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{{short description|Historical overview article}}

[[File:AdamclisiMetope32.jpg|thumb|[[Tropaeum Traiani]] depicting a soldier armed with a falx]]
[[File:AdamclisiMetope32.jpg|thumb|[[Tropaeum Traiani]] depicting a soldier armed with a falx]]
The history of '''Dacian warfare''' spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 2nd century AD in the region defined by [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Latin]] historians as [[Dacia]], populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Political Parties of Eastern Europe|last=Bugajski|first=Janus|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=2002|isbn=1563246767|location=New York|pages=829}}</ref> It concerns the armed conflicts of the [[List of ancient tribes in Thrace and Dacia#Getic-Dacian|Dacian tribes]] and their kingdoms in the [[Balkans]]. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among [[List of ancient tribes in Thrace and Dacia#Getic-Dacian|Dacians]] too.
The history of '''Dacian warfare''' spans from c. 10th century BC to 2nd century AD in the region defined by [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Latin]] historians as [[Dacia]], populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Political Parties of Eastern Europe|last=Bugajski|first=Janus|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=2002|isbn=1563246767|location=New York|pages=829}}</ref> It concerns the armed conflicts of the [[List of ancient tribes in Thrace and Dacia#Getic-Dacian|Dacian tribes]] and their kingdoms in the [[Balkans]]. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among [[List of ancient tribes in Thrace and Dacia#Getic-Dacian|Dacians]] too.


==Mythological==
==Mythological==
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{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}
[[File:AdamclisiMetope32.jpg|thumb|[[Tropaeum Traiani]] depicting a soldier armed with a falx]]
[[File:AdamclisiMetope32.jpg|thumb|[[Tropaeum Traiani]] depicting a soldier armed with a falx]]
The history of '''Dacian warfare''' spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 2nd century AD in the region defined by [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Latin]] historians as [[Dacia]], populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Political Parties of Eastern Europe|last=Bugajski|first=Janus|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=2002|isbn=1563246767|location=New York|pages=829}}</ref> It concerns the armed conflicts of the [[List of ancient tribes in Thrace and Dacia#Getic-Dacian|Dacian tribes]] and their kingdoms in the [[Balkans]]. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among [[List of ancient tribes in Thrace and Dacia#Getic-Dacian|Dacians]] too.

==Mythological==
{{See also|Paleo-Balkanic_religion#Daco-Thracian}}
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}

==Tribal wars==
{{Main|List of ancient tribes in Dacia}}
The Dacians fought amongst each other<ref>{{Cite book|title=Tools of War: History of Weapons in Ancient Times|last=Ramsey|first=Syed|publisher=Alpha Editions|year=2016|isbn=9789386019806|location=New Delhi}}</ref> but were later united under [[Burebista]]. However, after his death<ref>''The Legionary'' by Peter Connolly, 1998, page 14: "... dynamic king Burebista, a century and a half earlier, the Dacians had become the most powerful nation in central Europe, but since his death the country had been split by civil war."</ref> in 44 BC, the empire again descended into conflict culminating in a full-scale [[civil war]]. This led to the division of Burebista's empire into five separate kingdoms, severely weakening the Dacian's defensive capabilities against enemies, particularly Rome.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe|last=Grumeza|first=Ion|publisher=Hamilton Books|year=2009|isbn=9780761844655|location=Lanham|pages=146}}</ref> The Dacian tribes were again consolidated under [[Decebalus]], who achieved several military victories in a series of battles with the forces of Emperor Domitian.
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}


==Domitian's Dacian War==
==Domitian's Dacian War==
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==Trajan's Dacian Wars==
==Trajan's Dacian Wars==
{{Main|Trajan's Dacian Wars}}
{{Main|Trajan's Dacian Wars}}
Trajan's Dacian Wars. The two campaigns of [[war of conquest|conquest]] ordered or led by the Emperor Trajan in 101-102 AD, and 105-106 AD from [[Moesia]] across the Danube north into Dacia.<!--redundant to intro text... against [[Dacia]] and the Dacian king [[Decebalus]]--> Trajan's forces were successful in both cases, reducing Dacia to [[client state]] status in the first, and taking the territory over in the second. These wars involved no fewer than 13 [[Roman legion|legion]]s.<ref>A Companion to the Roman Army (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World) by Paul Erdkamp, 2007, page 218</ref> The defeat reduced the Dacian territory as a mere Roman province. Rome ruled it, including the entire Transylvanian basin for 150 years. A succession of migratory waves by Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars, and Slavs overran Dacia, cutting it off from the Roman and the Byzantine empires by the end of the sixth century.<ref name=":0" />
Two campaigns of [[war of conquest|conquest]] ordered or led by the Emperor Trajan in 101-102 AD, and 105-106 AD from [[Moesia]] across the Danube north into Dacia.<!--redundant to intro text... against [[Dacia]] and the Dacian king [[Decebalus]]--> Trajan's forces were successful in both cases, reducing Dacia to [[client state]] status in the first, and taking the territory over in the second. These wars involved no fewer than 13 [[Roman legion|legion]]s.<ref>A Companion to the Roman Army (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World) by Paul Erdkamp, 2007, page 218</ref> The defeat reduced the Dacian territory as a mere Roman province. Rome ruled it, including the entire Transylvanian basin for 150 years. A succession of migratory waves by Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars, and Slavs overran Dacia, cutting it off from the Roman and the Byzantine empires by the end of the sixth century.<ref name=":0" />


==Dacian troop types and organization==
==Dacian troop types and organization==
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}
The Dacians never fielded a standing army, even though there was a warrior class of sorts, the ''[[comati]]'', meaning "long-haired people". Instead, local chieftains, the ''[[pileati]]'', meaning "cap-wearing people", raised a levy when required, a force only available after the harvesting season ended. The men themselves fought in everyday clothing defended merely by an oval shield, for body armor and helmets were only worn by the nobility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Julian |title=Trajan: Optimus Princeps |publisher=Taylor & Francis e-Library |year=2005 |isbn=0-415-165245 |page=87}}</ref>


===Infantry and cavalry===
===Infantry and cavalry===
The [[Dacians|Dacian]] tribes established a highly [[militarized]] society and, during the periods when the tribes were united under one king (82 -44 BC, 86-106 AD), posed a major threat to the [[Roman province]]s of Lower [[Danube]]. [[Julius Caesar]] made preparations for war with [[Burebista|King Burebista]] to prevent an invasion of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], however both rulers died in the same year. [[Dacia]] lost control over territories beyond the [[Danube]] and [[Tisza]] and collapsed into hostile factions, now being able to master only 40,000 men from the previous 200,000. Dacia, however, remained a formidable foe: in the winter of 10 BC, a raid across the Danube was repulsed by [[Marcus Vinicius (consul 19 BC)|Marcus Vinicius]]. After some decades, the invasions restarted. A major one was monitored in 69 by [[Gaius Licinius Mucianus|Licinius Mucianus]] while on his way to battle [[Vitellius|Aulus Vitellius]]. In another one in 85 the Romans almost lost [[Moesia]], and its governor [[Gaius Oppius Sabinus|Oppius Sabinus]] was killed. The following year a Dacian force annihilated the army of [[Cornelius Fuscus]] under the new leader [[Decebalus]] after the victory of [[Tettius Julianus]] at [[Tapae]]. As the [[Domitian's Dacian War|war]] dragged on, [[Domitian]] was distracted by the [[Suebi|Suebians]] and [[Iazyges]], and had to make a humiliating peace.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Julian |title=Trajan: Optimus Princeps |publisher=Taylor & Francis e-Library |year=2005 |isbn=0-415-165245 |page=88}}</ref> Later [[Trajan]] had attacked Decebalus two times, first making peace before reaching the capital, then taking it and conquering around a third of [[Dacia]]. According to [[Criton of Heraclea]], 500,000 [[Prisoner of war|POWs]] were taken.<ref name=":31" /> The [[Free Dacians]], allying with [[Scythians|Scythian]] and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes never stopped raiding the new Roman province.
The [[Dacians|Dacian]] tribes were part of the greater [[Thracians|Thracian]] family of peoples.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}{{clarify|date=January 2013}} They established a highly [[militarized]] society and, during the periods when the tribes were united under one king (82 -44 BC, 86-106 AD), posed a major threat to the [[Roman province]]s of Lower [[Danube]]. Dacia was conquered (except for the [[Free Dacians]]) and transformed into a Roman province in 106 after a long, hard [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|war]].
[[File:Dacian Scale Armour.JPG|thumb|Dacian scale armour]]
[[File:Dacian Scale Armour.JPG|thumb|Dacian scale armour]]
The most important [[weapon]] of the Dacian [[arsenal]] was the [[falx]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} This dreaded weapon, similar to a large [[sickle]], came in two variants: a shorter, one-handed falx called a [[sica]],<ref>Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982, page 35</ref> and a longer two-handed version, which was a [[polearm]]. It consisted of a three-feet long wooden shaft with a long curved iron [[blade]] of nearly-equal length attached to the end. The blade was sharpened only on the inside, and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, using a two-handed weapon, the [[warrior]] could not also make use of a [[shield]]. Alternatively, it might be used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs.
After the sound of the ''carnyx'' war trumpet, the Dacians went to battle with the ''[[Dacian Draco|draco]]''. The most important [[weapon]] of their [[arsenal]] was the [[falx]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} This dreaded weapon, similar to a large [[sickle]], came in two variants: a shorter, one-handed falx called a [[sica]],<ref>Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982, page 35</ref> and a longer two-handed version, which was a [[polearm]]. It consisted of a three-feet long wooden shaft with a long curved iron [[blade]] of nearly-equal length attached to the end. The blade was sharpened only on the inside, and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, using a two-handed weapon, the [[warrior]] could not also make use of a [[shield]]. Alternatively, it might be used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs.


Using the falx, the Dacian warriors were able to counter the power of the compact, massed Roman formations. During the time of the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Roman conquest of Dacia]] (101 - 102, 105 - 106), [[legionaries]] had reinforcing iron straps applied to their [[helmets]]. The Romans also introduced the use of leg and arm protectors ([[greave]]s and [[manica (armguard)|manica]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}) as further protection against the falxes. This was one of the rare times in history where Roman armor was modified.
Using the falx, the Dacian warriors were able to counter the power of the compact, massed Roman formations. During the time of the [[Trajan's Dacian Wars|Roman conquest of Dacia]] (101 - 102, 105 - 106), [[legionaries]] had reinforcing iron straps applied to their [[helmets]]. The Romans also introduced the use of leg and arm protectors ([[greave]]s and [[manica (armguard)|manica]]{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}) as further protection against the falxes. This was one of the rare times in history where Roman armor was modified.

[[File:Falx bgiu.png|thumb|right|An atypical falx. The handle was usually as long as, if not longer than, the blade.]]
[[File:Falx bgiu.png|thumb|right|An atypical falx. The handle was usually as long as, if not longer than, the blade.]]
[[File:SicaAncient.jpg|thumb|right|Sica, a small version of the falx]]
[[File:SicaAncient.jpg|thumb|right|Sica, a small version of the falx]]


The Dacians were adept{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} at surprise attacks and skillful, tactical withdrawals using the fortification system. During the wars with the Romans fought by their last king [[Decebalus]] (87-106), the Dacians almost crushed the Roman [[garrison]]s south of the [[Danube]] in a surprise{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} attack launched over the frozen river ( winter of 101-102 ). Only the intervention of Emperor [[Trajan]] with the main army saved the Romans from a major defeat. But, by 106, the Dacians were surrounded in their capital [[Sarmizegetusa Regia|Sarmizegetusa]]. The city was taken after the Romans discovered and destroyed{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} the capital's [[water supply]] line.
The Dacians were adept{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} at surprise attacks and skillful, tactical withdrawals using the fortification system. During the wars with the Romans fought by their last king [[Decebalus]] (87-106), the Dacians almost crushed the Roman [[garrison]]s south of the [[Danube]] in a surprise{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} attack launched over the frozen river (winter of 101-102). Only the intervention of Emperor [[Trajan]] with the main army saved the Romans from a major defeat. But, by 106, the Dacians were surrounded in their capital [[Sarmizegetusa Regia|Sarmizegetusa]]. The city was taken after the Romans discovered and destroyed{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} the capital's [[water supply]] line.


Dacians decorated their bodies with tattoos like the [[Illyrians]]<ref>''The Illyrians'' by John Wilkes, 1996, page 198: "...their armor is Celtic but they are tattooed like the rest of the Illyrians and Thracians..."</ref> and the [[Thracians]].<ref>''The World of Tattoo: An Illustrated History'' by Maarten Hesselt van Dinter, 2007, page 25: "... in ancient times. The Danube area Dacians, Thracians and Illyrians all decorated themselves with status-enhancing tattoos, ..."</ref> The [[Pannonia]]ns north of the [[Drava]] had accepted Roman rule out of fear of the Dacians.<ref>The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, 2003, page 1106, "Pannonia north of the Drava appears to have accepted Roman rule without a struggle probably owing to fear of the Dacians to the east.</ref>
Dacians decorated their bodies with tattoos like the [[Illyrians]]<ref>''The Illyrians'' by John Wilkes, 1996, page 198: "...their armor is Celtic but they are tattooed like the rest of the Illyrians and Thracians..."</ref> and the [[Thracians]].<ref>''The World of Tattoo: An Illustrated History'' by Maarten Hesselt van Dinter, 2007, page 25: "... in ancient times. The Danube area Dacians, Thracians and Illyrians all decorated themselves with status-enhancing tattoos, ..."</ref> The [[Pannonia]]ns north of the [[Drava]] had accepted Roman rule out of fear of the Dacians.<ref>The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, 2003, page 1106, "Pannonia north of the Drava appears to have accepted Roman rule without a struggle probably owing to fear of the Dacians to the east.</ref>


Dacia remained a Roman province until 271.
Dacia remained a Roman province until 271.

[[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus]]<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0134:book=8:card=331&highlight=dacian Luc. 8.331]</ref> 39 - 65 wrote of Dacian hordes;

<blockquote>Have poured her captains, and the troops who guard the northern frontier from the Dacian hordes</blockquote>


Dacians that could afford armor wore customised [[Phrygian type helmet]]s with solid crests (intricately decorated), domed helmets and [[Sarmatian helmets]].<ref>''Rome's enemies: Germanics and Dacians'' by Peter Wilcox, Gerry Embleton, {{ISBN|0850454735}}, 1982</ref> They fought with spears, javelins, falces, and one-sided battle axes, and used "''Draco''" [[carnyx|carnyxes]] as standards. Most used only shields as a form of defense. Cavalry would be armed with a spear, a long [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] sword and an oval shield; few in number, they relied heavily on Sarmatian allies for their mounted arm.
Dacians that could afford armor wore customised [[Phrygian type helmet]]s with solid crests (intricately decorated), domed helmets and [[Sarmatian helmets]].<ref>''Rome's enemies: Germanics and Dacians'' by Peter Wilcox, Gerry Embleton, {{ISBN|0850454735}}, 1982</ref> They fought with spears, javelins, falces, and one-sided battle axes, and used "''Draco''" [[carnyx|carnyxes]] as standards. Most used only shields as a form of defense. Cavalry would be armed with a spear, a long [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] sword and an oval shield; few in number, they relied heavily on Sarmatian allies for their mounted arm.
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===Navy===
===Navy===
The ancient historian Ptolemy mentions a naval battle between the Geto-Dacians and the Romans near the island of Eukon (most likely today's [[Popina island]]).
The ancient historian Ptolemy mentions a naval battle between the Geto-Dacians and the Romans near the island of Eukon (most likely today's [[Popina Island]]).


== Fortifications ==
== Fortifications ==
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Dacians had built fortresses all around Dacia with most of them being on the [[Danube]].<ref>Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 13, "The shores of the Danube were well monitored from the Dacian fortresses Acidava, Buricodava, Dausadava (the shrine of the wolves), Diacum, Drobeta (Turnu Severin), Nentivava (Oltenita), Suvidava (Corabia), Tsirista, Tierna/Dierna (Orsova) and what is today Zimnicea. Downstream were also other fortresses: Axiopolis (Cernadova), Barbosi, Buteridava, Capidava (Topalu), Carsium (Harsova), Durostorum (Silistra), Sacidava/Sagadava (Dunareni) along with still others..."</ref> A scene from [[Trajan's column]] shows Romans attacking a Dacian fortification using the "[[testudo formation|testudo]]".<ref>''The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare'': Volume 2, ''Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire'' by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 2007, page 149: "... 4.5 Scene from Trajan's column depicting Roman troops attacking a Dacian fortification, using the famous testudo (tortoise) formation to shield themselves from ..."</ref>
Dacians had built fortresses all around Dacia with most of them being on the [[Danube]].<ref>Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 13, "The shores of the Danube were well monitored from the Dacian fortresses Acidava, Buricodava, Dausadava (the shrine of the wolves), Diacum, Drobeta (Turnu Severin), Nentivava (Oltenita), Suvidava (Corabia), Tsirista, Tierna/Dierna (Orsova) and what is today Zimnicea. Downstream were also other fortresses: Axiopolis (Cernadova), Barbosi, Buteridava, Capidava (Topalu), Carsium (Harsova), Durostorum (Silistra), Sacidava/Sagadava (Dunareni) along with still others..."</ref> A scene from [[Trajan's column]] shows Romans attacking a Dacian fortification using the "[[testudo formation|testudo]]".<ref>''The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare'': Volume 2, ''Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire'' by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 2007, page 149: "... 4.5 Scene from Trajan's column depicting Roman troops attacking a Dacian fortification, using the famous testudo (tortoise) formation to shield themselves from ..."</ref>


The Dacians constructed stone strongholds, [[Dava (Dacian)|dava]]s, in the [[Carpathian Mountains]] in order to protect their capital [[Sarmizegetusa Regia|Sarmizegetusa]]. The [[fortifications]] were built on a system of circular belts. This allowed{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} the defenders, after a stronghold was lost, to retreat to the next one using hidden escape gates.
The Dacians constructed stone strongholds, [[Dava (Dacian)|dava]]s, in the [[Carpathian Mountains]] in order to protect their capital [[Sarmizegetusa Regia|Sarmizegetusa]]. The [[fortifications]] were built on a system of circular belts. This allowed{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} the defenders, after a stronghold was lost, to retreat to the next one using hidden escape gates. Advanced defensive systems adopted from the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles.<ref name=":1" />


==External influences==
==External influences==

===Thracians===
{{Empty section|date=February 2011}}


===Scythian and Sarmatian===
===Scythian and Sarmatian===
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The ''Dacian Draco'' was the standard of the ancient [[Dacia]]n military. It served as a standard for the Dacians of the La Tène period and its origin must clearly be sought in the art of Asia Minor sometime during the second millennium BC.<ref>Parvan Vasile (1928) in 'Dacia', Bucuresti, page 125</ref>
The ''Dacian Draco'' was the standard of the ancient [[Dacia]]n military. It served as a standard for the Dacians of the La Tène period and its origin must clearly be sought in the art of Asia Minor sometime during the second millennium BC.<ref>Parvan Vasile (1928) in 'Dacia', Bucuresti, page 125</ref>


Sarmatians were part<ref name="Dacia 2009, page 170">Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 170</ref> of the Dacian army as allies.The [[Roxolani]] became part of the Dacians while the [[Iazyges]] fought against them trying to claim their own land.<ref>Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 134</ref>
Sarmatians were part<ref name="Dacia 2009, page 170">Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 170</ref> of the Dacian army as allies. The [[Roxolani]] became part of the Dacians while the [[Iazyges]] fought against them trying to claim their own land.<ref>Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 134</ref>


The Celts played a very active role in Dacia as enemies that were easily defeated by Dacians.<ref>Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 88</ref> The [[Scordisci]] were among the defeated Celts that the Dacians conquered.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:book=7:chapter=5&highlight=dacians Strab. 7.5], "...they often used the Scordisci as allies..."</ref>
The Celts played a very active role in Dacia as enemies that were easily defeated by Dacians.<ref>Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 88</ref> The [[Scordisci]] were among the defeated Celts that the Dacians conquered.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0198:book=7:chapter=5&highlight=dacians Strab. 7.5], "...they often used the Scordisci as allies..."</ref>
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}


===Greek and Hellenistic===
===Greek/Hellenic===
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}
[[Cothelas]] had become a vassal to ancient [[Macedon]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Some Kings of the [[Getae]] had been [[Hellenized]]<ref>The Thracians, 700 BC - AD 46 by Christopher Webber, {{ISBN|1-84176-329-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-84176-329-3}}, 2001, page 14, "It shows a Hellenised king of the Getae..."</ref>
[[Cothelas]] had become a vassal to ancient [[Macedon]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Some Kings of the [[Getae]] had been [[Hellenized]]<ref>The Thracians, 700 BC - AD 46 by Christopher Webber, {{ISBN|1-84176-329-2}}, {{ISBN|978-1-84176-329-3}}, 2001, page 14, "It shows a Hellenised king of the Getae..."</ref> The Dacians traded with the Hellenistic world based upon their mineral reserves and gained better technological and cultural strategies than their [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] and [[Celts|Celtic]] neighbours. Advanced defensive systems made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles.<ref name=":1" />


===Roman===
===Roman===
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[[File:057 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel LVII (Ausschnitt 02).jpg|thumb|Dacian armaments]]
[[File:057 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel LVII (Ausschnitt 02).jpg|thumb|Dacian armaments]]
{{Main|Roman Dacia}}
{{Main|Roman Dacia}}
Part of Dacia became a Roman province at 106 AD, and Dacians were eventually [[Romanized]]. After their defeat from the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] a coin called the [[Dacicus]]<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0060:entry=Dacicus&highlight=dacians Dacicus], "Dācicus, a gold coin of Domitian, conqueror of the Dacians..."</ref> was minted by [[Domitian]].
After their defeat, the Dacians were ethnically cleansed. Young men were either killed or became slaves or legionaries. The remaining population was expelled and their lands were given to colonists.<ref name=":31">{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=Julian |title=Trajan: Optimus Princeps |publisher=Taylor & Francis e-Library |year=2005 |isbn=0-415-165245 |page=104}}</ref> Later, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] under Domitian started minting a coin called [[Dacicus]].<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0060:entry=Dacicus&highlight=dacians Dacicus], "Dācicus, a gold coin of Domitian, conqueror of the Dacians..."</ref>{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}


==Barbarians==
==Barbarians==
[[Dacians]] were spoken of by [[Trajan]] as dignified<ref>The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe by Peter S. Wells, 2001, page 105, "... so too the Emperor Trajan represented the Dacians as a strong threat to Roman authority on the lower Danube. The barbarian enemies are represented in heroic fashion, as dignified warriors unable ..."</ref> and heroic but nevertheless still dangerous and unable to stand against the might of [[Rome]]. 1st century BC poet [[Horace]] writes of them in one of his works and mentions them along with the [[Scythians]]<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0025:book=1:poem=35&highlight=dacians Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes, John Conington, Ed.Hor. Carm. 1.35], "Thee Dacians fierce, and Scythian hordes, peoples and towns, and Rome, their head, and mothers of barbarian lords, and tyrants in their purple dread,..."</ref> as [[tyrants]] and fierce barbarians. Later historian [[Tacitus]] writes that they are a people that can never be trusted.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0080:book=3:chapter=46&highlight=dacians Tac. Hist. 3.46], "The Dacians also were in motion, a people which never can be trusted..."</ref>
[[Dacians]] were spoken of by [[Trajan]] as dignified barbarians<ref>The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe by Peter S. Wells, 2001, page 105, "... so too the Emperor Trajan represented the Dacians as a strong threat to Roman authority on the lower Danube. These barbarian enemies are represented in heroic fashion, as dignified warriors ..."</ref> consequently still dangerous, but unable to win against the might of [[Rome]]. 1st century BC poet [[Horace]] writes of them in one of his works and mentions them along with the [[Scythians]]<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0025:book=1:poem=35&highlight=dacians Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes, John Conington, Ed.Hor. Carm. 1.35], "The fierce Dacians, and Scythian hordes, people and towns, and Rome, their head, and mothers of barbarian lords, and tyrants in their purple dread,..."</ref> as [[tyrants]] and fierce barbarians. Later historian [[Tacitus]] writes that they are a people that can never be trusted.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0080:book=3:chapter=46&highlight=dacians Tac. Hist. 3.46], "The Dacians also were in motion, a people which never can be trusted..."</ref>


The [[Ancient Greeks]]<ref name="Dacia 2009, page 54">Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 54, "The Greeks were so impressed with his achievements that they named him 'the first and greatest king of the kings of Thracia'...."</ref> expressed admiration and respect for [[Burebista]].
The [[Ancient Greeks]]<ref name="Dacia 2009, page 54">Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 54, "The Greeks were so impressed with his achievements that they named him 'the first and greatest king of the kings of Thracia'...."</ref> expressed admiration and respect for [[Burebista]].
Line 113: Line 97:
* Unknown date. Celtic [[Boii]] in [[Bohemia]] against Dacian tribes from the lower [[Danube]],<ref>Celtic Warrior: 300 BC-AD 100 by Stephen Allen and Wayne Reynolds, 2001, Front Matter,"... 60: Celtic Boii in Bohemia defeated by Dacian tribes from the lower Danube. 58-51: Caesar's campaigns in Gaul ..."</ref> Dacian victory
* Unknown date. Celtic [[Boii]] in [[Bohemia]] against Dacian tribes from the lower [[Danube]],<ref>Celtic Warrior: 300 BC-AD 100 by Stephen Allen and Wayne Reynolds, 2001, Front Matter,"... 60: Celtic Boii in Bohemia defeated by Dacian tribes from the lower Danube. 58-51: Caesar's campaigns in Gaul ..."</ref> Dacian victory
*1st century BC [[Dacians]] against [[Scordisci]],{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} Dacian victory
*1st century BC [[Dacians]] against [[Scordisci]],{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} Dacian victory
*86
*87, [[First Battle of Tapae]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Dacian victory
*87, [[First Battle of Tapae]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Dacian victory
*88
*101, [[Second Battle of Tapae]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory
*101, [[Second Battle of Tapae]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory
*102, [[Battle of Adamclisi]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory
*102, [[Battle of Adamclisi]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory
*103, [[Battle of Gatae]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory
*103, Battle of Gatae,{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory
*105
*106, [[Battle of Sarmisegetusa]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory
*106, [[Battle of Sarmisegetusa]],{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} Roman victory


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{{DEFAULTSORT:Dacian Warfare}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Dacian Warfare}}
[[Category:Indo-European warfare]]
[[Category:Military history of Dacia| ]]
[[Category:Military history of Dacia| ]]
[[Category:Ancient warfare]]
[[Category:Ancient warfare]]

Latest revision as of 08:51, 27 November 2024

Tropaeum Traiani depicting a soldier armed with a falx

The history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC to 2nd century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Dacia, populated by a collection of Thracian, Ionian, and Dorian tribes.[1] It concerns the armed conflicts of the Dacian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Dacians too.

Mythological

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See also: Paleo-Balkanic_religion § Daco-Thracian

Tribal wars

[edit]
Main article: List of ancient tribes in Dacia

The Dacians fought amongst each other[2] but were later united under Burebista. However, after his death[3] in 44 BC, the empire again descended into conflict culminating in a full-scale civil war. This led to the division of Burebista's empire into five separate kingdoms, severely weakening the Dacian's defensive capabilities against enemies, particularly Rome.[4] The Dacian tribes were again consolidated under Decebalus, who achieved several military victories in a series of battles with the forces of Emperor Domitian.

Tropaeum Traiani depicting a soldier armed with a falx

Domitian's Dacian War

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Main article: Domitian's Dacian War

The two punitive expeditions mounted as a border defense against raids of Moesia from Dacia in 86-87 AD ordered by the Emperor Titus Flavius Domitianus (Domitian) in 87 AD, and 88 AD. The first expedition was an unmitigated disaster, and the second achieved a peace, seen as unfavorable and shameful by many in Rome.

Trajan's Dacian Wars

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Main article: Trajan's Dacian Wars

Two campaigns of conquest ordered or led by the Emperor Trajan in 101-102 AD, and 105-106 AD from Moesia across the Danube north into Dacia. Trajan's forces were successful in both cases, reducing Dacia to client state status in the first, and taking the territory over in the second. These wars involved no fewer than 13 legions.[5] The defeat reduced the Dacian territory as a mere Roman province. Rome ruled it, including the entire Transylvanian basin for 150 years. A succession of migratory waves by Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars, and Slavs overran Dacia, cutting it off from the Roman and the Byzantine empires by the end of the sixth century.[1]

Dacian troop types and organization

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The Dacians never fielded a standing army, even though there was a warrior class of sorts, the comati, meaning "long-haired people". Instead, local chieftains, the pileati, meaning "cap-wearing people", raised a levy when required, a force only available after the harvesting season ended. The men themselves fought in everyday clothing defended merely by an oval shield, for body armor and helmets were only worn by the nobility.[6]

Infantry and cavalry

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The Dacian tribes established a highly militarized society and, during the periods when the tribes were united under one king (82 -44 BC, 86-106 AD), posed a major threat to the Roman provinces of Lower Danube. Julius Caesar made preparations for war with King Burebista to prevent an invasion of Macedonia, however both rulers died in the same year. Dacia lost control over territories beyond the Danube and Tisza and collapsed into hostile factions, now being able to master only 40,000 men from the previous 200,000. Dacia, however, remained a formidable foe: in the winter of 10 BC, a raid across the Danube was repulsed by Marcus Vinicius. After some decades, the invasions restarted. A major one was monitored in 69 by Licinius Mucianus while on his way to battle Aulus Vitellius. In another one in 85 the Romans almost lost Moesia, and its governor Oppius Sabinus was killed. The following year a Dacian force annihilated the army of Cornelius Fuscus under the new leader Decebalus after the victory of Tettius Julianus at Tapae. As the war dragged on, Domitian was distracted by the Suebians and Iazyges, and had to make a humiliating peace.[7] Later Trajan had attacked Decebalus two times, first making peace before reaching the capital, then taking it and conquering around a third of Dacia. According to Criton of Heraclea, 500,000 POWs were taken.[8] The Free Dacians, allying with Scythian and Germanic tribes never stopped raiding the new Roman province.

Dacian scale armour

After the sound of the carnyx war trumpet, the Dacians went to battle with the draco. The most important weapon of their arsenal was the falx.[citation needed] This dreaded weapon, similar to a large sickle, came in two variants: a shorter, one-handed falx called a sica,[9] and a longer two-handed version, which was a polearm. It consisted of a three-feet long wooden shaft with a long curved iron blade of nearly-equal length attached to the end. The blade was sharpened only on the inside, and was reputed to be devastatingly effective. However, it left its user vulnerable because, using a two-handed weapon, the warrior could not also make use of a shield. Alternatively, it might be used as a hook, pulling away shields and cutting at vulnerable limbs.

Using the falx, the Dacian warriors were able to counter the power of the compact, massed Roman formations. During the time of the Roman conquest of Dacia (101 - 102, 105 - 106), legionaries had reinforcing iron straps applied to their helmets. The Romans also introduced the use of leg and arm protectors (greaves and manica[citation needed]) as further protection against the falxes. This was one of the rare times in history where Roman armor was modified.

An atypical falx. The handle was usually as long as, if not longer than, the blade.
Sica, a small version of the falx

The Dacians were adept[citation needed] at surprise attacks and skillful, tactical withdrawals using the fortification system. During the wars with the Romans fought by their last king Decebalus (87-106), the Dacians almost crushed the Roman garrisons south of the Danube in a surprise[citation needed] attack launched over the frozen river (winter of 101-102). Only the intervention of Emperor Trajan with the main army saved the Romans from a major defeat. But, by 106, the Dacians were surrounded in their capital Sarmizegetusa. The city was taken after the Romans discovered and destroyed[citation needed] the capital's water supply line.

Dacians decorated their bodies with tattoos like the Illyrians[10] and the Thracians.[11] The Pannonians north of the Drava had accepted Roman rule out of fear of the Dacians.[12]

Dacia remained a Roman province until 271.

Dacians that could afford armor wore customised Phrygian type helmets with solid crests (intricately decorated), domed helmets and Sarmatian helmets.[13] They fought with spears, javelins, falces, and one-sided battle axes, and used "Draco" carnyxes as standards. Most used only shields as a form of defense. Cavalry would be armed with a spear, a long La Tène sword and an oval shield; few in number, they relied heavily on Sarmatian allies for their mounted arm.

Most[citation needed] of the infantry would wield a falx and perhaps a sica and would wear no armor at all, even shunning shields.

Mercenaries

[edit]

Dacian mercenaries were uncommon in contrast to the Thracians and the Illyrians but they could be found in the service of the Greek Diadochi[14] and of the Romans.[15]

Nobility

[edit]

A 2nd century chieftain would wear a bronze Phrygian type helmet, a corselet of iron scale armor, an oval wooden shield with motifs and wield a sword.[16]

[edit]

The ancient historian Ptolemy mentions a naval battle between the Geto-Dacians and the Romans near the island of Eukon (most likely today's Popina Island).

Fortifications

[edit]
See also: Dacian Fortresses of the Orăştie Mountains, Dava (Dacian), and Murus dacicus
Remains of the Fortress of Blidaru.

Dacians had built fortresses all around Dacia with most of them being on the Danube.[17] A scene from Trajan's column shows Romans attacking a Dacian fortification using the "testudo".[18]

The Dacians constructed stone strongholds, davas, in the Carpathian Mountains in order to protect their capital Sarmizegetusa. The fortifications were built on a system of circular belts. This allowed[citation needed] the defenders, after a stronghold was lost, to retreat to the next one using hidden escape gates. Advanced defensive systems adopted from the Greeks made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles.[6]

External influences

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Scythian and Sarmatian

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Main article: Dacian Draco
A Dacian Draco.

The Dacian Draco was the standard of the ancient Dacian military. It served as a standard for the Dacians of the La Tène period and its origin must clearly be sought in the art of Asia Minor sometime during the second millennium BC.[19]

Sarmatians were part[20] of the Dacian army as allies. The Roxolani became part of the Dacians while the Iazyges fought against them trying to claim their own land.[21]

The Celts played a very active role in Dacia as enemies that were easily defeated by Dacians.[22] The Scordisci were among the defeated Celts that the Dacians conquered.[23]

Greek/Hellenic

[edit]

Cothelas had become a vassal to ancient Macedon.[citation needed] Some Kings of the Getae had been Hellenized[24] The Dacians traded with the Hellenistic world based upon their mineral reserves and gained better technological and cultural strategies than their Germanic and Celtic neighbours. Advanced defensive systems made their already powerful strongholds extremely difficult obstacles.[6]

Roman

[edit]
Roman province of Dacia with Roman settlements and legion garrisons included
Dacian armaments
Main article: Roman Dacia

After their defeat, the Dacians were ethnically cleansed. Young men were either killed or became slaves or legionaries. The remaining population was expelled and their lands were given to colonists.[8] Later, the Romans under Domitian started minting a coin called Dacicus.[25]

Barbarians

[edit]

Dacians were spoken of by Trajan as dignified barbarians[26] consequently still dangerous, but unable to win against the might of Rome. 1st century BC poet Horace writes of them in one of his works and mentions them along with the Scythians[27] as tyrants and fierce barbarians. Later historian Tacitus writes that they are a people that can never be trusted.[28]

The Ancient Greeks[29] expressed admiration and respect for Burebista.

List of Dacian battles

[edit]

This is a list of battles or conflicts that Dacians had a leading or crucial role in, rarely as mercenaries. They were involved in massive battles against Roman legions.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Bugajski, Janus (2002). Political Parties of Eastern Europe. New York: M.E. Sharpe. p. 829. ISBN 1563246767.
  2. ^ Ramsey, Syed (2016). Tools of War: History of Weapons in Ancient Times. New Delhi: Alpha Editions. ISBN 9789386019806.
  3. ^ The Legionary by Peter Connolly, 1998, page 14: "... dynamic king Burebista, a century and a half earlier, the Dacians had become the most powerful nation in central Europe, but since his death the country had been split by civil war."
  4. ^ Grumeza, Ion (2009). Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe. Lanham: Hamilton Books. p. 146. ISBN 9780761844655.
  5. ^ A Companion to the Roman Army (Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World) by Paul Erdkamp, 2007, page 218
  6. ^ a b c Bennett, Julian (2005). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Taylor & Francis e-Library. p. 87. ISBN 0-415-165245.
  7. ^ Bennett, Julian (2005). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Taylor & Francis e-Library. p. 88. ISBN 0-415-165245.
  8. ^ a b Bennett, Julian (2005). Trajan: Optimus Princeps. Taylor & Francis e-Library. p. 104. ISBN 0-415-165245.
  9. ^ Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982, page 35
  10. ^ The Illyrians by John Wilkes, 1996, page 198: "...their armor is Celtic but they are tattooed like the rest of the Illyrians and Thracians..."
  11. ^ The World of Tattoo: An Illustrated History by Maarten Hesselt van Dinter, 2007, page 25: "... in ancient times. The Danube area Dacians, Thracians and Illyrians all decorated themselves with status-enhancing tattoos, ..."
  12. ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, 2003, page 1106, "Pannonia north of the Drava appears to have accepted Roman rule without a struggle probably owing to fear of the Dacians to the east.
  13. ^ Rome's enemies: Germanics and Dacians by Peter Wilcox, Gerry Embleton, ISBN 0850454735, 1982
  14. ^ The Coming of Rome in the Dacian World, ISBN 387940707X, 2000, page 83
  15. ^ The Coming of Rome in the Dacian World, ISBN 387940707X, 2000, page 115
  16. ^ Rome's Enemies (1): Germanics and Dacians (Men at Arms Series, 129) by Peter Wilcox and Gerry Embleton, 1982
  17. ^ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 13, "The shores of the Danube were well monitored from the Dacian fortresses Acidava, Buricodava, Dausadava (the shrine of the wolves), Diacum, Drobeta (Turnu Severin), Nentivava (Oltenita), Suvidava (Corabia), Tsirista, Tierna/Dierna (Orsova) and what is today Zimnicea. Downstream were also other fortresses: Axiopolis (Cernadova), Barbosi, Buteridava, Capidava (Topalu), Carsium (Harsova), Durostorum (Silistra), Sacidava/Sagadava (Dunareni) along with still others..."
  18. ^ The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Volume 2, Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees, and Michael Whitby, 2007, page 149: "... 4.5 Scene from Trajan's column depicting Roman troops attacking a Dacian fortification, using the famous testudo (tortoise) formation to shield themselves from ..."
  19. ^ Parvan Vasile (1928) in 'Dacia', Bucuresti, page 125
  20. ^ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 170
  21. ^ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 134
  22. ^ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 88
  23. ^ Strab. 7.5, "...they often used the Scordisci as allies..."
  24. ^ The Thracians, 700 BC - AD 46 by Christopher Webber, ISBN 1-84176-329-2, ISBN 978-1-84176-329-3, 2001, page 14, "It shows a Hellenised king of the Getae..."
  25. ^ Dacicus, "Dācicus, a gold coin of Domitian, conqueror of the Dacians..."
  26. ^ The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe by Peter S. Wells, 2001, page 105, "... so too the Emperor Trajan represented the Dacians as a strong threat to Roman authority on the lower Danube. These barbarian enemies are represented in heroic fashion, as dignified warriors ..."
  27. ^ Q. Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Odes, John Conington, Ed.Hor. Carm. 1.35, "The fierce Dacians, and Scythian hordes, people and towns, and Rome, their head, and mothers of barbarian lords, and tyrants in their purple dread,..."
  28. ^ Tac. Hist. 3.46, "The Dacians also were in motion, a people which never can be trusted..."
  29. ^ Dacia: Land of Transylvania, Cornerstone of Ancient Eastern Europe by Ion Grumeza, 2009, page 54, "The Greeks were so impressed with his achievements that they named him 'the first and greatest king of the kings of Thracia'...."
  30. ^ Celtic Warrior: 300 BC-AD 100 by Stephen Allen and Wayne Reynolds, 2001, Front Matter,"... 60: Celtic Boii in Bohemia defeated by Dacian tribes from the lower Danube. 58-51: Caesar's campaigns in Gaul ..."
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dacian weapons, Dacian shields, Dacian helmets and Dacian armour.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dacia and Dacians.
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