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{{Short description|Ethnic group from Dodoma Region of Tanzania}}
The '''Gogo''' (or '''mgogo''' singular and '''Wagogo''' plural ) are a [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] ethnic and linguistic group based in the [[Dodoma Region]] of central [[Tanzania]]. In 1992 the Gogo population was estimated to number 1,300,000.[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gog] The Gogo have historically been predominantly [[pastoralism|pastoralist]] and [[patrilineal]] (tracing descent and inheritance through the male line), but many contemporary Gogo now practice settled [[agriculture]], have migrated to urban areas, or work on plantations throughout Tanzania. Gogo music has achieved an international reputation.
{{Infobox ethnic group|
| group = Gogo
| native_name = Wagogo
| image =
| caption =
| population = 1,300,000 (1992)
| popplace = {{flag|Tanzania}}
*
[[Dodoma Region]]
*
([[Bahi District]]), ([[Dodoma Municipal Council|Dodoma District]]), ([[Chamwino District, Dodoma|Chamwino District]]), ([[Kongwa District]]) & ([[Mpwapwa District]])
| languages = [[Gogo language]] & [[Swahili language|Swahili]]
| religions = [[Christian]] <br/> [[Traditional African religion|African Traditional Religion]]
| related = [[Maasai people|Maasai]]
}}
{{Infobox Bantu name|Mgogo|Wagogo|Kigogo|}}
The '''Gogo''' also known as '''Gongwe'''(''Wagogo'', in [[Swahili language|Swahili]]) are Nilotic ethnic group but Speak Bantu languages based in the [[Dodoma Region]] of central [[Tanzania]]. In 1992 the Gogo population was estimated to number 1,300,000.[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gog].Their Origin is from Nubia nowday called Sudan.


==History==
==History==
⚫
Their name was invented sometime in the 19th century by the [[Nyamwezi people|Nyamwezi]] caravans passing through the area while it was still frontier territory. [[Richard Francis Burton]] claimed a very small population for it, saying only that a person could walk for two weeks and find only scattered Tembes. There was and remains the problem of inadequate rain for crops and humans, the rainy season being short and erratic with frequent drought.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 90|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>
[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1894) b 718 1.jpg|thumb|Gogo men's hairstyles (c.1894)]]
In the 18th century the Wagogo were mostly pioneer colonists from South Sudan then Unyamwezi and Uhehe, and are often confused with the [[Sandawe people|Sandawe]] and the [[Kaguru]]. Half the ruling group came from Uhehe. They had a long tradition of hunting and gathering, allowing the Nyamwezi to carry the [[ivory]] to the coast, but had become agriculturalists with cattle by 1890. They continued, however, to have a low regard for working the land and are said to have treated their agricultural slaves badly.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 73|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>

⚫
The Wagogo experienced famine in 1881, 1885, and 1888–89 (just before Stokes' caravan arrived) and then again in 1894–95, and 1913–14. The main reason for the exceptional series of famines in Ugogo was its unreliable rainfall and the ensuing series of droughts.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 70|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>

[[Kimbu people|Kimbu]] and Nyamwezi colonists gradually colonized the dry plains west and east of Ugogo, which travelers on the principal road most feared. Central Tanganyika saw the growth of Nyamwezi towns, and numerous Gogo chiefs had Nyamwezi advisors.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 70|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>

More people learned [[Swahili language|Swahili]] than learned Islam through the caravan trade of the 19th century. It was commonly spoken by Sagara and Gogo in the 1850s, according to Burton, who also noted that "almost every inland tribe has some vagrant man who can speak it."<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 79|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>

===Colonial era===
During the European exploration of Tanzania, Ugogo was used as a route west. During on such expedition, a second column marched up the central caravan route towards the western plateau as Wissmann worked in the northeast. [[Emin Pasha]], an eccentric Austrian doctor, served as its leader. He was given orders to "break or undermine Arab influence," build a German base on Lake Victoria, and be prepared to intervene in Burundi if necessary. Before he arrived, the Germans handed over control of Uganda to the British. Emin disregarded his orders and instead left "everything in chaos from Mpwapwa to Karagwe." He crossed Ugogo after leaving Bagamoyo in April 1890, razing 19 villages and stealing about 2,000 animals after an askari was killed as a result of a chief's demand for tolls.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 103|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>

After the [[German East Africa|German invasion]] of the 1880s, missionary efforts increased. The Holy Ghost Fathers, the eldest of the five already existing societies, expanded their mission from Bagamoyo's hinterland to [[Mount Kilimanjaro|Kilimanjaro]] (1891), [[Usambara Mountains|Usambara]] (1907), and Ugogo (1910). In the 1890s, the White Fathers occupied the [[Rukwa Valley|Rukwa]] valley, Usumbwa, and Buhaya. The next decade saw their expansion to Ufipa, Buha, Mbulu, and in the direction of [[Lake Nyasa]] from their initial bases in Karema, Tabora, and Bukumbi. The pace of Protestant societies was slower. Between Bonde and Uzigua, the UMCA expanded its operations. The CMS prioritized Uganda, giving up its station atop Mount Kilimanjaro and keeping only a little area in Ukaguru and Ugogo.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 217|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 105-DOA0047, Deutsch-Ostafrika, Einheimische Bevölkerung.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Wagogo (1906)]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 105-DOA0047, Deutsch-Ostafrika, Einheimische Bevölkerung.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Wagogo (1906)]]
Eight teachers were dispatched to Uvidunda by the Roman Catholic community in Ilonga in 1910. They dispatched 39 [[Christians]] the following year to launch a mission in Kibakwe, and 14 more in 1912 to teach in Ugogo. Ugogo's proselytizing revealed the catechist's true worth. When the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] mission there was established in 1909, catechists were chosen from all of the colony's more established mission locations. They opened 91 schools with 4,000 students in under five years.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 230|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>


One common memory of Tanzanians from the [[World War I|First World War]] is the starvation. Food was in low supply in towns early in the battle as imports were stopped, military needs increased, and prices went up. Requisitioning and [[drought]] in 1915 caused a limited famine in the Makonde plateau, the north-east, Ufiome, and parts of Ugogo and Ulanga. During 1916, the situation in these locations deteriorated. In the [[Masasi District, Mtwara|Masasi District]] near Luatala that year, 800 people died. Labor required to cultivate land reduced as the demand for porters increased.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 269|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>
⚫
Their name was invented sometime in the 19th century by the [[Nyamwezi]] caravans passing through the area while it was still frontier territory. [[Richard Francis Burton]] claimed a very small population for it, saying only that a person could walk for two weeks and find only scattered Tembes. There was and remains the problem of inadequate rain for crops and humans, the rainy season being short and erratic with frequent drought. In the 18th century the Wagogo were mostly pioneer colonists from Unyamwesi and Uhehe, and are often confused with the [[Sandawe]] and the [[Kaguru]]. Half the ruling group came from Uhehe. They had a long tradition of hunting and gathering, allowing the Wanyamwezi to carry the [[ivory]] to the coast, but had become agriculturalists with cattle by 1890. They continued, however, to have a low regard for working the land and are said to have treated their agricultural slaves badly.


By 1917, both sides were systematically taking animals and destroying any grain they couldn't eat. They may have taken nearly a fifth of Tanganyika's four million livestock reserve for famine. In 1917, Lettow-Vorbeck left famine behind as he departed the Rufiji Valley, Mahenge, and the south. But this was just the start of the disaster. It arrived in 1918 and was particularly bad in the famine-prone regions of Dodoma, Kondoa, and Singida. The British district officer in Dodoma reported in December 1916 that "the entire District has been ransacked for cattle."<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 269|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>
⚫
The Wagogo experienced famine in 1881, 1885, and 1888–89 (just before Stokes' caravan arrived) and then again in 1894–95, and 1913–14. The main reason for the exceptional series of famines in Ugogo was its unreliable rainfall and the ensuing series of droughts.


The [[British Empire|British]] obtained an additional 5,659 animals in just five months, in addition to 24,000 porters and about 100 tonnes of grain, whereas the Germans had acquired 26,000 animals. Throughout 1917, requisitioning continued, although local officers denied any signs of calamity. It was explained that food was being forcedly collected because Gogo had no use for money, but people were "merely resigned" and famine was improbable. When the rains stopped in November 1917, the entire central region went through three years of ''mutunya'' the "scramble for food," the worst famine in recorded history—as its supplies were depleted. According to one estimate, Dodoma district alone saw 30,000 deaths, or nearly one in every five people. Many people migrated. In the Dodoma market, others offered starving calves for sale for one shilling each.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 269|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>
==Economy==
Ugogo has had a mixed economy of agriculture and herding, but most heavily depended on grain from agriculture. Traditionally, cultivation work parties of about twenty men and women were held from January through March, and lasted all day with a beer party at the end. People came from an area less than five miles; mostly they were close neighbors. Generally, however, agricultural cultivation played a secondary role to the livestock cycle.


The Central Province, particularly Ugogo and Uzigua, frequently suffered from starvation. In 1919–21, 1925–6, 1928–30, 1932–5, 1937, and 1939, Ugogo and Uzigua both had food shortages. Drought was the main factor in both regions, which was made worse by yearly infestations of [[Locust|locusts]] in the 1930s. Both Ugogo and Uzigua have a long history of hunger, extremely unpredictable rainfall, the ability to export grain in good years, and an inability or reluctance to grow crops that can withstand drought, such as [[manioc]]. While Ugogo was endangered by [[Tsetse fly|tsetse]] and purposefully cut off from territory matters by a conservative provincial commissioner, Uzigua had also lost its livestock reserve to the disease.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 315|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>
Since grain can be extensively damaged by birds, bush pigs, wart hogs, and baboons, men and boys have the responsibility of protecting the fields, even at night. Several medicinal and supernatural methods were also used for protecting fields against wildlife and the evil influence of men.


However, territorial hunger returned to Tanganyika in 1943. It started in Ugogo as normal and was mostly caused by drought; nevertheless, drought generates hunger when reserves are low, recuperative abilities are limited, outside assistance is difficult to obtain, and transportation and communications are broken. In each of these ways, the hunger was made more widespread, severe, and extended by the conflict. The government pushed the growing of drought-prone maize rather than drought-resistant [[millet]] and encouraged the export of food and animals for military use.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 351|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>
In traditional agricultural practices, the average Wagogo did not possess a very large herd of cattle. Patterns changed, but it must be remembered that these cattle also belonged to relatives, kin, and clan members.

The Gogo endured more hardship in 1946. "Morale is high and it is felt that now that the war is over, the period of famine is over until the next war," their district officer stated the following year.<ref>{{cite book |last= Iliffe |first= John|date= 1979 |title= A Modern History of Tanganyika|url=|location= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press|page= 351|isbn=9780511584114}}</ref>


==Traditional society==
==Traditional society==
Influenced by the Nyamwezi, [[Maasai people|Maasai]], and [[Hehe people|Hehe]], the Wagogo have historically been described as rude, brawling, and boundlessly inquisitive herders, with manners and fierce looks from a rough, raw way of life, physically intermixed with slaves from the west. They had a truly miserable reputation among Europeans traveling through Ugogo, being considered suspicious, deceitful liars, insolent and cowardly. [[Emin Pasha]], writing to his sister, reported, "We are now on the boundary of Ugogo, a country notorious for its winds, dust, scarcity of water and the impudence of its inhabitants". (He makes no mention of using the death of an [[Askari]] as an excuse to destroy nineteen villages and looting some 2,000 cattle.)


===Social structure===
===Social structure===
Wagogo clans moved around a good deal, dropping ties to older groupings, adopting new links and family, new clan names, things to avoid, affiliations, and new ritual functions. The Gogo, in short, became different from what they were before.
Wagogo clans moved around a good deal, dropping ties to older groupings, adopting new links and family, new clan names, things to avoid, affiliations, and new ritual functions. The Gogo, in short, became different from what they were before.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}


While early European writers emphasized the political chiefs of the Wagogo, calling them 'Sultans' as was customary on the coast, and stressed their collection of the very profitable taxes (''hongo''), on scarce food and water, it was really the ritual leaders who influenced the entire country. They controlled rainmaking and fertility, medicines to protect against natural disasters or hazards, and prevented certain resources from being overly used. They were not to leave their "country," they were to be rich in cattle, decided on [[circumcision]] and initiation ceremonies, give supernatural protection for all undertakings and be arbitrators in [[homicide]], [[witchcraft]] accusations, and serious assault.
While early European writers emphasised the political chiefs of the Wagogo, calling them 'Sultans' as was customary on the coast, and stressed their collection of the very profitable taxes (''hongo''), on scarce food and water, it was really the ritual leaders who influenced the entire country. They controlled rainmaking and fertility, medicines to protect against natural disasters or hazards, and prevented certain resources from being overly used. They were not to leave their "country," they were to be rich in cattle, decided on [[circumcision]] and initiation ceremonies, give supernatural protection for all undertakings and be arbitrators in [[homicide]], [[witchcraft]] accusations, and serious assault.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}


The Wagogo placed considerable value on neighborliness. After having his physical needs met, a strange traveler would be accompanied many miles by the young men of a homestead in order to place him safely on his way. The homestead group was so fundamental to Gogo society that people who had died peculiarly, (struck down by lighting or a contagious disease) were thrown into the bush or the trunk of a [[baobab]] tree, for such a person had no homestead and could become an "evil spirit" who associated with sorcerers or witches.
The Wagogo placed considerable value on neighbourliness. After having his physical needs met, a strange traveller would be accompanied many miles by the young men of a homestead in order to place him safely on his way. The homestead group was so fundamental to Gogo society that people who had died peculiarly, (struck down by lightning or a contagious disease) were thrown into the bush or the trunk of a [[baobab]] tree, for such a person had no homestead and could become an "evil spirit" who associated with sorcerers or witches.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}


===Family===
===Family===
Most brothers went to great lengths to assist their sisters, who often lived with their brothers in sickness until they recovered, for brothers have strong moral and legal obligations to fulfil these duties in cooperation with their sisters' husbands. Even later in life, sisters and brothers continue to visit each other, a wife never being fully incorporated into her husband's group.
Most brothers went to great lengths to assist their sisters, who often lived with their brothers in sickness until they recovered, for brothers have strong moral and legal obligations to fulfil these duties in cooperation with their sisters' husbands. Even later in life, sisters and brothers continue to visit each other, a wife never being fully incorporated into her husband's group.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}


===Marriage===
===Marriage===
While the majority of Wagogo have only one wife at any given time, most found [[polygyny]] to be highly valued and carrying a high priority. It was the prerogative of older, well-established men. A reasonably prosperous man could hope to have two and sometimes three wives, and sometimes together.
While the majority of Wagogo have only one wife at any given time, most found [[polygyny]] to be highly valued and carrying a high priority. It was the prerogative of older, well-established men. A reasonably prosperous man could hope to have two and sometimes three wives, and sometimes together.


Most marriages took place within a day's walking distance after agreement is reached on the number of livestock to be included in the [[bridewealth]], only then is the transfer made. Even a hundred years later, bridewealth is still normally given entirely in livestock and a high proportion of court cases involve the giving or return of bridewealth. The divorce rate in Ugogo was very low, for few marriages ended in divorce. Even after divorce, all children born during the marriage belonged to the ex-husband, "where the cattle came from." "If you go somewhere and marry the child of others, then all your wife's relatives become your relatives, because you have married the child, and so you will love even them.''("From Rigby's book ''Cattle and Kinship")'' ''Lovers of married women could never, however, claim their offspring. If a husband had given bridewealth for his wife who was pregnant before he married her, he must still accept paternity of the child.''
Most marriages took place within a day's walking distance after agreement was reached on the number of livestock to be included in the [[bridewealth]], only then is the transfer made. Even a hundred years later, bridewealth is still normally given entirely in livestock and a high proportion of court cases involve the payment or return of the brideprice. Even after divorce, all children born during the marriage belonged to the ex-husband, "where the cattle came from." "If you go somewhere and marry the child of others, then all your wife's relatives become your relatives, because you have married the child, and so you will love even them.''("From Rigby's book ''Cattle and Kinship")'' ''Lovers of married women could never, however, claim their offspring. If a husband had given the brideprice for his wife who was pregnant before he married her, he must still accept paternity of the child.''{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}


===Defense===
===Defense===
Defense against the [[Kisongo]], Maasai, and Wahehe was organized and based on age groups of warriors, much as the Maasai. This "military" organization was mostly used for local defense, although it could be used for cattle raids against others. When an alarm was sounded all able-bodied men were to take up arms and run towards the call (this did not always work smoothly).
Defence against the [[Kisongo]], Maasai, and Wahehe was organized and based on age groups of warriors, much as the Maasai. This "military" organization was mostly used for local defence, although it could be used for cattle raids against others. When an alarm was sounded all able-bodied men were to take up arms and run towards the call (this did not always work smoothly).{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}


==Historical accounts==
==Historical accounts==
Line 40: Line 72:
*The [[German people|Germans]] greatly admired their physiques and cattle; otherwise they concurred with Emin Pasha, [[Henry Morton Stanley|Henry Stanley]], and [[Edward Hore]]. Thirty years later, the [[British people|British]] also found the Wagogo to be "uninterested in progress."
*The [[German people|Germans]] greatly admired their physiques and cattle; otherwise they concurred with Emin Pasha, [[Henry Morton Stanley|Henry Stanley]], and [[Edward Hore]]. Thirty years later, the [[British people|British]] also found the Wagogo to be "uninterested in progress."
*In his book ''In Darkest Africa'' Henry M. Stanley, while [[Emin Pasha Relief Expedition|"rescuing" Emin Pasha]] in order to bring him to the coast, writes,
*In his book ''In Darkest Africa'' Henry M. Stanley, while [[Emin Pasha Relief Expedition|"rescuing" Emin Pasha]] in order to bring him to the coast, writes,
:{{quote|"On the 26th we entered Muhalala, and on the 8th of November we had passed through Ugogo. There is no country in Africa that has excited greater interest in me than this. It is a ferment of trouble and distraction, and a rat's nest of petty annoyances that beset travelers from day to day while in it. No natives know so well how to aggrieve and be unpleasant to travelers. One would think there was a school somewhere in Ugogo to teach low cunning and vicious malice to the chiefs, who are masters in foxy-craft. Nineteen years ago I looked at this land and people with desiring eyes. I saw in it a field worth some effort to reclaim. In six months I felt sure Ugogo could be made lovely and orderly, a blessing to the inhabitants and to strangers, without any great expense or trouble. It would become a pleasant highway of human intercourse with far-away peoples, productive of wealth to the natives, and a comfort to caravans. I learned on arrival in Ugogo that I was forever debarred from the hope. It is to be the destiny of the Germans to carry out this work, and I envy them. It is the worst news of all that I shall never be able to drain this cesspool of iniquitous passion, extinguish the insolence of Wagogo chiefs, and make the land clean, healthy, and even beautiful of view. While my best wishes will accompany German efforts, my mind is clouded with a doubt that it will ever will be that fair land of rest and welcome I had dreamed of making it."}}
:{{quote|"On the 26th we entered Muhalala, and on the 8th of November we had passed through Ugogo. There is no country in Africa that has excited greater interest in me than this. It is a ferment of trouble and distraction, and a rat's nest of petty annoyances that beset travelers from day to day while in it. No natives know so well how to aggrieve and be unpleasant to travelers. One would think there was a school somewhere in Ugogo to teach low cunning and vicious malice to the chiefs, who are masters in foxy-craft. Nineteen years ago I looked at this land and people with desiring eyes. I saw in it a field worth some effort to reclaim. In six months I felt sure Ugogo could be made lovely and orderly, a blessing to the inhabitants and to strangers, without any great expense or trouble. It would become a pleasant highway of human intercourse with far-away peoples, productive of wealth to the natives, and a comfort to caravans. I learned on arrival in Ugogo that I was forever debarred from the hope. It is to be the destiny of the Germans to carry out this work, and I envy them. It is the worst news of all that I shall never be able to drain this cesspool of iniquitous passion, extinguish the insolence of Wagogo chiefs, and make the land clean, healthy, and even beautiful of view. While my best wishes will accompany German efforts, my mind is clouded with a doubt that it will ever be that fair land of rest and welcome I had dreamed of making it."}}


==Prominent Gogo people==
==Notable Gogo people==
The Wagogo have produced some of the big names in Tanzanian Politics, Music and Society.
The Wagogo have produced some of the big names in Tanzanian Politics, Music and Society.
*The Rt. Rev. Yohana Madinda, the First African Bishop of Anglican Diocese of Central Tanganyika (1923–1989)
*Yohana Madinda, the first African bishop of Anglican Diocese of Central Tanganyika (1923–1989)
*[[Godfrey Mdimi Mhogolo]], the longest-serving bishop of the Anglican Diocese of Central Tanganyika (1989–2014) He was the first Tanzanian bishop to ordain women and championed their development in the church
*Dr. [[Hukwe Zawose]] (1938–2003), Musician
*[[Hukwe Zawose]] (1938–2003), Musician
*Mzee Mchoya Malogo, Musician, leader of the Nyati group from Nzali
*Mzee Mchoya Malogo, Musician, leader of the Nyati group from Nzali
*John Mtangoo,Musician
*John Mtangoo, musician
*John S. Malecela, Politician, Former Prime Minister
*John S. Malecela, politician and former Prime Minister
*Ambassador Job Lusinde, Politician
*Job Lusinde, politician and ambassador
*William Jonathan Kusila (MP), Politician
*William Jonathan Kusila (MP), Politician
*Hezekiel N. Chibulunje (MP), Dep. Minister
*Hezekiah N. Chibulunje, former MP and former Deputy Minister
*Cpt John Chiligati(MP), Minister
*John Chiligati, former MP and former Minister
*Fredrick Chiwanga, Lecturer II, Diplomat, Editor, Translator and Interpreter (French, English, Kiswahili, Kigogo), Sokoine University of Agriculture
*Fredrick Chiwanga, Lecturer, Diplomat, Editor, Translator and Interpreter (French, English, Swahili, Kigogo), [[Sokoine University of Agriculture]]
*Mzee Pancras M. Ndejembi, Politician
*Mzee Pancras M. Ndejembi, Politician
*The Rt. Rev. Simon Chiwanga, Retired Bishop of Anglican Diocese of Mpwapwa and Former Chair of the Anglican Consultative Council (ACC)
*Simon Chiwanga, retired bishop of Anglican Diocese of Mpwapwa and former Chair of the Anglican Consultative Council (ACC)
*Njamasi Chiwanga, an academician and conservationist working at a local environmental conservation NGO - LEAD Foundation based in Dodoma Tanzania.<ref>{{Cite web |title=LEAD Foundation team |url=https://www.leadfoundation.org/team/njamasi-chiwanga/ |website=LEAD Foundation}}</ref>
*Patrick Balisidya, Musician
*Patrick Balisidya, Musician
*Simon Chiwanga, Public Health - Tropical Disease Control Expert (Doctorate Degree).
*Simon Chiwanga, Environmental Management Scientist, Water Sanitation and Hygiene Expert and Activist, Environmental Health and Toxicology Researcher; Currently working in the USAFI Programme - WaterAid Tanzania Country Programme.
Environmental Management Scientist, Water Sanitation and Hygiene Expert and Activist, Public Health and Toxicology Researcher; worked as Program Manager - Malaria and Child Health in PSI Tanzania; Theologian and Canon of the Anglican Church of Tanzania, Gospel Musician. Also worked with Amref Health Africa as WASH Expert and currently he is the C.E.O of Chiwanga Enterprises Ltd; an Executive Director of the Integrated Rural Development Organization (IRDO). He is also the current Chairman of the Songwe River Basin Commission.
*Kedmon Mapanha, Lecturer II, University of Dar es Salaam
*Kedmon Mapanha, Lecturer II, University of Dar es Salaam
*Dr Emmanuel Mbennah, an accomplished academic, with two earned Ph.D. degrees, International Director for the Africa Region for TWR Internati
*Ambassador Emmanuel Mbennah, is an accomplished academic, with two earned PhD degrees, former International Director for the Africa Region for TWR International. Professor Mbennah is former Vice Chancellor of St John's University of Tanzania, and a former Tanzania's Ambassador to Zimbabwe and Mauritius.
*Palamagamba John Aidan Mwaluko Kabudi, a professor of law and currently a Member of Parliament; he us a former Minister for Constitutional Affairs and Justice, and a former Minister g or Foreign Affairs and East African Co-operation.
*Mr Christopher M.M.Nyamwanji,MBA holder from Mzumbe University, Development facilitator,and Chairman for SUDESO based in Tabora.
*Christopher M. M. Nyamwanji, a holder of an MBA from Mzumbe University, Development facilitator, and Chairman for SUDESO based in Tabora.
*Eng. Danford Semwenda-Project Management Expert . Twiga Cement
*Emmanuel R. Chidong'oi, Founder and Managing Director - Tanzania Organization for Agricultural Development (TOfAD), a First President - Ecosystem Based Adaptation for Food Security Assembly (EBAFOSA)Tanzania and Coordinator - Eastern Africa Agriculture Practitioner's Organization (EAAPO), A Managing Director of Tanzania Initiative for Development Effectiveness (TIDE) and a Member of Global CSOs Partnership for Development Effectiveness - Working Group on Conflict and Fragility (CPDE - WGCF)
⚫
*Frank P Menda, Lecturer II, University of Dodoma
*Prof. Siza D. Tumbo;Professor at Department of Crop science and Horticulture at Sokoine university of Agriculture
⚫
*Frank P Menda, Lecturer II, University of Dodoma.
*Bahati Richardson Chinyelle,Ophthalmologist, Accountant and Financial Analyst,English, Swahili and Gogo Translator, founder of YES I DO - Afrika (NGO) and Co-founder and Board Chair of LAUBRINS International Co.Ltd with extensive background experience locally and internationally with renowned organizations including the WHO, HKI, GSM,SALT Int'nal, MoHSW-TZ etc
*Benard Michael Paul Mnyang'anga, aka [[Ben Pol]], musician
*Eng. Raphael Paschal Menda, Managing Director (MD) and Founder of COYESA Company Limited (www.coyesa.co.tz) He is Water Resources Engineer, COYESA offers the following services; Drilling Works & Borehole Services, Water Resources Infrastructures, Roadworks Construction Services, Telecom Infrastructures Services, Building Construction Services & Creativity, Petrol Station & Warehouse Construction Services, Engineering Hydrology, Electrical Works & Services, Mechanical Works & Services, Land Surveying & GIS and Environmental Consultancy Services.
* Prof Titus Alfred Makudali Msagati. Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry at the College of Science, Engineering, and Technology, University of South Africa. URL: https://scholar.google.co.za/citations?user=4S59Ud8AAAAJ&hl=en


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
* [http://www.afropop.org/multi/feature/ID/358/Zanzibar-Sauti+Za+Busara-2004+Part+2 Afropop website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120204040301/http://www.afropop.org/multi/feature/ID/358/Zanzibar-Sauti+Za+Busara-2004+Part+2 Afropop website]
* Bauer, Andreus. (Street of Caravans)
* Bauer, Andreus. (Street of Caravans)
* Emin Pasha. (Vol. 2.)
* Emin Pasha. (Vol. 2.)
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gog Ethnologue entry: Gogo language]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gog Ethnologue entry: Gogo language]
* Iliffe, John. (A Modern History of Tanganyika)
* Iliffe, John. (A Modern History of Tanganyika)
* (Mankind, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of)
* (Mankind, The Illustrated Encycloupedia of)
* Rigby, Peter. (Cattle and Kinship Among the Gogo)
* Rigby, Peter. (Cattle and Kinship Among the Gogo)
* Stanley, H. (In Darkest Africa)
* Stanley, H. (In Darkest Africa)
* [http://www.polovallejo.com Wagogo music]
* [http://www.polovallejo.com Wagogo music]


[[Category:Ethnic groups in Tanzania]]
{{Ethnic groups in Tanzania}}


{{authority control}}
[[fr:Gogo (peuple d'Afrique)]]

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Tanzania]]

Latest revision as of 05:12, 27 November 2024

Gogo
Wagogo
Total population
1,300,000 (1992)
Regions with significant populations
 Tanzania

Dodoma Region

(Bahi District), (Dodoma District), (Chamwino District), (Kongwa District) & (Mpwapwa District)
Languages
Gogo language & Swahili
Religion
Christian
African Traditional Religion
Related ethnic groups
Maasai
PersonMgogo
PeopleWagogo
LanguageKigogo

The Gogo also known as Gongwe(Wagogo, in Swahili) are Nilotic ethnic group but Speak Bantu languages based in the Dodoma Region of central Tanzania. In 1992 the Gogo population was estimated to number 1,300,000.[1].Their Origin is from Nubia nowday called Sudan.

History

[edit]

Their name was invented sometime in the 19th century by the Nyamwezi caravans passing through the area while it was still frontier territory. Richard Francis Burton claimed a very small population for it, saying only that a person could walk for two weeks and find only scattered Tembes. There was and remains the problem of inadequate rain for crops and humans, the rainy season being short and erratic with frequent drought.[1]

Gogo men's hairstyles (c.1894)

In the 18th century the Wagogo were mostly pioneer colonists from South Sudan then Unyamwezi and Uhehe, and are often confused with the Sandawe and the Kaguru. Half the ruling group came from Uhehe. They had a long tradition of hunting and gathering, allowing the Nyamwezi to carry the ivory to the coast, but had become agriculturalists with cattle by 1890. They continued, however, to have a low regard for working the land and are said to have treated their agricultural slaves badly.[2]

The Wagogo experienced famine in 1881, 1885, and 1888–89 (just before Stokes' caravan arrived) and then again in 1894–95, and 1913–14. The main reason for the exceptional series of famines in Ugogo was its unreliable rainfall and the ensuing series of droughts.[3]

Kimbu and Nyamwezi colonists gradually colonized the dry plains west and east of Ugogo, which travelers on the principal road most feared. Central Tanganyika saw the growth of Nyamwezi towns, and numerous Gogo chiefs had Nyamwezi advisors.[4]

More people learned Swahili than learned Islam through the caravan trade of the 19th century. It was commonly spoken by Sagara and Gogo in the 1850s, according to Burton, who also noted that "almost every inland tribe has some vagrant man who can speak it."[5]

Colonial era

[edit]

During the European exploration of Tanzania, Ugogo was used as a route west. During on such expedition, a second column marched up the central caravan route towards the western plateau as Wissmann worked in the northeast. Emin Pasha, an eccentric Austrian doctor, served as its leader. He was given orders to "break or undermine Arab influence," build a German base on Lake Victoria, and be prepared to intervene in Burundi if necessary. Before he arrived, the Germans handed over control of Uganda to the British. Emin disregarded his orders and instead left "everything in chaos from Mpwapwa to Karagwe." He crossed Ugogo after leaving Bagamoyo in April 1890, razing 19 villages and stealing about 2,000 animals after an askari was killed as a result of a chief's demand for tolls.[6]

After the German invasion of the 1880s, missionary efforts increased. The Holy Ghost Fathers, the eldest of the five already existing societies, expanded their mission from Bagamoyo's hinterland to Kilimanjaro (1891), Usambara (1907), and Ugogo (1910). In the 1890s, the White Fathers occupied the Rukwa valley, Usumbwa, and Buhaya. The next decade saw their expansion to Ufipa, Buha, Mbulu, and in the direction of Lake Nyasa from their initial bases in Karema, Tabora, and Bukumbi. The pace of Protestant societies was slower. Between Bonde and Uzigua, the UMCA expanded its operations. The CMS prioritized Uganda, giving up its station atop Mount Kilimanjaro and keeping only a little area in Ukaguru and Ugogo.[7]

Wagogo (1906)

Eight teachers were dispatched to Uvidunda by the Roman Catholic community in Ilonga in 1910. They dispatched 39 Christians the following year to launch a mission in Kibakwe, and 14 more in 1912 to teach in Ugogo. Ugogo's proselytizing revealed the catechist's true worth. When the Roman Catholic mission there was established in 1909, catechists were chosen from all of the colony's more established mission locations. They opened 91 schools with 4,000 students in under five years.[8]

One common memory of Tanzanians from the First World War is the starvation. Food was in low supply in towns early in the battle as imports were stopped, military needs increased, and prices went up. Requisitioning and drought in 1915 caused a limited famine in the Makonde plateau, the north-east, Ufiome, and parts of Ugogo and Ulanga. During 1916, the situation in these locations deteriorated. In the Masasi District near Luatala that year, 800 people died. Labor required to cultivate land reduced as the demand for porters increased.[9]

By 1917, both sides were systematically taking animals and destroying any grain they couldn't eat. They may have taken nearly a fifth of Tanganyika's four million livestock reserve for famine. In 1917, Lettow-Vorbeck left famine behind as he departed the Rufiji Valley, Mahenge, and the south. But this was just the start of the disaster. It arrived in 1918 and was particularly bad in the famine-prone regions of Dodoma, Kondoa, and Singida. The British district officer in Dodoma reported in December 1916 that "the entire District has been ransacked for cattle."[10]

The British obtained an additional 5,659 animals in just five months, in addition to 24,000 porters and about 100 tonnes of grain, whereas the Germans had acquired 26,000 animals. Throughout 1917, requisitioning continued, although local officers denied any signs of calamity. It was explained that food was being forcedly collected because Gogo had no use for money, but people were "merely resigned" and famine was improbable. When the rains stopped in November 1917, the entire central region went through three years of mutunya the "scramble for food," the worst famine in recorded history—as its supplies were depleted. According to one estimate, Dodoma district alone saw 30,000 deaths, or nearly one in every five people. Many people migrated. In the Dodoma market, others offered starving calves for sale for one shilling each.[11]

The Central Province, particularly Ugogo and Uzigua, frequently suffered from starvation. In 1919–21, 1925–6, 1928–30, 1932–5, 1937, and 1939, Ugogo and Uzigua both had food shortages. Drought was the main factor in both regions, which was made worse by yearly infestations of locusts in the 1930s. Both Ugogo and Uzigua have a long history of hunger, extremely unpredictable rainfall, the ability to export grain in good years, and an inability or reluctance to grow crops that can withstand drought, such as manioc. While Ugogo was endangered by tsetse and purposefully cut off from territory matters by a conservative provincial commissioner, Uzigua had also lost its livestock reserve to the disease.[12]

However, territorial hunger returned to Tanganyika in 1943. It started in Ugogo as normal and was mostly caused by drought; nevertheless, drought generates hunger when reserves are low, recuperative abilities are limited, outside assistance is difficult to obtain, and transportation and communications are broken. In each of these ways, the hunger was made more widespread, severe, and extended by the conflict. The government pushed the growing of drought-prone maize rather than drought-resistant millet and encouraged the export of food and animals for military use.[13]

The Gogo endured more hardship in 1946. "Morale is high and it is felt that now that the war is over, the period of famine is over until the next war," their district officer stated the following year.[14]

Traditional society

[edit]

Social structure

[edit]

Wagogo clans moved around a good deal, dropping ties to older groupings, adopting new links and family, new clan names, things to avoid, affiliations, and new ritual functions. The Gogo, in short, became different from what they were before.[citation needed]

While early European writers emphasised the political chiefs of the Wagogo, calling them 'Sultans' as was customary on the coast, and stressed their collection of the very profitable taxes (hongo), on scarce food and water, it was really the ritual leaders who influenced the entire country. They controlled rainmaking and fertility, medicines to protect against natural disasters or hazards, and prevented certain resources from being overly used. They were not to leave their "country," they were to be rich in cattle, decided on circumcision and initiation ceremonies, give supernatural protection for all undertakings and be arbitrators in homicide, witchcraft accusations, and serious assault.[citation needed]

The Wagogo placed considerable value on neighbourliness. After having his physical needs met, a strange traveller would be accompanied many miles by the young men of a homestead in order to place him safely on his way. The homestead group was so fundamental to Gogo society that people who had died peculiarly, (struck down by lightning or a contagious disease) were thrown into the bush or the trunk of a baobab tree, for such a person had no homestead and could become an "evil spirit" who associated with sorcerers or witches.[citation needed]

Family

[edit]

Most brothers went to great lengths to assist their sisters, who often lived with their brothers in sickness until they recovered, for brothers have strong moral and legal obligations to fulfil these duties in cooperation with their sisters' husbands. Even later in life, sisters and brothers continue to visit each other, a wife never being fully incorporated into her husband's group.[citation needed]

Marriage

[edit]

While the majority of Wagogo have only one wife at any given time, most found polygyny to be highly valued and carrying a high priority. It was the prerogative of older, well-established men. A reasonably prosperous man could hope to have two and sometimes three wives, and sometimes together.

Most marriages took place within a day's walking distance after agreement was reached on the number of livestock to be included in the bridewealth, only then is the transfer made. Even a hundred years later, bridewealth is still normally given entirely in livestock and a high proportion of court cases involve the payment or return of the brideprice. Even after divorce, all children born during the marriage belonged to the ex-husband, "where the cattle came from." "If you go somewhere and marry the child of others, then all your wife's relatives become your relatives, because you have married the child, and so you will love even them.("From Rigby's book Cattle and Kinship") Lovers of married women could never, however, claim their offspring. If a husband had given the brideprice for his wife who was pregnant before he married her, he must still accept paternity of the child.[citation needed]

Defense

[edit]

Defence against the Kisongo, Maasai, and Wahehe was organized and based on age groups of warriors, much as the Maasai. This "military" organization was mostly used for local defence, although it could be used for cattle raids against others. When an alarm was sounded all able-bodied men were to take up arms and run towards the call (this did not always work smoothly).[citation needed]

Historical accounts

[edit]
  • In 1878 Edward Hore described them as "hongo squeezing Wagogo."
  • The Germans greatly admired their physiques and cattle; otherwise they concurred with Emin Pasha, Henry Stanley, and Edward Hore. Thirty years later, the British also found the Wagogo to be "uninterested in progress."
  • In his book In Darkest Africa Henry M. Stanley, while "rescuing" Emin Pasha in order to bring him to the coast, writes,

"On the 26th we entered Muhalala, and on the 8th of November we had passed through Ugogo. There is no country in Africa that has excited greater interest in me than this. It is a ferment of trouble and distraction, and a rat's nest of petty annoyances that beset travelers from day to day while in it. No natives know so well how to aggrieve and be unpleasant to travelers. One would think there was a school somewhere in Ugogo to teach low cunning and vicious malice to the chiefs, who are masters in foxy-craft. Nineteen years ago I looked at this land and people with desiring eyes. I saw in it a field worth some effort to reclaim. In six months I felt sure Ugogo could be made lovely and orderly, a blessing to the inhabitants and to strangers, without any great expense or trouble. It would become a pleasant highway of human intercourse with far-away peoples, productive of wealth to the natives, and a comfort to caravans. I learned on arrival in Ugogo that I was forever debarred from the hope. It is to be the destiny of the Germans to carry out this work, and I envy them. It is the worst news of all that I shall never be able to drain this cesspool of iniquitous passion, extinguish the insolence of Wagogo chiefs, and make the land clean, healthy, and even beautiful of view. While my best wishes will accompany German efforts, my mind is clouded with a doubt that it will ever be that fair land of rest and welcome I had dreamed of making it."

Notable Gogo people

[edit]

The Wagogo have produced some of the big names in Tanzanian Politics, Music and Society.

  • Yohana Madinda, the first African bishop of Anglican Diocese of Central Tanganyika (1923–1989)
  • Godfrey Mdimi Mhogolo, the longest-serving bishop of the Anglican Diocese of Central Tanganyika (1989–2014) He was the first Tanzanian bishop to ordain women and championed their development in the church
  • Hukwe Zawose (1938–2003), Musician
  • Mzee Mchoya Malogo, Musician, leader of the Nyati group from Nzali
  • John Mtangoo, musician
  • John S. Malecela, politician and former Prime Minister
  • Job Lusinde, politician and ambassador
  • William Jonathan Kusila (MP), Politician
  • Hezekiah N. Chibulunje, former MP and former Deputy Minister
  • John Chiligati, former MP and former Minister
  • Fredrick Chiwanga, Lecturer, Diplomat, Editor, Translator and Interpreter (French, English, Swahili, Kigogo), Sokoine University of Agriculture
  • Mzee Pancras M. Ndejembi, Politician
  • Simon Chiwanga, retired bishop of Anglican Diocese of Mpwapwa and former Chair of the Anglican Consultative Council (ACC)
  • Njamasi Chiwanga, an academician and conservationist working at a local environmental conservation NGO - LEAD Foundation based in Dodoma Tanzania.[15]
  • Patrick Balisidya, Musician
  • Simon Chiwanga, Public Health - Tropical Disease Control Expert (Doctorate Degree).

Environmental Management Scientist, Water Sanitation and Hygiene Expert and Activist, Public Health and Toxicology Researcher; worked as Program Manager - Malaria and Child Health in PSI Tanzania; Theologian and Canon of the Anglican Church of Tanzania, Gospel Musician. Also worked with Amref Health Africa as WASH Expert and currently he is the C.E.O of Chiwanga Enterprises Ltd; an Executive Director of the Integrated Rural Development Organization (IRDO). He is also the current Chairman of the Songwe River Basin Commission.

  • Kedmon Mapanha, Lecturer II, University of Dar es Salaam
  • Ambassador Emmanuel Mbennah, is an accomplished academic, with two earned PhD degrees, former International Director for the Africa Region for TWR International. Professor Mbennah is former Vice Chancellor of St John's University of Tanzania, and a former Tanzania's Ambassador to Zimbabwe and Mauritius.
  • Palamagamba John Aidan Mwaluko Kabudi, a professor of law and currently a Member of Parliament; he us a former Minister for Constitutional Affairs and Justice, and a former Minister g or Foreign Affairs and East African Co-operation.
  • Christopher M. M. Nyamwanji, a holder of an MBA from Mzumbe University, Development facilitator, and Chairman for SUDESO based in Tabora.
  • Emmanuel R. Chidong'oi, Founder and Managing Director - Tanzania Organization for Agricultural Development (TOfAD), a First President - Ecosystem Based Adaptation for Food Security Assembly (EBAFOSA)Tanzania and Coordinator - Eastern Africa Agriculture Practitioner's Organization (EAAPO), A Managing Director of Tanzania Initiative for Development Effectiveness (TIDE) and a Member of Global CSOs Partnership for Development Effectiveness - Working Group on Conflict and Fragility (CPDE - WGCF)
  • Prof. Siza D. Tumbo;Professor at Department of Crop science and Horticulture at Sokoine university of Agriculture
  • Frank P Menda, Lecturer II, University of Dodoma.
  • Bahati Richardson Chinyelle,Ophthalmologist, Accountant and Financial Analyst,English, Swahili and Gogo Translator, founder of YES I DO - Afrika (NGO) and Co-founder and Board Chair of LAUBRINS International Co.Ltd with extensive background experience locally and internationally with renowned organizations including the WHO, HKI, GSM,SALT Int'nal, MoHSW-TZ etc
  • Benard Michael Paul Mnyang'anga, aka Ben Pol, musician
  • Eng. Raphael Paschal Menda, Managing Director (MD) and Founder of COYESA Company Limited (www.coyesa.co.tz) He is Water Resources Engineer, COYESA offers the following services; Drilling Works & Borehole Services, Water Resources Infrastructures, Roadworks Construction Services, Telecom Infrastructures Services, Building Construction Services & Creativity, Petrol Station & Warehouse Construction Services, Engineering Hydrology, Electrical Works & Services, Mechanical Works & Services, Land Surveying & GIS and Environmental Consultancy Services.
  • Prof Titus Alfred Makudali Msagati. Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry at the College of Science, Engineering, and Technology, University of South Africa. URL: https://scholar.google.co.za/citations?user=4S59Ud8AAAAJ&hl=en

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 90. ISBN 9780511584114.
  2. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780511584114.
  3. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780511584114.
  4. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780511584114.
  5. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 79. ISBN 9780511584114.
  6. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 103. ISBN 9780511584114.
  7. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 9780511584114.
  8. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 230. ISBN 9780511584114.
  9. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 269. ISBN 9780511584114.
  10. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 269. ISBN 9780511584114.
  11. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 269. ISBN 9780511584114.
  12. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 315. ISBN 9780511584114.
  13. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 351. ISBN 9780511584114.
  14. ^ Iliffe, John (1979). A Modern History of Tanganyika. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 351. ISBN 9780511584114.
  15. ^ "LEAD Foundation team". LEAD Foundation.
  • Afropop website
  • Bauer, Andreus. (Street of Caravans)
  • Emin Pasha. (Vol. 2.)
  • Ethnologue entry: Gogo language
  • Iliffe, John. (A Modern History of Tanganyika)
  • (Mankind, The Illustrated Encycloupedia of)
  • Rigby, Peter. (Cattle and Kinship Among the Gogo)
  • Stanley, H. (In Darkest Africa)
  • Wagogo music
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