[edit]North Carolina seceded from the United States in 1861 and joined the Confederate States of America to fight in the American Civil War.[40] Many Indians and Buckskin whites were unenthusiastic about the war;[41] most local supporters of the Confederate cause were wealthy or well-educated.[42] Some Indian men enlisted in the Confederate States Army, though it is unknown whether they were accepted as recognized Indians or passed as white.[43] Major white enslavers were exempted from service, as were those wealthy enough to pay for surrogates to serve in their place.[44] In 1863, Confederate authorities began conscripting the Indians and other free persons of color for labor along the coast, especially at Fort Fisher.[35][45] The Indians were usually tasked to either construct batteries or grind salt. Most found the work dangerous and monotonous, and the conditions at the labor camps were poor. Many consequently fled into the swamps of Robeson County to avoid conscription. Though some Indians still sought to serve in the army during this time, by late 1863, most had concluded that the Confederacy was an oppressive regime. This change in attitudes was brought on by their contact with Union prisoner-of-war escapees from the Florence Stockade, 60 miles (97 km) away in South Carolina. Indians became increasingly willing to help the Union soldiers escape and avoid recapture.[43]
As time progressed, some of the swamp deserters—including Indians, blacks, and Union soldiers—formed bands to raid and steal from area farms, though this was mostly out of a desire to survive and had little to do with challenging the Confederacy.[46] The Indians' aid to the Union escapees and their attempts to dodge labor conscription drew the attention of the Confederate Home Guard, a paramilitary force tasked with maintaining law and order in the South during the war.[47] In early March 1865, Union troops led by General William Tecumseh Sherman entered North Carolina.[48] The Union escapees left to join them, and the bands became predominantly Indian.[49] Union forces entered Lumberton on March 9, burning two bridges and a depot.[50] They also foraged off the locals' goods, seizing draft animals, cattle, and crops.[51] The bulk of Confederate forces surrendered at Appomattox, Virginia shortly thereafter.[52] On May 15, enslaved people in Robeson were declared emancipated.[53]
Reconstruction and Lowry War
[edit]In 1864, during the latter stages of the Civil War, Confederate postmaster James P. Barnes accused some sons of Allen Lowry, a prominent Indian farmer, of stealing two of his hogs and butchering them to feed Union escapees. He ordered the Lowry family to stay off his land under threat of being shot.[54] In December, Barnes was ambushed and shot as he made his way to work. Shortly before he succumbed to his wounds, he accused William and Henry Berry Lowry, two sons of Allen, of committing the attack.[55] The following January, Confederate Home Guard officer James Brantly Harris was ambushed and shot following his involvement in the deaths of three Lowrys.[56] Fearing Harris' death would lead to retaliation from the Home Guard, local Indians began preparing for violence. Short on food and weapons, they started stealing from white-owned farms and plantations.[48] Supplies intended for the guard were stolen from the courthouse in Lumberton.[57]
White citizens were infuriated by the decline in law and order, and the Home Guard suspected that the Lowry family was primarily responsible.[48] On March 3, 1865, a Home Guard detachment arrested Allen Lowry and several others.[58] Following an impromptu tribunal, the guardsmen executed Allen and his son William for allegedly possessing stolen goods.[59] The Home Guard was briefly disrupted by the incursion of Sherman's troops several days later but resumed investigating the Lowry family thereafter.[60] These events initiated the Lowry War,[61] a conflict which dominated Robeson County throughout the Reconstruction period.[62]
The situation in Robeson County briefly calmed with the Union victory, as locals focused on rebuilding their livelihoods.[63] The region suffered an economic downturn brought on by an agricultural depression and the destruction of the turpentine industry by Union troops.[64] Some white Robesonians moved down the Lumber River into South Carolina in search of new farmland,[65] while others moved west. Many black freedmen turned to tenant farming.[66] Local government in Robeson mostly continued as it had during the war, with rich white men of prominence dominating public offices, especially the justices of the peace who constituted the county court.[67] The Home Guard was formally dissolved but was replaced by a similar institution, the Police Guard.[68]
In December, the Police Guard arrested Henry Berry Lowry at his wedding and held him on charges of murdering Barnes.[69] He shortly thereafter escaped custody and avoided the authorities by hiding in swamps with a group of associates, which became known as the Lowry Gang.[70] Although a somewhat fluid band at times numbering 20–30 men,[71] the gang usually operated with six to eight men.[72][73] The principle members were primarily relatives of Lowry, though the gang also included two blacks and a poor white.[61] They usually stayed in improvised shelters in Back Swamp, a ten-mile-long stretch of sparsely-traveled land near Allen Lowry's homestead.[74] Throughout 1866 and 1867, the gang conducted raids "in retaliation" for previous wrongs inflicted upon them, but no people were killed.[75]
Following the passage of federal Reconstruction Acts in 1867 and the ratification of a new state constitution in North Carolina in 1868, nonwhites in Robeson, both black freedmen and Indians, were re-enfranchised.[76][61] The Republican Party won a majority of the vote in elections in Robeson, displacing Conservative planter families who had dominated county affairs.[76] The party relied on the electoral support of black freedmen, Indians, and poor Buckskin whites.[77] Republican officials were reluctant to take any action concerning the lawlessness in Robeson since prosecuting former Home Guardsmen for their extrajudicial killings would harm their law and order campaign, while targeting the Lowry Gang would split their local base of support.[78] Despite this, the new Republican Governor of North Carolina, William Woods Holden issued a declaration of outlawry against Lowry and some of his associates, dividing the local Republican Party and threatening their hold on county politics.[79]
In an attempt to broker a solution, local Republicans convinced Lowry to surrender himself to be tried in the postwar court system, but he shortly thereafter escaped.[80] The Lowry Gang then killed Reuben King, the former sheriff of the county, during a robbery in January 1869,[80] ending all attempts by Reconstruction authorities to negotiate a settlement.[81] The gang continued its raids. As a result federal troops were dispatched to assist the local authorities.[82] In February 1872, the Lowry Gang committed their largest heist, stealing two safes from downtown Lumberton. Shortly thereafter, Henry Berry Lowry disappeared.[83] Over the next two years, bounty hunters tracked down the remaining gang members, and the war ended when the last active one was killed in February 1874.[84]
End of Reconstruction and establishment of racial segregation
[edit]Dissatisfied with the 1868 Reconstruction constitution, Conservatives/Democrats[d] pushed for a convention to be held in 1875 to revise the document. Elections to determine the delegates to attend were held in August. Early returns indicated that a Republican-majority convention was likely, and the final results from Robeson County were, depending on the outcome, likely to provide either party with their majority. The Democratic state chair telegrammed the local Democrat-dominated elections board, writing, "As you love the state, hold Robeson."[86] The board then voted to certify the elections without counting results from four Republican-majority precincts, giving the county's two Democratic delegate candidates a slim margin of victory. With their narrow majority at the convention, the Democrats reversed many of the reforms instituted in the 1868 constitution, making it harder for Republicans and blacks to hold office.[86]
With Reconstruction thus ended, Democrats reasserted their dominance over politics in the South, but Republicans remained competitive in North Carolina, and the Indian population in Robeson continued to support them.[87] Though Republicans still made up the majority of registered voters in Robeson, disagreements caused by the Lowry War prevented them from solidifying local control.[88] The Indians also resisted being treated the same as blacks under the new socio-political hierarchy, who were relegated to a subordinate position.[89] Hamilton McMillan, a Robesonian member of the North Carolina House of Representatives and a Democrat, sought to switch the Indians' allegiance to solidify his party's control over the state.[87] He convinced the General Assembly to formally recognize the Indians as "Croatoans"—arguing that they descended from English settlers of the Lost Colony who mixed with Croatan Indians.[90]
In 1887, McMillan convinced the legislature to appropriate money to establish a Croatan Normal School to train teachers who could staff new Indian schools. As a result, most Robeson Indians began to vote for Democrats, and their voting rights were preserved when blacks were disenfranchised by constitutional amendment in 1900.[90] This distinction birthed a system of tripartite segregation which was unique in the American South. However, whites generally regarded both the Indians and blacks as "colored".[91] Indians and blacks nevertheless maintained separate identities.[92] Some other county facilities were separated for "Whites", "Negroes", and "Indians",[93] including the courthouse in Lumberton.[94] Under this racial hierarchy, whites constituted the dominant racial caste, and blacks were socially subordinated, while the Indians formed a middle caste and, though retaining more privileges than blacks, were still subject to discrimination.[95]
The county's second rail line was established in 1884 by the Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley Railway, connecting Lumber Bridge, Red Springs, and Maxton.[25] In 1892, the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad built a north–south line through the county, intersecting with the Wilmington, Charlotte and Rutherford Railroad at the site of Campbell's Mill. A train station was subsequently built, and a strong trading community was established.[38] It was incorporated in 1895 as the town of Pembroke, and in 1909, the Croatan Normal School was moved there from its original location in Pates.[96] Pembroke became a center for Indian commercial activity.[97] Due to the Indians' predominance in the community, the town lacked strict adherence to many Jim Crow norms common in the rest of the county and the wider South in the early-to-mid 20th century.[98][99] St. Pauls and Red Springs developed as white-majority towns hostile to nonwhites, while the towns of Fairmont and Rowland retained significant black labor forces.[100] In 1913 the General Assembly reclassified the Indians as Cherokees.[101]
Economic development and Great Depression
[edit]Following the stagnation of cotton prices in the 1890s, farmers in Robeson County began rapidly adopting tobacco as a regular crop.[102][97] Many tobacco warehouses were built, and the town of Fairmont became the county's primary market town for the crop.[103] Significant tobacco markets were also established in Rowland and Lumberton.[100][37] The county's first cotton mill opened in 1897,[66] and St. Pauls subsequently developed as the county's primary textile center.[104] In the early 1900s, farmers organized a trade association and convinced the county government to appoint a local commissioner for agriculture.[105]
In 1909, Robeson County's third courthouse was constructed.[36] Two years later a portion of the county was split off and combined with a section of Cumberland County to form Hoke County.[106] Bouts of typhoid, hookworm, smallpox, and a high infant mortality rate led Robeson's government to organize the first county-level public health department in the United States in 1912.[107] Following the passage of a state drainage law in 1909, many swamps in the county were drained to increase usable farmland, improve transportation,[108][109] and reduce malaria cases.[110] Work on the drainage of the nearly 22,000-acre Back Swamp was completed in 1918.[111] Most major roads in the county were paved with state support between the 1920s and 1947.[112] In 1929, Robeson became the first county in the United States to appoint a county manager.[113]
Like the rest of the country, local agriculture suffered throughout the 1920s following World War I due to decreased demand and limited crop market opportunities.[114] The Great Depression led to a severe decline in tobacco prices.[115] Area farmers responded by increasing their output, but the expanded agricultural supply only lowered crop prices.[116] Robesonians dubbed the time period the "Hoover Days".[117] In response to the downturn, in 1936, the federal government created Pembroke Farms, a resettlement community for struggling Indian farmers.[116][118] In 1938, the government offered loans for the establishment of a second project, the Red Banks Mutual Association.[119][120] The association served as a cooperative with multiple Indian households farming common land from which profits would be attained and then divided among the members.[119] Neither project proved successful, and by the 1940s, both faced neglect from the government, though the mutual association persisted into the 1960s before it finally collapsed.[121][122]
Civil rights and desegregation
[edit]Hundreds of Indians from Robeson County fought for the United States during World War II in white units (blacks were segregated into different outfits). Many returned with a willingness to pursue social change.[123] Some of them, especially the war veterans, disliked Robeson County's segregation.[124] In 1945, a group of Indians petitioned the governor to support the restoration of an elected municipal government in Pembroke, which had been swapped for an appointive system in 1917 at the behest of the community's white minority. Two years later, the town returned to an elected government, and Pembroke chose its first Indian mayor.[125] Other Indian leaders lobbied to adopt a unique name to identify their group. In 1952, the name Lumbee, inspired by the Lumbee/Lumber River, was approved by the Indians in a referendum, and the following year, the General Assembly formally recognized the label.[101] In 1956, the United States Congress formally extended partial recognition to the Lumbee Tribe, affirming their existence as an Indigenous community but disallowing them from the use of federal funds and services available to other Native American groups.[126] Other Indians rejected the Lumbee designation and identified themselves as Tuscarora—stressing a connection to the Tuscarora people who had populated North Carolina in the 1700s—intending to secure a better chance at full federal recognition.[127]
In 1954, the United States Supreme Court issued its decision in Brown v. Board of Education, ruling that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The ruling sparked a significant amount of pro-segregation activity among whites in the South, including a resurgence in white supremacist Ku Klux Klan (KKK) activity.[128] Klan activity and violence increased in Robeson in the early 1950s before being suppressed under pressure from the district solicitor and the federal government.[129][130] In early 1958, Klan leader James W. "Catfish" Cole of South Carolina attempted to revive the Klan in Robeson County.[131] His group burned crosses in St. Pauls and Lumberton to intimidate the Lumbee community before advertising a rally to be held at Hayes Pond, near Maxton.[130] The rally was held on the evening of January 18, attended by about 50 Klansmen—most not from the county, and joined by several hundred armed Lumbees.[91][130] The Lumbees opened fire, inflicting minor injuries and causing the Klansmen to disperse. The event, dubbed by the press as the "Battle of Hayes Pond", garnered national media attention and led Klan activity against the Lumbees to cease.[91]
Pembroke State College (formerly the Croatan Normal School) was racially integrated in the 1950s and 1960s.[132] After 1965, the rate of black and Native American voter registration substantially increased. By 1968, black and Native voters outnumbered whites.[133] In 1970, the federal government ordered the county school board to integrate its institutions. The board responded by dissolving special Native American districts and consolidating Native students with black and white schools. This did not affect most white students in the county, who were largely served by independent municipal school districts.[134] Feeling a loss of control over their traditional schools, many Lumbees and Tuscaroras protested integration and resisted the assignment of black staff and white and black students to their institutions.[135]
In early 1973, dozens of buildings in the county, most of them owned by whites, were set ablaze. In March, Old Main, a historic building on Pembroke State's campus, which had symbolic importance to the Native American community, was burned.[136] In 1974, a federal court ruled that the "double voting" system used by the county school board, whereby both county residents and municipal residents could vote for board members—despite the latter not being served by the county school system, was unconstitutional.[137] Following a bitter 1986 referendum which received national attention,[138] the municipal systems were merged with the county system in 1988.[139]
Pembroke State College was elevated to university in 1971 and was grouped under the University of North Carolina System the following year.[140] In 1974 the county courthouse was demolished.[141] It was replaced with a new structure in 1976.[142][143]
Drug trafficking and economic stagnation
[edit]Robeson County became one of the top moonshine-producing counties in North Carolina in the 20th century. The prevalence of poverty enticed many Robesonians to sell moonshine to supplement their incomes, and the large number of isolated swamps and woods offered many places where stills could be concealed.[144] Many Lumbees and Tuscaroras produced moonshine into the 1970s.[145] The trade of marijuana eventually supplanted moonshine before being overtaken by cocaine trafficking in the 1980s, which was enabled by the county's midway location between Miami and New York City along Interstate 95.[146][147] The drug trade was fueled by worsening economic prospects in the region which began with the 1970s energy crisis and increased living costs. By the mid-1980s, local agriculture was in decline;[148] reliance on mechanized agriculture and the consolidation of smallholding farms into larger corporate operations led to the loss of work for many farmers and their laborers.[149] Newer manufacturing jobs did not provide residents sufficient employment and stability to make up for the shift. Over a quarter of county residents lived below the poverty threshold, over half of adults over the age of 25 lacked a high school diploma, and the local unemployment rate was higher than the state average.[148]
Native Americans and blacks suffered disproportionately from the lack of prosperity, and many Native Americans partook in the drug trade.[150] Narcotics-related activities led to murders and stoked social unrest, political tensions, and police corruption.[146] Robeson's homicide rate grew to four times worse than the national average[151] and the county had the highest numbers of drug-related arrests in the state in 1985 and 1986.[152] In February 1988, two Tuscaroras held the staff of the county newspaper, The Robesonian, hostage to protest local corruption.[153] Shortly thereafter, Lumbee judicial candidate Julian Pierce was murdered under disputed circumstances, and the father of basketball player Michael Jordan was murdered in Robeson in 1993.[154] The county's reputation among North Carolinians suffered due to these events.[155][156][154] Political action motivated by discontent led to an increasing number of blacks and Native Americans to run for office.[157] In 2002, the North Carolina State Bureau of Investigation opened an inquiry into corruption allegations in the Robeson County Sheriff's Office. Their subsequent Operation Tarnished Badge became the largest police corruption investigation in state history and led to 22 officers, including the sheriff, being convicted for various crimes.[158]
Deindustrialization and hurricanes
[edit]Following the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1992, Robeson County lost thousands of manufacturing jobs, followed shortly by a knock-on loss of employment in other sectors.[26][159] Deindustrialization coupled with the decline in the tobacco industry prompted by the Fair and Equitable Tobacco Reform Act of 2004 caused deep economic and social damage, with increasing underemployment, rising poverty, growing welfare dependency, and an increase in certain types of crimes.[160][159] Economic development thereafter increasingly focused on the supply of fossil fuels, poultry farming, biogas and biomass facilities, and logging.[161] The Latino population also increased as Mexican immigrants—many of them undocumented—supplanted black agricultural workers.[162]
In 2016, the county was impacted by Hurricane Matthew, leading to record flooding in Lumberton. In 2018, the county was struck by Hurricane Florence, which broke the record.[109] The storms heavily damaged thousands of residences throughout the county, and entire streets in south and west Lumberton were left abandoned.[163] The destruction of significant affordable housing accelerated a population decline in the county, which had begun in 2013.[164] Falling student enrollments in the county school system and declining state education subsidies led the county school board to close nine schools in 2019.[159] During the 2020 presidential election, President Donald Trump held a rally in Robeson County, marking the first time a sitting president had ever held a formal appearance there.[165]
Geography and physical features
[edit]According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 949.26 square miles (2,458.6 km2), of which 947.30 square miles (2,453.5 km2) is land and 1.96 square miles (5.1 km2) (0.21%) is water.[166][167] It is the largest county in North Carolina by area.[167][168] Owing to its large size, the county was historically sometimes referred to informally as the "State of Robeson".[169][170] It is bordered by the North Carolina counties of Bladen, Columbus, Cumberland, Hoke, and Scotland,[23] and the South Carolina counties of Dillon, Horry, and Marlboro.[167]
Robeson is located in the state's Coastal Plain region[171] and is one of the state's ten counties within the Sandhills region, characterized by sandy and fertile soil.[172] It hosts 11 major soil types, mostly sandy loams.[173] It has a temperate climate and rarely experiences snowfall.[174] The county hosts many pocosins,[175] bald cypress forests,[26] Carolina bays, creeks[176] (including Shoe Heel and Big Shoe Heel[177]), and 50 swamps.[109] The swamps feed into the Lumber River, which flows eastward from the northwest corner of the county to the southeast corner.[178] Portions of the Lumber River State Park are located in Robeson,[179] as is the entirety of the Warwick Mill Bay State Natural Area.[180] The two state game lands in the county are Bullard and Branch Hunting Preserve and Robeson Game Land.[181][182]
Most of Robeson County lies within the Lumber River basin.[183] The river and its banks support many flora and fauna. Resident mammals include deer, raccoons, muskrats, beavers, minks, and otters. The river also supports wild turkeys and several varieties of ducks. Local fish include catfish, robin, perch, pike, bluegill bream, jack, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass,[184] black crappie, and redbreast sunfish.[185] Reptilian life includes copperhead snakes and some water snakes including cottonmouths.[184] Robeson County is also one of the westernmost regular habitats in the state for American alligators.[186] Plant life supported by the river includes bald cypress, gum, poplar, loblolly-bay, and juniper trees. Ferns, Virginia creeper, Spanish moss, pitcher plants, and Venus flytraps also reside along the river and its tributaries.[184]
Demographics
[edit]2020 census
[edit]Native American 30–40%40–50%50–60%60–70%70–80%80–90%Black or African American30–40%40–50%50–60%70–80%Non-Hispanic White 20–30%30–40%40–50%50–60%Hispanic or Latino30–40%
As of the 2020 census, there were 116,530 people residing in the county.[167] Lumberton was the most populous community, with 19,025 residents. About 51 percent of county residents were women.[187] Racially, 30,041 identified as white, 26,424 identified as black or African American, 44,871 identified as American Indian, 908 identified as Asian, and 79 identified as Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 8,192 identified as other, and 6,015 identified as two or more races.[188] Of the total among the races, 11,757 people identified as Hispanic or Latino.[189] In proportions, the county was approximately 38 percent Native American, 22 percent white, 22 percent black, and 10 percent Hispanic.[187] It is a majority-minority county[190] and proportionately has the largest Native American population of any North Carolina county[191] and the smallest white population.[192]
Robeson County is included in the Fayetteville-Lumberton-Pinehurst, NC Combined Statistical Area.[193]
Demographic change
[edit]Historical population | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Robeson County experienced a loss of 17,638 people between 2010 and 2020,[187] a decline of 13.1 percent[200] and the largest numerical decline among North Carolina's counties.[187] Between the 2010 and 2020 censuses, the white demographic experienced the largest decrease in size, while Hispanics and people who identify as two or more races experienced the most significant increases.[139] The proportion of county residents under the age of 18 dropped by 22 percent.[201] The North Carolina Rural Center reported a 0.91 percent increase in the county's population between 2020 and 2023.[202]
Law and government
[edit]Government
[edit]Robeson County is run by a commission–manager government. The county commission comprises eight members elected from single-member districts in four-year staggered terms. Presided over by a chair elected by the commissioners from among their members for one year, the commission has legislative and policy-making authority over county government. The commissioners appoint a county manager with executive authority over county administration and implement the commission's decisions. The manager appoints directors of county government departments.[203] The county government supplies emergency services, social services, public health services, recreation, and economic development in its jurisdiction. It also maintains a water system and landfill.[204] A local property tax funds the county government.[205] Several county departments are headquartered in the Robeson County Administration Center in Lumberton.[206]
Robeson County is a member of the Lumber River Council of Governments, a regional planning board representing five counties.[207] The county also has a Soil and Water Conservation District led by an elected supervisor.[208] Robeson County is located in North Carolina's 7th congressional district,[209] the North Carolina Senate's 24th district, and the North Carolina House of Representatives' 46th and 47th district.[208] Robeson is one of the four counties within the jurisdiction of the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina. Tribal members within the county elect some members of the tribal council.[210] Its headquarters is in Pembroke.[156]
Law enforcement and judicial system
[edit]Robeson County lies within the bounds of North Carolina's 20th Prosecutorial District, the 16B Superior Court District, and the 16B District Court District.[211] County residents elect a county sheriff, clerk of Superior Court, and district attorney.[212] Judicial officials work out of the Robeson County Courthouse in Lumberton.[206] Law enforcement is provided across the county by the sheriff's office, while the University of North Carolina at Pembroke and the towns of Lumberton, St. Pauls, Maxton, Red Springs, Rowland, Pembroke, and Fairmont retain police departments.[213] According to an October 2021 report issued by the State Bureau of Investigation, in 2020 Robeson experienced the highest violent crime rate of the state's counties at 1,190 incidents per 100,000 people, and the third-worst overall crime rate.[214]
Politics
[edit]
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Politically, Robeson County has historically been dominated by the Democratic Party. A majority of Robesonians voted for Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon in 1972, but then voted for Democratic presidential candidates in the next nine elections.[217] The local Republican Party grew in the early 21st century, fueled by prevailing religious conservatism in the county and discontent with the loss of manufacturing jobs. Many of the Democrats who remained with their party were conservative.[165] Democrats continued to win state and local races by large margins in the 2000s but their margins of victory in presidential and congressional races decreased. In 2016 and 2020, county voters favored Republican Donald Trump, who won over majorities of white and Lumbee voters by championing socially conservative issues, criticizing free trade agreements, and declaring his support for full federal recognition of the Lumbee Tribe.[218] The area also began increasingly voting for Republican state and local candidates,[219] with Robesonians in 2016 electing their first Republican state senator since Reconstruction.[218] In 2020, Republicans won most races in the county.[220][221] As of April 2022, Robeson hosts about 70,400 registered voters, comprising about 36,500 registered Democrats, 12,300 registered Republicans and 21,300 unaffiliated.[209] Trump won the county again in 2024.[222] With an estimated voter turnout rate of 59 percent, the county had the lowest turnout of any county in the 2024 elections.[223]
Economy
[edit]Robeson County largely relied on the textile and tobacco industries throughout the 20th century.[224] Agriculture predominated in employment in 1960, and the county earned the second-highest agriculture-related revenue among all Southern counties, though its per-capita income remained low. By 1970, agriculture had been overtaken by manufacturing, and the completion of Interstate 95 within several years accelerated industrialization. By 1990, fewer than 2,300 Robesonians worked in agriculture, and manufacturing accounted for a third of the county's employment.[156] The tobacco and manufacturing sectors rapidly declined in the 1990s and 2000s, with manufacturing especially adversely impacted by several national free trade agreements.[224][156] The Robeson County Office of Economic Development determined that the implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement led to the closure of 32 manufacturing facilities and the loss of over 6,000 jobs between 1995 and 2005.[225] From 1997 to 2007, the county lost 22,860 acres in farmland.[226]
Tobacco is still grown in the county, as are corn, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts, and cotton.[227] Some local landowners raise pine trees and sell them as timber.[109] Poultry farming has also rapidly increased since the 1990s.[228] In recent years commercial activity has grown along the Interstate 95 corridor,[227] Chicken processing, pork processing, and the pellet fuel industry have supplanted much of the former textile industry.[109] The significant presence of such high-pollution industries in the county has led some residents to describe the area as a sacrifice zone.[26] Health care/social assistance, manufacturing, retail, education, and accommodation/food service are the largest-employing sectors in Robeson County.[229] According to the 2022 American Community Survey one-year estimate, the median household income was $38,610.[194] As of 2023, 28 percent of local residents are impoverished, making Robeson one of the poorest counties in the state.[230] In its 2024 county economic tier ratings, the North Carolina Department of Commerce classified Robeson as tied with two other counties for the third-most economically distressed county in the state.[231]
Transportation
[edit]Robeson County is served by Interstate 95, which travels north–south through the county; and Interstate 74 (incomplete),[232][233] which travels east–west. The two routes intersect to the southwest of Lumberton.[224] It is also served by U.S. Route 74 (Alt.) (Bus.),[234][235][236] US 301, US 501, and North Carolina Highways 20, 41, 71,[237] 72, 83, 130 (Bus.),[238][239] 211, 295 (to become I-295),[240] 710, 711, and 904.[241] County government supports a public transport bus service, the South East Area Transit System.[242] Airplane facilities are provided by the Lumberton Municipal Airport in Lumberton.[243][244] The Laurinburg–Maxton Airport, situated in Scotland County near the border with Robeson, serves both the Scotland city of Laurinburg and the Robeson town of Maxton.[245][246][247] Railroads in Robeson County are operated by CSX Transportation.[248] The longest straight stretch of railroad track in the United States, spanning 78.86 miles, passes through Robeson.[249]
Education
[edit]The Public Schools of Robeson County (PSRC) operates public schools,[250] with its jurisdiction being the entire county.[251] As of 2022, the system operates 36 schools and serves about 23,000 students.[252] The state classifies the PSRC as a low-performing district.[253] The county hosts two post-secondary institutions: the University of North Carolina at Pembroke and Robeson Community College.[254] Additionally, the PSRC supports the Robeson Planetarium,[255] while county government also runs seven libraries.[256] A county history museum is located in Lumberton.[257] According to the 2022 American Community Survey, an estimated 16.4 percent of county residents have attained a bachelor's degree or higher level of education.[167]
Healthcare
[edit]Robeson County is served by a single hospital, UNC Health Southeastern, based in Lumberton.[258] The Robeson Health Care Corporation also provides medical care to residents through various clinics.[259][260][261] According to the 2022 County Health Rankings produced by the University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute, Robeson County had the worst health outcomes of all of North Carolina's counties. Per the ranking, 32 percent of adults say they are in poor or fair health, the average life expectancy is 72 years—six years lower than the state average, and 19 percent of people under the age of 65 lack health insurance.[262] The county has been heavily impacted by the opioid epidemic,[263] and in 2021 suffered from the highest fatal opioid overdose rate among North Carolina's counties.[259]
Culture
[edit]Robeson is pronounced by local residents as "RAH-bih-sun"[264] or "ROB-uh-son".[265] Outsiders sometimes pronounce it as "ROW-bih-sun".[264] In line with the predominantly tri-ethnic nature of the county, whites, blacks, and Native Americans generally operate as three different sociocultural entities.[266] Members of each group generally express dialectal differences in their speech.[267] The collard sandwich—consisting of fried cornbread, collard greens, and fatback—is a popular dish among the Lumbee people in the county.[268] Numerous small communities in the county are culturally insular owing to their lack of contact with people from outside the county.[269] Most towns host their own annual festivals.[256] The Lumbee Homecoming, a festival for Lumbee tribal members, is held annually in late June and early July and often brings thousands of Lumbees as well as tourists to the county.[270][271] Fishing and hunting have long been popular activities in the county, both as means of acquiring food and as sports.[272][273] The Carolina boat—a style of skiff of marine plywood construction—originated in the county.[274] Many in the county are religious, and religion is a key part of local public life.[275][276] Several area buildings and sites have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[277]
Communities
[edit]Incorporated communities
[edit]Townships
[edit]Robeson County townships include:[290]
- Alfordsville
- Back Swamp
- Barnesville
- Britts
- Burnt Swamp
- East Howellsville
- Gaddy
- Parkton
- Philadelphus
- Raft Swamp
- Rennert
- Saddletree
- Shannon
- Smiths
- Smyrna
- Sterlings
- Thompson
- Tolarsville
- Union
- West Howellsville
- Whitehouse
- Wishart
Census-designated places
[edit]Unincorporated communities
[edit]See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ There are various theories on the origins of this group.[5] The descendants of this community have historically described themselves as "Indian" and been labeled as such in historical documents. However, younger generations in the 21st century often identify themselves as "Native American".[7]
- ^ The true extent to which these people are actually of Native descent is sometimes disputed by some white and black Robesonians and some other indigenous groups, who assert that this community is really of mixed African and European ancestry.[14][15]
- ^ Some historians wrote that the county was named for Robeson, an influential political figure, in an attempt to get his support for its creation.[19] He died in 1785 before the county was created.[16]
- ^ The state Conservative Party officially changed its name in 1874 to align itself with the national Democratic Party.[85]
References
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- ^ McDonald, Thomasi (December 9, 2020). "North Carolina Tribes Clash on Recognizing Lumbees". Indy Week. Retrieved December 6, 2022.
- ^ Lowery 2010, p. 11.
- ^ a b Evans 1971, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Magdol 1973, p. 261.
- ^ Dial & Eliades 1996, p. 48.
- ^ Evans 1971, p. 28.
- ^ Evans 1971, pp. 28, 31.
- ^ Magdol 1973, p. 262.
- ^ Wolfram & Reaser 2014, pp. 221–223.
- ^ Rab, Lisa (August 20, 2018). "What Makes Someone Native American?". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 3, 2022.
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- ^ Evans 1971, p. 30.
- ^ Evans 1971, pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b c d e f g Sharpe 1952, p. 4.
- ^ Evans 1971, p. 21.
- ^ Tyner 2005, pp. 24, 26.
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- ^ Dial & Eliades 1996, pp. 142–143.
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- ^ Lowery 2010, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Dial & Eliades 1996, pp. 156–157.
- ^ a b Sider 2015, p. 205.
- ^ a b Oakley 2008, p. 58.
- ^ Tyner 2005, p. 37.
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- ^ a b c d e Dreilinger, Danielle (October 28, 2022). "Learning to live with water, again: Lumbee face hard decisions about nature and NC storms". The Fayetteville Observer. Archived from the original on October 28, 2022.
- ^ Maxwell 2017, p. 25.
- ^ Maxwell 2017, pp. 10, 17.
- ^ Land potential study, Robeson County 1969, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Jenne 1998, p. 13.
- ^ Dial & Eliades 1996, p. 151.
- ^ Tyner 2005, p. 22.
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- ^ Wolfram & Reaser 2014, p. 234.
- ^ Sider 2003, pp. 138–139.
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- ^ Sider 2003, p. 139.
- ^ Sider 2003, p. 138.
- ^ Dial & Eliades 1996, pp. 154–155.
- ^ Oakley 2008, pp. 57–58.
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- ^ Dial & Eliades 1996, p. 143.
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- ^ North Carolina Department of Transportation (November 18, 2010). "I-74 'The American Indian Highway' Naming Ceremony" (Press release). North Carolina Department of Transportation. Archived from the original on December 25, 2012. Retrieved December 31, 2010.
- ^ "Stretch of I-74 opens in Robeson County". WRAL-TV. Capitol Broadcasting Company. September 26, 2008. Retrieved December 13, 2022.
- ^ Chavis, Robert (July 27, 2015). "Effort finally succeeds to name U.S. 74 American Indian Highway". The Robesonian. Retrieved December 13, 2022.
- ^ "Route Changes (2007-10-05)" (PDF). North Carolina Department of Transportation. October 5, 2007. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
- ^ "Route Changes (1984-11-01)" (PDF). North Carolina Department of Transportation. November 1, 1984. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
- ^ Joseph, Miller (April 2015). "NC 71-211 Red Springs bypass from NC 71 southwest of Red Springs to NC 72-710 south of Red Springs, Hoke and Robeson Counties, federal-aid project STP-211(3), state project 34474.1.1, TIP project R-2593 : reevaluation of environmental assessment - Page 18". digital.ncdcr.gov. Retrieved May 10, 2023.
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- ^ "Airport : Gateway to Lumberton and Robeson County". City of Lumberton. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
- ^ Bym, Jonathan (August 28, 2020). "Airport manager says construction of new terminal is weeks from completion". The Robesonian. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
- ^ Bhadury et al. 2015, p. 69.
- ^ "About Laurinburg-Maxton Airport". Laurinburg-Maxton Airport. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
- ^ Nagem, Sarah (June 24, 2021). "Could the Laurinburg-Maxton Airport become a regional business hub in NC? Leaders hope so". Border Belt Independent. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
- ^ Tyner 2005, p. 32.
- ^ Tyner 2005, p. 34.
- ^ Haladay & Hicks 2017, p. 23.
- ^ "2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: Robeson County, NC" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved October 22, 2024. - Text list
- ^ "Community". Public Schools of Robeson County. Retrieved November 19, 2022.
- ^ "PSRC retains low-performing status despite growth". The Robesonian. September 2, 2022. Retrieved November 25, 2022.
- ^ "Post Secondary Education". Public Schools of Robeson County. Retrieved November 19, 2022.
- ^ Horne, Jessica (April 12, 2022). "PSRC leaders approve student reassignments for 3 schools effective next school year". The Robesonian. Retrieved December 11, 2022.
- ^ a b Finance Department of Robeson County 2021, p. 12.
- ^ Tyner 2014, p. 10.
- ^ Nagem, Sarah (November 16, 2022). "How safe are the hospitals in North Carolina's Border Belt? New grades released". Border Belt Independent. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
- ^ a b Nagem, Sarah (July 26, 2022). "Robeson County's collaborative effort to fight the opioid epidemic". Border Belt Independent. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
- ^ Horne, Jessica (June 2, 2022). "RHCC breaks ground for future medical center in Fairmont". The Robesonian. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
- ^ "Brayboy retires from Robeson Health Care Corporation after nearly 37 years". The Robesonian. April 7, 2022. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
- ^ Nagem, Sarah (May 9, 2022). "The fight for better health (and health care) in rural North Carolina". Border Belt Independent. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
- ^ Ingersoll, Ali (April 22, 2022). "Josh Stein meets with Robeson County leaders to discuss ideas for additional $9 million they're receiving to combat opioid crisis". WRAL-TV. Capitol Broadcasting Company. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
- ^ a b Wolfram & Reaser 2014, p. 12.
- ^ Leslie, Bill (November 3, 2011). "NC Pronunciation Guide". WRAL-TV. Capitol Broadcasting Company. Retrieved November 19, 2022.
- ^ Wolfram & Reaser 2014, p. 232.
- ^ Wolfram & Reaser 2014, pp. 236–237.
- ^ Shestack, Elizabeth (March 2015). "The Collard Sandwich is a Robeson County Delicacy". Our State. Retrieved November 20, 2022.
- ^ Wolfram & Reaser 2014, p. 241.
- ^ Lowery 2018, p. 40.
- ^ Tyner 2003, p. 115.
- ^ Tyner 2003, pp. 115, 119.
- ^ "2020-21 season produces increased deer harvest in North Carolina". The Robesonian. April 17, 2021. Retrieved December 12, 2022.
- ^ Faircloth 2022, p. 96.
- ^ Capps, Tanner. "The Work of Faith: A Report on Rural Church Life in the Time of Pandemic". Architectural League of New York. Retrieved November 20, 2022.
- ^ Lowery 2016, p. 154.
- ^ "NC Listings in the National Register of Historic Places". North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources. Retrieved December 22, 2022.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 167.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 303.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 312.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 317.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 306.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 365.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 372.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 376.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 397.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 405.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 407.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 409.
- ^ a b Powell 1976, p. 428.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 433.
- ^ "Feature Details : Barker Ten Mile Census Designated Place". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Elrod Census Designated Place". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Prospect Census Designated Place". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Raemon Census Designated Place". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Rex Census Designated Place". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Shannon Census Designated Place". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Wakulla Census Designated Place". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Barnesville". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ "Feature Details : Five Forks". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 406.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 336.
- ^ Powell 1976, p. 373.
Works cited
[edit]- Bhadury, Joyendu; Burkey, Mark L.; Troy, Samuel P. (2015). "Chapter 3: Location Modeling for Strategic Parks". Applications of Location Analysis. Springer. pp. 55–83. ISBN 9783319202822.
- Blu, Karen I. (2001). The Lumbee Problem: The Making of an American Indian People (reprint ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-6197-6.
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- Corbitt, David Leroy (2000). The formation of the North Carolina counties, 1663-1943 (reprint ed.). Raleigh: North Carolina Division of Archives and History. OCLC 46398241.
- Cunningham, David (2013). Klansville, U.S.A: The Rise and Fall of the Civil Rights-era Ku Klux Klan (illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford University Press USA. ISBN 978-0-19-975202-7.
- Dial, Adolph L.; Eliades, David K. (1996). The Only Land I Know: A History of the Lumbee Indians (1st Syracuse University Press ed.). Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0360-3.
- Emanuel, Ryan E. (January 2019). "Water in the Lumbee World: A River and Its People in a Time of Change". Environmental History. 24 (1): 25–51. doi:10.1093/envhis/emy129. ISSN 1930-8892.
- Evans, William McKee (1971). To Die Game: The Story of the Lowry Band, Indian Guerillas of Reconstruction. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 9780807108161.
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- Jenne, Kurt (1998). "A Profile of County Manager Government in North Carolina". Popular Government. Vol. 64, no. 1. Institute of Government, University of North Carolina. pp. 13–20.
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- Sharpe, Bill (November 1952). "Robust Robeson". The State. Vol. 20, no. 26. pp. 3–5, 33–34.
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- Tyner, K. Blake (2005). Robeson County in Vintage Postcards. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 9780738541624.
- Wolfram, Walt; Reaser, Jeffrey (2014). Talkin' Tar Heel : How Our Voices Tell the Story of North Carolina. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-1437-3.
Further reading
[edit]- Glatthaar, Joseph T. The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman's Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns. New York: New York University Press, 1985.
- Hauptman, Lawrence M. "River Pilots and Swamp Guerillas: Pamunkee and Lumbee Unionists." In Between Two Fires: American Indians in the Civil War. New York: Free Press, 1995.
- McKinnon, Henry A. Jr. Historical Sketches of Robeson County. N.P.: Historic Robeson, Inc., 2001.
External links
[edit]- Geographic data related to Robeson County, North Carolina at OpenStreetMap
- Official website
- NCGenWeb Robeson County, genealogy resources for the county