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{{Redirect|Korean vs. Japanese|relations|Japan–South Korea relations|relations again|Japan–North Korea relations|disputes|Japan–Korea disputes|history|History of Japan–Korea relations}}
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{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
{{Short description|Linguistic comparison}}
{{Short description|Linguistic comparison}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Fringe theories|date=April 2021|talk=Serious NPOV problem}} <!-- DO NOT REMOVE without explanation in the talk page -->


{{multiple image
{{multiple image
| width = 200
| width = 200
| footer = Map of Koreanic (left) and Japonic dialects
| footer = Map of Koreanic (left) and Japonic languages and dialects
| image1 = Koreandialects.png
| image1 = Koreandialects.png
| image2 = Japanese dialects-en.png
| image2 = Japanese dialects-en.png
}}
}}


The geographically close the air[[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]] languages share considerable similarity in [[Linguistic typology|typological]] features of their syntax and morphology while having a small number of lexical resemblances and different [[writing system|native scripts]], although a common denominator is the presence of [[Chinese characters]], where [[kanji]] are part of Japanese orthography, while [[hanja]] were historically used to write Korean (marginally for limited academic, legal, media, stylistic and disambiguation purposes in [[South Korea]] today, while eliminated in [[North Korea]]). Observing the said similarities and probable history of [[Korean influence on Japanese culture]], linguists have formulated different theories proposing a [[language family|genetic]] relationship between them,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Are Korean and Japanese related? The Altaic hypothesis continued.|url = https://koreanology.wordpress.com/2013/11/22/are-korean-and-japanese-related-the-altaic-hypothesis-continued/|website = Koreanology|access-date = 2016-02-17|last = Andrew Logie|date = November 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.eai.cam.ac.uk/Aston-and-Korea.pdf Kornicki, Peter. ''Aston, Cambridge and Korea''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529111209/http://www.eai.cam.ac.uk/Aston-and-Korea.pdf |date=May 29, 2008 }}</ref><ref>Poppe 1965:137</ref><ref name="Samuel Martin">[[Samuel Martin (linguist)|Martin, Samuel]] (1990).</ref><ref>Whitman, John (1985).</ref><ref>E. Riley, Barbara (2004).</ref><ref>[[Sergei Starostin|Starostin, Sergei]] (Moscow, 1991). ''The Altaic Problem and the Origins of the Japanese Language''.</ref><ref>Georg et al. 1999:72, 74</ref> though these studies either lack conclusive evidence or were subsets of theories that have largely been discredited (like versions of the well-known [[Altaic hypothesis]] that mainly attempted to group the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages together).<ref>"While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, are related." Lyle Campbell & Mauricio J. Mixco, A Glossary of Historical Linguistics (2007, University of Utah Press), pg. 7.</ref><ref>"When cognates proved not to be valid, Altaic was abandoned, and the received view now is that Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic are unrelated." Johanna Nichols, Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time (1992, Chicago), pg. 4.</ref><ref>"Careful examination indicates that the established families, Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic, form a linguistic area (called Altaic)...Sufficient criteria have not been given that would justify talking of a genetic relationship here." R.M.W. Dixon, The Rise and Fall of Languages (1997, Cambridge), pg. 32.</ref><ref>"...[T]his selection of features does not provide good evidence for common descent" and "we can observe convergence rather than divergence between Turkic and Mongolic languages--a pattern than is easily explainable by borrowing and diffusion rather than common descent", [[Asya Pereltsvaig]], Languages of the World, An Introduction (2012, Cambridge) has a good discussion of the Altaic hypothesis (pp. 211-216).</ref>
The geographically proximate languages of [[Japanese language|Japanese]] (part of the [[Japonic languages]]) and [[Korean language|Korean]] (part of the [[Koreanic languages]]) share considerable similarity in [[Syntax|syntactic]] and [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] [[Linguistic typology|typology]] while having a small number of lexical resemblances. Observing the said similarities and probable history of [[Korean influence on Japanese culture]], linguists have formulated different theories proposing a [[language family|genetic]] relationship between them.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Are Korean and Japanese related? The Altaic hypothesis continued.|url = https://koreanology.wordpress.com/2013/11/22/are-korean-and-japanese-related-the-altaic-hypothesis-continued/|website = Koreanology|access-date = 2016-02-17|last = Andrew Logie|date = November 22, 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.eai.cam.ac.uk/Aston-and-Korea.pdf Kornicki, Peter. ''Aston, Cambridge and Korea''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529111209/http://www.eai.cam.ac.uk/Aston-and-Korea.pdf |date=May 29, 2008 }}</ref><ref>Poppe 1965:137</ref><ref name="Samuel Martin">[[Samuel Martin (linguist)|Martin, Samuel]] (1990).</ref><ref>Whitman, John (1985).</ref><ref>E. Riley, Barbara (2004).</ref><ref>[[Sergei Starostin|Starostin, Sergei]] (Moscow, 1991). ''The Altaic Problem and the Origins of the Japanese Language''.</ref><ref>Georg et al. 1999:72, 74</ref> These studies either lack conclusive evidence or were subsets of theories that have largely been discredited (like versions of the well-known [[Altaic hypothesis]] that mainly attempted to group the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages together).<ref>"While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, are related." Lyle Campbell & Mauricio J. Mixco, A Glossary of Historical Linguistics (2007, University of Utah Press), pg. 7.</ref><ref>"When cognates proved not to be valid, Altaic was abandoned, and the received view now is that Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic are unrelated." Johanna Nichols, Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time (1992, Chicago), pg. 4.</ref><ref>"Careful examination indicates that the established families, Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic, form a linguistic area (called Altaic)...Sufficient criteria have not been given that would justify talking of a genetic relationship here." R.M.W. Dixon, The Rise and Fall of Languages (1997, Cambridge), pg. 32.</ref><ref>"...[T]his selection of features does not provide good evidence for common descent" and "we can observe convergence rather than divergence between Turkic and [[Mongolic languages]]--a pattern than is easily explainable by borrowing and diffusion rather than common descent", [[Asya Pereltsvaig]], Languages of the World, An Introduction (2012, Cambridge) has a good discussion of the Altaic hypothesis (pp. 211-216).</ref> There has been new research which has revived the possibility of a genealogical link, such as the Transeurasian hypothesis (a neo-Altaic proposal) by [[Martine Robbeets|Robbeets]] et al., supported by [[computational linguistics]] and archaeological evidence, but this view has received significant criticism as well.<ref>[https://academic.oup.com/jole/article/3/2/145/5067185 Robbeets, Martine and Bouckaert, Remco. ''Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727010534/https://academic.oup.com/jole/article/3/2/145/5067185 |date=July 27, 2020 }}, Robbeets, Martine et al. 2021 Triangulation supports agricultural spread of the Transeurasian languages, Nature 599, 616–621</ref><ref name="Tian 2022">{{citation |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.06.09.495471v1 |last1=Tian |first1=Zheng |last2=Tao |first2=Yuxin |last3=Zhu |first3=Kongyang |last4=Jacques |first4=Guillaume |author4-link=Guillaume Jacques|last5=Ryder |first5=Robin J. |last6=de la Fuente |first6=José Andrés Alonso |last7=Antonov |first7=Anton |last8=Xia |first8=Ziyang |last9=Zhang |first9=Yuxuan |last10=Ji |first10=Xiaoyan |last11=Ren |first11=Xiaoying |last12=He |first12=Guanglin |last13=Guo |first13=Jianxin |last14=Wang |first14=Rui |last15=Yang |first15=Xiaomin |last16=Zhao |first16=Jing |last17=Xu |first17=Dan |last18=Gray |first18=Russell D. |author18-link=Russell Gray|last19=Zhang |first19=Menghan |last20=Wen |first20=Shaoqing |last21=Wang |first21=Chuan-Chao |last22=Pellard |first22=Thomas |title=Triangulation fails when neither linguistic, genetic, nor archaeological data support the Transeurasian narrative |publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory |date=2022-06-12 |doi=10.1101/2022.06.09.495471|s2cid=249649524 }}</ref>


Korean and Japanese have very different [[writing system|native scripts]] ([[Hangul]] and [[kana]], respectively), although they both make use of [[Chinese characters]] to some extent; [[Kanji]] still are a core part of modern [[Japanese orthography]], while [[Hanja]] were historically used to write Korean. Today, Hanja are only used in [[South Korea]] for limited academic, legal, media, stylistic and disambiguation purposes and are not used at all in [[North Korea]]. Although both Hangul and the two modern kana systems ([[katakana]] and [[hiragana]]) show [[syllable]]/[[Mora (linguistics)|mora]] boundaries, Hangul syllable blocks break down into a [[featural alphabet]], while the kana are essentially pure [[syllabaries]].
There has been new research which has revived the possibility of a genealogical link, such as the Transeurasian hypothesis by Robbeets et al, supported by computational linguistics and archaeological evidence.<ref>[https://academic.oup.com/jole/article/3/2/145/5067185 Robbeets, Martine and Bouckaert, Remco. ''Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727010534/https://academic.oup.com/jole/article/3/2/145/5067185 |date=July 27, 2020 }}</ref> However, this has yet to demonstrate a genetic relationship between the two languages.

The topic of similarity between the two languages can be politically controversial due to the [[History of Japan–Korea relations|historical relationship between Japan and Korea]], particularly the [[Korea under Japanese rule#Japanese policies for the Korean language|language policy of Japanese-ruled Korea]].


==Overview==
==Overview==
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|-
|-
! Speakers
! Speakers
| 82 million
| 83 million
| 126.4 million
| 126.4 million
|-
|-
Line 45: Line 43:
==Grammar==
==Grammar==
Korean and Japanese both have an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative morphology]] in which verbs may function as prefixes<ref>Bernard Comrie: "Introduction", p. 7 and 9 in Comrie (1990).</ref> and a [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV) typology.<ref>S. Tomlin, Russell. Surveyed in the 1980s.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MWbrvUiYzSkC&pg=PA36 Introducing English Linguistics International Student Edition by Charles F. Meyer]</ref><ref>Russell Tomlin, "Basic Word Order: Functional Principles", Croom Helm, London, 1986, page 22</ref> They are both [[Topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]], [[null-subject language]]s. Both languages extensively utilize turning nouns into verbs via the "to do" helper verbs (Japanese ''suru'' する; Korean ''hada'' 하다).
Korean and Japanese both have an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative morphology]] in which verbs may function as prefixes<ref>Bernard Comrie: "Introduction", p. 7 and 9 in Comrie (1990).</ref> and a [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV) typology.<ref>S. Tomlin, Russell. Surveyed in the 1980s.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MWbrvUiYzSkC&pg=PA36 Introducing English Linguistics International Student Edition by Charles F. Meyer]</ref><ref>Russell Tomlin, "Basic Word Order: Functional Principles", Croom Helm, London, 1986, page 22</ref> They are both [[Topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]], [[null-subject language]]s. Both languages extensively utilize turning nouns into verbs via the "to do" helper verbs (Japanese ''suru'' する; Korean ''hada'' 하다).

Modern Korean and Japanese share a similar system of proximal and distal demonstrative pronouns: ''i-'' (이), ''geu-'' (그) and ''jeo-'' (저) for Korean corresponding to the Japanese ''ko-'' (こ), ''so-'' (そ) and ''a-'' (あ) ("this", "that" and "that over there"). They both lack a compulsory distinction of plurality (for example "an apple" vs "apples" is usually not specifically distinguished).

Korean and Japanese also share the [[Grammatical particle|particle]] system. Korean and the Japonic languages are among the few extant languages in the world with [[topic marker]]s. This allows words of different parts of speech to be placed in exactly the same order if some sentences are translated from one language to another. Such direct word for word swapping cannot be so easily done with any other languages, showing that Korean and Japanese are grammatically quite similar.

However, there are also many differences. One of the most significant grammatical differences between Japanese and Korean is the way of forming [[Attributive verb|attributive verbs]]. Modern Japanese doesn't have separate verb forms for attributive verbs, simply putting a predicative verb before a noun turns the verb into attributive. However, Korean uses distinct conjugations for making attributive verbs in three tenses. That means verb forms are more varied in Korean and [[word order]] is more flexible in Korean than it is in Japanese, since more verb forms give more grammatical hints. [[Old Japanese]] has distinct attributive verb forms as in Korean, but modern Japanese (except for the [[Hachijō language]]) has lost this feature, and displays a newly developed [[Analytic language|analytic]] tendency that is not observed in Korean.

Another notable difference is the use of the [[future tense]]. Japanese is considered to have two tenses; past and non-past, whereas Korean is considered to have three tenses; past, present and future. Korean uses distinct verb forms (-겠- , -ㄹ/-을, -리-) for the future tense, whereas Japanese uses the non-past (present) tense for future events, often with additional words (つもり、はず) and moods (〜だろう、〜でしょう). Note that not all linguists agree with the idea that Korean has three tenses. Some linguists argue that Korean has two tenses (past, present) or four tenses (greater past, past, present, future), and some even argue that Korean has no tense at all but only aspects. The three tenses theory is generally accepted but still remains controversial.

The Japanese perfective (〜て/〜でいる) has two meanings when the stem is an intransitive verb, and it depends on the context; the present perfect (e.g. 座っている; have sat down) or the present progressive (e.g. 走っている; be running). However, Korean uses two separate particles (-어/-아, -어서/-아서) and (-고) for (〜て/〜で) so they are morphologically different (e.g. 앉'''아''' 있다; have sat down, 앉'''고''' 있다; be sitting down). Some older dialects of Japanese had this distinction, and the [[Tosa dialect]] still makes clear distinction between the two meanings.

The Japanese predicative copula (〜だ、〜です) is used for both nouns (e.g. これは本だ; This is a book) and adjectives (e.g. これは有名だ; This is famous), with an exception to the い-adjectives which don't take the (〜だ) copula. In Korean, however, nouns and adjectives never share the same copula. The Korean copula (-이다/-다, -입니다, -이야/-야, -이에요/-예요) is only used for nouns (e.g. 이것은 책이다; This is a book) and some adverbs. Instead, the Korean 하다-adjectives — which are equivalent to the Japanese な-adjectives — share the same copula (-하다, -합니다, -해, -해요) with verbs (e.g. 이것은 유명하다; This is famous), with an exception to (-하다) which takes a different form (-한다) for verbs. In contrast, verbs and adjectives don't usually share such a similar copula in Japanese. The equivalent Japanese copula (〜する、〜します) is usually used for verbs (with exceptions like onomatopoeic verbs like つるつるする and certain feeling verbs). It's controversial among grammarians whether to consider "な-adjectives" like 有名 as adjectives at all, with many considering them nouns or quasi-adjectives.

Japanese uses two words (いる) and (ある) for (있다) in Korean. In the past, Japanese also only used one word. This is preserved in the [[Hachijō language]]. Korean uses two words (없다) and (않다) for (ない) in Japanese. Japanese often uses similar words (なに/なん/なんの) to include what would be either 'what' or 'how many' in English without specific distinction (the context of being next to a counter word makes the meaning clear), while Korean has an extra word specifically used with counter words to express "how many" (무엇/뭐/무슨; 몇).

The two languages are also different in regards to the [[Grammatical case|grammatical cases]]. The Japanese genitive marker ''no'' (の) is regularly used between nouns but the Korean genitive marker ''ui'' (의) is often omitted otherwise it's considered unnatural. Another notable difference is the [[vocative case]] commonly used in Korean. Japanese also has similar particles (〜よ、〜や) working like the vocative case in Korean but the usage is very limited.

In both languages, passive and causative verbs have important roles. The rules for forming passive and causative verbs are more regular and logical in Japanese. In Korean, passive and causative verbs do have some predictable patterns, but without enough consistency to make some rules about it. It is comparable to the past participles in English such as '-ed' (e.g. walked, worked), '-en' (e.g. eaten, gotten). Korean has about nine possible patterns for passive verbs and ten possible patterns for causative verbs, but without a certain consistency.


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
The two languages have been thought to not share any [[cognate]]s (other than [[loanword]]s),<ref name="Samuel Martin" /> for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other.
The two languages have been thought to not share any [[cognate]]s (other than [[loanword]]s),<ref name="Samuel Martin" /> for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other.

<!--
However, a 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese traces around 500 core words thought to share a common origin.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Proto-Korean-Japanese: A New Reconstruction of the Common Origin of the Japanese and Korean Languages|url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/pg_10?0::NO:10:P10_ETD_SUBID:113782|publisher=The Ohio State University|date=2016|language=en|first=Alexander Takenobu|last=Francis-Ratte}}</ref> Most resembling lexicon in the study has been observed between [[Middle Korean]] (15th century) and earlier [[Old Japanese]] (8th century), some of which is shown in the following table:
However, a 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese traces around 500 core words thought to share a common origin.<ref>{{Cite thesis|title=Proto-Korean-Japanese: A New Reconstruction of the Common Origin of the Japanese and Korean Languages|url=https://etd.ohiolink.edu/pg_10?0::NO:10:P10_ETD_SUBID:113782|publisher=The Ohio State University|date=2016|language=en|first=Alexander Takenobu|last=Francis-Ratte}}</ref> Most resembling lexicon in the study has been observed between [[Middle Korean]] (15th century) and earlier [[Old Japanese]] (8th century), some of which is shown in the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
Line 74: Line 54:
! Proposed<br />Proto-Japanese-Korean
! Proposed<br />Proto-Japanese-Korean
|-
|-
| abandons
| abandons
| ''stú''<br />("scoops it out, removes a part from the whole")
| ''stú''<br />("scoops it out, removes a part from the whole")
| ''sute''<br />("abandons it, throws it away")
| ''sute''<br />("abandons it, throws it away")
| *''sɨtu''<br />("abandons it, throws it out")
| *''sɨtu''<br />("abandons it, throws it out")
|-
|-
| adds
| adds
| ''kwop''<br />("doubles, increases it two-fold")
| ''kwop''<br />("doubles, increases it two-fold")
| ''kupape''<br />("adds it")
| ''kupape''<br />("adds it")
| *''kop''<br />("increases it in number by adding")
| *''kop''<br />("increases it in number by adding")
|-
|-
| (adjectivizer)
| (adjectivizer)
| ''k''<br />("adjectivizing suffix on nominals")
| ''k''<br />("adjectivizing suffix on nominals")
| ''ka''<br />("property suffix on nominals")
| ''ka''<br />("property suffix on nominals")
| *''k''<br />("adjectivizing suffix on nominals")<br />+ *''a''<br />("deverbal")
| *''k''<br />("adjectivizing suffix on nominals")<br />+ *''a''<br />("deverbal")
|-
|-
| avoids
| avoids
| ''skúy''<br />("shuns, avoids; is unwilling")
| ''skúy''<br />("shuns, avoids; is unwilling")
| ''sake''<br />("avoids, dodges")
| ''sake''<br />("avoids, dodges")
| *''səka''<br />("avoids")
| *''səka''<br />("avoids")
|-
|-
| bamboo
| bamboo
| ''táy''<br />("bamboo")<br />?< *''taGVy''
| ''táy''<br />("bamboo")<br />?< *''taGVy''
| ''takey''<br />("bamboo")
| ''takey''<br />("bamboo")
| *''takəj''
| *''takəj''
|-
|-
| basket
| basket
| ''kwulek''<br />("[mesh] basket")
| ''kwulek''<br />("[mesh] basket")
| ''kwo''<br />("basket")
| ''kwo''<br />("basket")
| *''kura'' / *''kuwa''<br />("basket")
| *''kura'' / *''kuwa''<br />("basket")
|-
|-
| bear
| bear
| ''kwom''<br />("bear")<br />< Proto-Korean *''komá''
| ''kwom''<br />("bear")<br />< Proto-Korean *''komá''
| ''kuma''<br />("bear")
| ''kuma''<br />("bear")
| *''koma''<br />("bear")
| *''koma''<br />("bear")
|-
|-
| below
| below
| ''aláy''<br />("below")
| ''aláy''<br />("below")
| ''aye''<br />("falls to the ground")
| ''aye''<br />("falls to the ground")
| *''ar''<br />("below")
| *''ar''<br />("below")
|-
|-
| bestows
| bestows
| ''kwomá''<br />("reverence"),<br />''kwómáw''<br />("honored, thankful")
| ''kwomá''<br />("reverence"),<br />''kwómáw''<br />("honored, thankful")
| ''kubar'' / ''kumar''<br />("apportions and bestows")
| ''kubar'' / ''kumar''<br />("apportions and bestows")
| *''kuma''<br />("bestows")
| *''kuma''<br />("bestows")
|-
|-
| bird
| bird
| ''say''<br />("bird")
| ''say''<br />("bird")
| ''sagi''<br />("heron; suffix in bird names")
| ''sagi''<br />("heron; suffix in bird names")
| *''saŋi''<br />("bird")
| *''saŋi''<br />("bird")
|-
|-
| bites
| bites
| ''kemelí''<br />("leech"),<br />''kam-spol''<br />("licks it up, sucks up food")
| ''kemelí''<br />("leech"),<br />''kam-spol''<br />("licks it up, sucks up food")
| ''kam''<br />("bites")
| ''kam''<br />("bites")
| *''kamɨ''<br />("bites")
| *''kamɨ''<br />("bites")
|-
|-
| body
| body
| ''mwóm'' <br />("body")
| ''mwóm'' <br />("body")
< Old Korean ''*muma''
< Old Korean ''*muma''
| ''mu''- / ''mwi''<br />("body")
| ''mu''- / ''mwi''<br />("body")
| *''mom''<br />("body")
| *''mom''<br />("body")
|-
|-
| boils it
| boils it
| ''nóy''<br />("smoke, vapor")
| ''nóy''<br />("smoke, vapor")
| ''ni''<br />("boils it")
| ''ni''<br />("boils it")
| *''nəj''<br />("boils it")
| *''nəj''<br />("boils it")
|-
|-
| bottom
| bottom
| ''stáh''<br />("ground")
| ''stáh''<br />("ground")
| ''sita''<br />("below, bottom")
| ''sita''<br />("below, bottom")
| *''sita''<br />("bottom")
| *''sita''<br />("bottom")
|-
|-
| box
| box
| ''pakwoní''<br />("basket")
| ''pakwoní''<br />("basket")
| ''pakwo''<br />("box")
| ''pakwo''<br />("box")
| *''pako''<br />("box")
| *''pako''<br />("box")
|-
|-
| brings into life
| brings into life
| ''wum''<br />("a sprout, a shoot, a growth")
| ''wum''<br />("a sprout, a shoot, a growth")
| ''um''<br />("gives birth to, brings into life")
| ''um''<br />("gives birth to, brings into life")
| *''um''<br />("brings into life")
| *''um''<br />("brings into life")
|-
|-
| bundles
| bundles
| ''mwusk''<br />("binds it into a bundle")
| ''mwusk''<br />("binds it into a bundle")
| ''musub''<br />("binds it into a bundle")
| ''musub''<br />("binds it into a bundle")
| *''musu''<br />("binds, bundles it")
| *''musu''<br />("binds, bundles it")
|-
|-
| buries it
| buries it
| ''wumúl''<br />("well"),<br />''wúmh''<br />("grain pit dug out of the ground"),<br />''wumwuk-ho''<br />("is hollow")
| ''wumúl''<br />("well"),<br />''wúmh''<br />("grain pit dug out of the ground"),<br />''wumwuk-ho''<br />("is hollow")
| ''ume''<br />("buries it in the ground")
| ''ume''<br />("buries it in the ground")
| *''umu''<br />("buries it in the ground")
| *''umu''<br />("buries it in the ground")
|-
|-
| cage
| cage
| ''wulí''<br />("cage")
| ''wulí''<br />("cage")
| ''wori''<br />("cage")
| ''wori''<br />("cage")
| *''orɨj''<br />("cage")
| *''orɨj''<br />("cage")
|-
|-
| carbon
| carbon
| ''swusk''<br />("charcoal")
| ''swusk''<br />("charcoal")
| ''susu''<br />("soot")
| ''susu''<br />("soot")
| *''susu''<br />("soot; carbon")
| *''susu''<br />("soot; carbon")
|-
|-
| carries on back
| carries on back
| ''ep''<br />("bears, carries on the back")
| ''ep''<br />("bears, carries on the back")
| ''op''<br />("bears on the back")
| ''op''<br />("bears on the back")
| *''əp''<br />("carries on back")
| *''əp''<br />("carries on back")
|-
|-
| carves a line
| carves a line
| ''kuzu''<br />("draws a line, rules")
| ''kuzu''<br />("draws a line, rules")
| ''kizam''<br />("carves"),<br />''kisage''<br />("shaves stone")
| ''kizam''<br />("carves"),<br />''kisage''<br />("shaves stone")
| *''kinsɨ''<br />("carves, cuts a line")
| *''kinsɨ''<br />("carves, cuts a line")
|-
|-
| cat
| cat
| ''kwoy''<br />("cat")
| ''kwoy''<br />("cat")
| ''nekwo''<br />("cat")
| ''nekwo''<br />("cat")
| *''ko''<br />("cat")
| *''ko''<br />("cat")
|-
|-
| ceremony
| ceremony
| ''kwús''<br />("exorcism, shamanistic ceremony")
| ''kwús''<br />("exorcism, shamanistic ceremony")
| ''kusi''<br />("is strange, mysterious, otherwordly")
| ''kusi''<br />("is strange, mysterious, otherwordly")
| *''kusuj''<br />("shamanistic ceremony")
| *''kusuj''<br />("shamanistic ceremony")
|-
|-
| changes
| changes
| ''kaph''<br />("returns it, pays it back")
| ''kaph''<br />("returns it, pays it back")
| ''kap''<br />("buys it"),<br />''kape''<br />("exchanges, changes it"),<br />''kapar''<br />("it changes")
| ''kap''<br />("buys it"),<br />''kape''<br />("exchanges, changes it"),<br />''kapar''<br />("it changes")
| *''kap''<br />("it changes, changes hands")
| *''kap''<br />("it changes, changes hands")
|-
|-
| cheek
| cheek
| ''pwól''<br />("cheek")
| ''pwól''<br />("cheek")
| ''popo'' < *''po-po''<br />("cheek")
| ''popo'' < *''po-po''<br />("cheek")
| *''por''<br />("cheek")
| *''por''<br />("cheek")
|-
|-
| chicken
| chicken
| ''tolk''<br />("chicken")
| ''tolk''<br />("chicken")
| ''tori''<br />("bird, chicken")
| ''tori''<br />("bird, chicken")
| *''tərəŋ''<br />("chicken")
| *''tərəŋ''<br />("chicken")
|-
|-
| closes it
| closes it
| ''tat''<br />("closes it")
| ''tat''<br />("closes it")
| ''tat''<br />("interrupts, cuts off, finishes it")
| ''tat''<br />("interrupts, cuts off, finishes it")
| *''tat''<br />("closes it")
| *''tat''<br />("closes it")
|-
|-
| cloth
| cloth
| ''swowom''<br />("cotton")
| ''swowom''<br />("cotton")
| ''swo''<br />("clothing; cloth; hemp")
| ''swo''<br />("clothing; cloth; hemp")
| *''so''<br />("cloth")
| *''so''<br />("cloth")
|-
|-
| cloudy
| cloudy
| ''skí''<br />("gets dusty, cloudy")
| ''skí''<br />("gets dusty, cloudy")
| ''sike''<br />("sky gets cloudy")
| ''sike''<br />("sky gets cloudy")
| *''siki''<br />("gets cloudy")
| *''siki''<br />("gets cloudy")
|-
|-
| collects
| collects
| ''kat''<br />("collects it, gathers it in")
| ''kat''<br />("collects it, gathers it in")
| ''kate''<br />("joins it, mixes it, adds it in")
| ''kate''<br />("joins it, mixes it, adds it in")
| *''kat''<br />("collects")
| *''kat''<br />("collects")
|-
|-
| comes
| comes
| ''ká''<br />("goes")
| ''ká''<br />("goes")
| ''ko''<br />("comes")
| ''ko''<br />("comes")
| *''kə''<br />("comes")
| *''kə''<br />("comes")
|-
|-
| confines
| confines
| ''kalm''<br />("hides it, puts it away, keeps it, treasures it")
| ''kalm''<br />("hides it, puts it away, keeps it, treasures it")
| ''karame''<br />("arrests it, catches and confines it")
| ''karame''<br />("arrests it, catches and confines it")
| *''karama''<br />("confines it")
| *''karama''<br />("confines it")
|-
|-
| congeals
| congeals
| ''kel''<br />("thickens, congeals; is rich, thick")
| ''kel''<br />("thickens, congeals; is rich, thick")
| ''kor''<br />("it thickens, congeals")
| ''kor''<br />("it thickens, congeals")
| *''kərɨ''<br />("it thickens, congeals")
| *''kərɨ''<br />("it thickens, congeals")
|-
|-
| correct
| correct
| ''mac''<br />("is correct"),<br />''maskaw''<br />("is correct")
| ''mac''<br />("is correct"),<br />''maskaw''<br />("is correct")
| ''masa''<br />("correct, upright")
| ''masa''<br />("correct, upright")
| *''masa''<br />("correct, upright")
| *''masa''<br />("correct, upright")
|-
|-
| countryside
| countryside
| ''wúy ánh''<br />("countryside")
| ''wúy ánh''<br />("countryside")
| ''wi naka''<br />("countryside")
| ''wi naka''<br />("countryside")
| *''uj''<br />("countryside") + inside
| *''uj''<br />("countryside") + inside
|-
|-
| daytime
| daytime
| ''nác''<br />("daytime; afternoon")
| ''nác''<br />("daytime; afternoon")
< Early Middle Korean ''*nacay''
< Early Middle Korean ''*nacay''
| ''natu''<br />("summer")
| ''natu''<br />("summer")
| *''nacu''<br />("daytime")
| *''nacu''<br />("daytime")
|-
|-
| deep inside
| deep inside
| ''swop'' / ''swok''<br />("deep inside")<br />?< *''swowók''
| ''swop'' / ''swok''<br />("deep inside")<br />?< *''swowók''
| ''oku''<br />("deep inside, interior")
| ''oku''<br />("deep inside, interior")
| *''owoku''<br />("deep inside")
| *''owoku''<br />("deep inside")
|-
|-
| dissolves / lonely
| dissolves / lonely
| ''súl''<br />("disappears, dissolves, rusts"),<br />''sulgwú''<br />("makes it dissolve, rusts"),<br />''sulphu''<br />("is sad"),<br />''sulh''<br />("is sad")
| ''súl''<br />("disappears, dissolves, rusts"),<br />''sulgwú''<br />("makes it dissolve, rusts"),<br />''sulphu''<br />("is sad"),<br />''sulh''<br />("is sad")
| ''sabwi''<br />("rusts"),<br />''sabu'', EMJ ''sabi''<br />("is sad, lonely")
| ''sabwi''<br />("rusts"),<br />''sabu'', EMJ ''sabi''<br />("is sad, lonely")
| *''sɨr''<br />("dissolves; sad, lonely")
| *''sɨr''<br />("dissolves; sad, lonely")
|-
|-
| drags
| drags
| ''kuzu''<br />("drags, draws, pulls")
| ''kuzu''<br />("drags, draws, pulls")
| ''kozi''<br />("pulls out by the roots")
| ''kozi''<br />("pulls out by the roots")
| *''kɨnsɨ''<br />("drags out")
| *''kɨnsɨ''<br />("drags out")
|-
|-
| drawn in
| drawn in
| ''pemúli''<br />("gets drawn in"),<br />''pemúl''<br />("surrounds, encircles"),<br />''pemúl''<br />("intrudes in")
| ''pemúli''<br />("gets drawn in"),<br />''pemúl''<br />("surrounds, encircles"),<br />''pemúl''<br />("intrudes in")
| ''pame''<br />("throws it in, drops it in")
| ''pame''<br />("throws it in, drops it in")
| *''pamɨ''<br />("it gets drawn in")
| *''pamɨ''<br />("it gets drawn in")
|-
|-
| drops
| drops
| ''twú''<br />("keeps, leaves it as is, places it down")
| ''twú''<br />("keeps, leaves it as is, places it down")
| ''otos''<br />("drops it"),<br />''oti''<br />("it drops down"),<br />''otor''<br />("is low")
| ''otos''<br />("drops it"),<br />''oti''<br />("it drops down"),<br />''otor''<br />("is low")
| *''ɨtɨ''<br />("drops, puts down")
| *''ɨtɨ''<br />("drops, puts down")
|-
|-
| each
| each
| ''mata''<br />("each one, every")
| ''mata''<br />("each one, every")
| ''mata''<br />("again; every"),<br />''mata-si''<br />("all, complete")
| ''mata''<br />("again; every"),<br />''mata-si''<br />("all, complete")
| *''mata''<br />("each, every")
| *''mata''<br />("each, every")
|-
|-
| edge
| edge
| ''pask''<br />("outside")
| ''pask''<br />("outside")
| ''pasi''<br />("outside edge")
| ''pasi''<br />("outside edge")
| *''pasi''<br />("edge")
| *''pasi''<br />("edge")
|-
|-
| empties
| empties
| ''sku'', ''pskú''<br />("puts it out, turns off, extinguishes, quenches it")
| ''sku'', ''pskú''<br />("puts it out, turns off, extinguishes, quenches it")
| ''suk''<br />("empties, is empty")
| ''suk''<br />("empties, is empty")
| *''sukɨ''<br />("empties")
| *''sukɨ''<br />("empties")
|-
|-
| end
| end
| ''patáng'', modern korean ''patak''<br />("sole, bottom")
| ''patáng'', modern korean ''patak''<br />("sole, bottom")
| ''pate''<br />("limit, end"),<br />''patas''<br />("makes it an end")
| ''pate''<br />("limit, end"),<br />''patas''<br />("makes it an end")
| *''pataŋ''<br />("end")
| *''pataŋ''<br />("end")
|-
|-
| enfolds
| enfolds
| ''mek''<br />("eats, holds in the mouth; harbors, takes in, has inside")
| ''mek''<br />("eats, holds in the mouth; harbors, takes in, has inside")
| ''mak''<br />("enfolds, rolls up, encircles")
| ''mak''<br />("enfolds, rolls up, encircles")
| *''mek'' or *''mak''<br />("enfolds")
| *''mek'' or *''mak''<br />("enfolds")
|-
|-
| et cetera
| et cetera
| ''(i)yá'' / ''(i)yé''<br />("whether, or")
| ''(i)yá'' / ''(i)yé''<br />("whether, or")
| ''ya''<br />("also, and the like")
| ''ya''<br />("also, and the like")
| *''ja''<br />("whether; et cetera")
| *''ja''<br />("whether; et cetera")
|-
|-
| evergreen
| evergreen
| ''swól''<br />("pine")
| ''swól''<br />("pine")
| ''sugwi''<br />("cryptomeria [japanese cedar]")
| ''sugwi''<br />("cryptomeria [japanese cedar]")
| *''suŋor''<br />("evergreen")
| *''suŋor''<br />("evergreen")
|-
|-
| exchanges
| exchanges
| ''kaph''<br />("repays")<br />''kaps''<br />("price")<br />< *''kap''<br />("exchanges")
| ''kaph''<br />("repays")<br />''kaps''<br />("price")<br />< *''kap''<br />("exchanges")
| ''kap''<br />("buys")
| ''kap''<br />("buys")
| *''kap''<br />("exchanges")
| *''kap''<br />("exchanges")
|-
|-
| exhausts
| exhausts
| ''cwuk''<br />("dies")
| ''cwuk''<br />("dies")
| ''tukwi''<br />("is exhausted, used up") ''tukus''<br />("exhausts it, uses it up")
| ''tukwi''<br />("is exhausted, used up") ''tukus''<br />("exhausts it, uses it up")
| *''cuk''<br />("is exhausted") <br />+ Proto-Japanese *''wo''<br />("active marker")
| *''cuk''<br />("is exhausted") <br />+ Proto-Japanese *''wo''<br />("active marker")
|-
|-
| expresses emotion
| expresses emotion
| ''noch''<br />("face, expression")
| ''noch''<br />("face, expression")
| ''natuk''<br />("expresses emotion; is fond of")
| ''natuk''<br />("expresses emotion; is fond of")
| *''nəcuk''<br />("expresses emotion")
| *''nəcuk''<br />("expresses emotion")
|-
|-
| extremity
| extremity
| ''kiph''<br />("is deep")
| ''kiph''<br />("is deep")
| ''kipa''<br />("extremity")
| ''kipa''<br />("extremity")
| *''kipa''<br />("depth, extremity")
| *''kipa''<br />("depth, extremity")
|-
|-
| faces
| faces
| ''mwok''<br />("neck")
| ''mwok''<br />("neck")
| ''muk''<br />("turn one"s head, faces")
| ''muk''<br />("turn one"s head, faces")
| *''mok''<br />("faces")
| *''mok''<br />("faces")
|-
|-
| faint
| faint
| ''kaskaw''<br />("is close to"),<br />''kezúy''<br />("almost")
| ''kaskaw''<br />("is close to"),<br />''kezúy''<br />("almost")
| ''kasu-ka''<br />("faint"),<br />''kasu''<br />("barely")
| ''kasu-ka''<br />("faint"),<br />''kasu''<br />("barely")
| *''kasu''<br />("faint")
| *''kasu''<br />("faint")
|-
|-
| farm field
| farm field
| ''path''<br />("farm field")
| ''path''<br />("farm field")
| ''pata'', ''patake''<br />("farm field")
| ''pata'', ''patake''<br />("farm field")
| *''pata''<br />("farm field")
| *''pata''<br />("farm field")
|-
|-
| fat
| fat
| ''pwutúlew''<br />("soft"),<br />modern korean ''pwutwung''<br />("chubby")
| ''pwutúlew''<br />("soft"),<br />modern korean ''pwutwung''<br />("chubby")
| ''putwo''<br />("fat")
| ''putwo''<br />("fat")
| *''puto''<br />("fat")
| *''puto''<br />("fat")
|-
|-
| ferments
| ferments
| ''sek''<br />("rots, ferments")
| ''sek''<br />("rots, ferments")
| ''saka'' / ''sakey''<br />("alcohol, rice wine")
| ''saka'' / ''sakey''<br />("alcohol, rice wine")
| *''sek''<br />("ripens, grows [rotten]")
| *''sek''<br />("ripens, grows [rotten]")
|-
|-
| fills
| fills
| ''tam''<br />("fills it up")
| ''tam''<br />("fills it up")
| ''tamar''<br />("it fills up"),<br />''tame''<br />("fills it")
| ''tamar''<br />("it fills up"),<br />''tame''<br />("fills it")
| *''tama''<br />("fills it")
| *''tama''<br />("fills it")
|-
|-
| fire
| fire
| ''púl''<br />("fire")
| ''púl''<br />("fire")
| ''pwi'' / ''po''<br />("fire")
| ''pwi'' / ''po''<br />("fire")
| *''pɨr''<br />("fire")
| *''pɨr''<br />("fire")
|-
|-
| flattens it
| flattens it
| ''tatóm''<br />("smooths cloth, trims it, rubs it together"),<br />modern korean ''tatumicil''<br />("beating cloth out to smooth it")
| ''tatóm''<br />("smooths cloth, trims it, rubs it together"),<br />modern korean ''tatumicil''<br />("beating cloth out to smooth it")
| ''tatam''<br />("folds it up, layers it"),<br />''tatami''<br />("mat, flattened thing")
| ''tatam''<br />("folds it up, layers it"),<br />''tatami''<br />("mat, flattened thing")
| *''tatəm''<br />("folds, flattens it"),<br />''tatəm-i''<br />("flattening")
| *''tatəm''<br />("folds, flattens it"),<br />''tatəm-i''<br />("flattening")
|-
|-
| fork
| fork
| ''motoy''<br />("joint, knuckle")
| ''motoy''<br />("joint, knuckle")
| ''mata''<br />("fork, bend; crotch")
| ''mata''<br />("fork, bend; crotch")
| *''mataj or *mətaj''<br />("fork, bend")
| *''mataj or *mətaj''<br />("fork, bend")
|-
|-
| full
| full
| ''michu'' / ''micho''<br />("reaches it")
| ''michu'' / ''micho''<br />("reaches it")
| ''mit''<br />("gets full, reaches its limit")
| ''mit''<br />("gets full, reaches its limit")
| *''mica''<br />("reaches, gets full")
| *''mica''<br />("reaches, gets full")
|-
|-
| gathers a crowd
| gathers a crowd
| ''múli / mwuli / mwúl''<br />("crowd")
| ''múli / mwuli / mwúl''<br />("crowd")
| ''mure''<br />("gathers a crowd")
| ''mure''<br />("gathers a crowd")
| *''mur(u)''<br />("gathers a crowd")
| *''mur(u)''<br />("gathers a crowd")
|-
|-
| gets
| gets
| ''et''<br />("gets it")
| ''et''<br />("gets it")
| ''atar''<br />("gets it")
| ''atar''<br />("gets it")
| *''atɨ''<br />("gets it")
| *''atɨ''<br />("gets it")
|-
|-
| goes out
| goes out
| ''ná''<br />("goes out; is born")
| ''ná''<br />("goes out; is born")
| ''nar''<br />("becomes")
| ''nar''<br />("becomes")
| *''na''<br />("goes out")
| *''na''<br />("goes out")
|-
|-
| grabs
| grabs
| ''az''<br />("grabs it")
| ''az''<br />("grabs it")
| ''asar''<br />("scavenges it")
| ''asar''<br />("scavenges it")
| *''asa''<br />("grabs it")
| *''asa''<br />("grabs it")
|-
|-
| harbors
| harbors
| ''phwúm''<br />("embraces, harbors")
| ''phwúm''<br />("embraces, harbors")
| ''pukum''<br />("harbor, comprise, contain")
| ''pukum''<br />("harbor, comprise, contain")
| *''pukum''<br />("embraces, harbors")
| *''pukum''<br />("embraces, harbors")
|-
|-
| hatchet
| hatchet
| ''nát''<br />("sickle, scythe")
| ''nát''<br />("sickle, scythe")
| ''nata''<br />("machete; small, thick bladed instrument")
| ''nata''<br />("machete; small, thick bladed instrument")
| *''natə''<br />("bladed instrument for chopping plants")
| *''natə''<br />("bladed instrument for chopping plants")
|-
|-
| heart
| heart
| ''kwokoyyang''<br />("heart or core of vegetable, pith"),<br />''kwokáy''<br />("head")
| ''kwokoyyang''<br />("heart or core of vegetable, pith"),<br />''kwokáy''<br />("head")
| ''kokoro''<br />("seat of feeling / thought; emotion")
| ''kokoro''<br />("seat of feeling / thought; emotion")
| *''kəkərə''<br />("the heart, core, essence")
| *''kəkərə''<br />("the heart, core, essence")
|-
|-
| heats with fire
| heats with fire
| ''tahí''<br />("makes a fire, heats with fire")
| ''tahí''<br />("makes a fire, heats with fire")
| ''tak''<br />("heats with fire")
| ''tak''<br />("heats with fire")
| *''taka''<br />("heats with fire")
| *''taka''<br />("heats with fire")
|-
|-
| high
| high
| ''talak''<br />("loft, attic")
| ''talak''<br />("loft, attic")
| ''take / taka''<br />("height")
| ''take / taka''<br />("height")
| *''takar''<br />("height")
| *''takar''<br />("height")
|-
|-
| holds
| holds
| ''motó'','' moti''<br />("is long-lasting, is durable; keeps things")
| ''motó'','' moti''<br />("is long-lasting, is durable; keeps things")
| ''mot''<br />("holds")
| ''mot''<br />("holds")
| *''mətə''<br />("holds")
| *''mətə''<br />("holds")
|-
|-
| hot
| hot
| ''tew''<br />("hot") ''tos'' / ''toso'' / ''tusu''<br />("hot"),<br />''tusi''<br />("warmly")
| ''tew''<br />("hot") ''tos'' / ''toso'' / ''tusu''<br />("hot"),<br />''tusi''<br />("warmly")
| ''atu-si''<br />("hot")
| ''atu-si''<br />("hot")
| *''ətu''<br />("hot")
| *''ətu''<br />("hot")
|-
|-
| husk
| husk
| ''kephí''<br />("husk, bark")
| ''kephí''<br />("husk, bark")
| ''kabi''<br />("husk")
| ''kabi''<br />("husk")
| *''kaŋpiri''<br />("husk")
| *''kaŋpiri''<br />("husk")
|-
|-
| imposes
| imposes
| ''sikhó''<br />("orders, commands"),<br />''sikpu''<br />("wants [to do]")
| ''sikhó''<br />("orders, commands"),<br />''sikpu''<br />("wants [to do]")
| ''sik''<br />("imposes, lays out, takes a position, commands")
| ''sik''<br />("imposes, lays out, takes a position, commands")
| *''sik''<br />("makes, imposes")
| *''sik''<br />("makes, imposes")
|-
|-
| indeed
| indeed
| ''kús''<br />("certainly, without fail")
| ''kús''<br />("certainly, without fail")
| ''koso''<br />("indeed, verily, without fail")
| ''koso''<br />("indeed, verily, without fail")
| *''kɨsə''<br />("indeed")<br />= *''kɨ''<br />("this")<br />+ *''sə''<br />("that, that thing")
| *''kɨsə''<br />("indeed")<br />= *''kɨ''<br />("this")<br />+ *''sə''<br />("that, that thing")
|-
|-
| inserts
| inserts
| ''pak''<br />("inserts it, fills it")
| ''pak''<br />("inserts it, fills it")
| ''pak''<br />("puts on, slips on [lower body clothing, footwear])"
| ''pak''<br />("puts on, slips on [lower body clothing, footwear])"
| *''pak''<br />("puts it through")
| *''pak''<br />("puts it through")
|-
|-
| (interrogative)
| (interrogative)
| ''ká''<br />(interrogative suffix for yes/no questions)
| ''ká''<br />(interrogative suffix for yes/no questions)
| ''ka'' (interrogative suffix (kmp); distal demonstrative)
| ''ka'' (interrogative suffix (kmp); distal demonstrative)
| *''ka''<br />("that [distal]"; interrogative suffix problematizing an identification)
| *''ka''<br />("that [distal]"; interrogative suffix problematizing an identification)
|-
|-
| island
| island
| ''syem''<br />("island")
| ''syem''<br />("island")
| ''sima''<br />("island"),<br />''sime''<br />("closes it off")
| ''sima''<br />("island"),<br />''sime''<br />("closes it off")
| *''sima''<br />("enclosed area; island")
| *''sima''<br />("enclosed area; island")
|-
|-
| jar
| jar
| ''twok''<br />("jar, pot")
| ''twok''<br />("jar, pot")
| ''tuki''<br />("cup, saucer [for alcohol]")
| ''tuki''<br />("cup, saucer [for alcohol]")
| *''toki''<br />("jar")
| *''toki''<br />("jar")
|-
|-
| just
| just
| ''tamón / tamóyn''<br />("only, just")
| ''tamón / tamóyn''<br />("only, just")
| ''damwi''<br />("just, about")
| ''damwi''<br />("just, about")
| *''tam''<br />("just")
| *''tam''<br />("just")
|-
|-
| late
| late
| ''nuc''<br />("is late")
| ''nuc''<br />("is late")
| ''noti''<br />("later, afterwards")
| ''noti''<br />("later, afterwards")
| *''nɨc''<br />("is late")
| *''nɨc''<br />("is late")
|-
|-
| loves
| loves
| ''kwoy''<br />("is loved")
| ''kwoy''<br />("is loved")
| ''kwopwi''<br />("loves")
| ''kwopwi''<br />("loves")
| *''kopo''<br />("loves it")
| *''kopo''<br />("loves it")
|-
|-
| lurks
| lurks
| ''swúm''<br />("hides, lurks in (of animals)")
| ''swúm''<br />("hides, lurks in (of animals)")
| ''sum''<br />("lives, resides in")
| ''sum''<br />("lives, resides in")
| *''sum''<br />("lurks, resides")
| *''sum''<br />("lurks, resides")
|-
|-
| magpie
| magpie
| ''kachí''<br />("magpie")
| ''kachí''<br />("magpie")
| ''kasa-sagi''<br />("magpie")
| ''kasa-sagi''<br />("magpie")
| *''kacɨ''<br />("magpie"),<br />+ *''saŋi''<br />("bird")
| *''kacɨ''<br />("magpie"),<br />+ *''saŋi''<br />("bird")
|-
|-
| meshes
| meshes
| ''elk''<br />("binds, ties up, meshes together"),<br />modern korean ''wolk''<br />("weaves together")
| ''elk''<br />("binds, ties up, meshes together"),<br />modern korean ''wolk''<br />("weaves together")
| ''or''<br />("weaves")
| ''or''<br />("weaves")
| *''ər''<br />("ties with string, rope, meshes")
| *''ər''<br />("ties with string, rope, meshes")
|-
|-
| mold
| mold
| ''kwomphwúy''<br />("mildew, mold grows")
| ''kwomphwúy''<br />("mildew, mold grows")
| ''kabwi''<br />("mildew, mold")
| ''kabwi''<br />("mildew, mold")
| *''kənpom''
| *''kənpom''
|-
|-
| mother
| mother
| ''émí'' / ''émanim''<br />("mother")
| ''émí'' / ''émanim''<br />("mother")
| ''omo''<br />("mother")
| ''omo''<br />("mother")
| *''əmə''<br />("mother")
| *''əmə''<br />("mother")
|-
|-
| mows
| mows
| ''kal''<br />("plows it, cultivates it")
| ''kal''<br />("plows it, cultivates it")
| ''kar''<br />("mows, harvests it")
| ''kar''<br />("mows, harvests it")
| *''kara''<br />("mows it")
| *''kara''<br />("mows it")
|-
|-
| much
| much
| ''manhó''<br />("is many") ''man''<br />("only, just")
| ''manhó''<br />("is many") ''man''<br />("only, just")
| ''mane-si'', ''(s)amane-si''<br />("many times, many")
| ''mane-si'', ''(s)amane-si''<br />("many times, many")
| *''mana''<br />("much")<br />+ *''i''<br />("be")
| *''mana''<br />("much")<br />+ *''i''<br />("be")
|-
|-
| now
| now
| ''imúy'', ''imuysye''<br />("already")
| ''imúy'', ''imuysye''<br />("already")
| ''ima''<br />("now")
| ''ima''<br />("now")
| *''i''maj / *''i''ma<br />("being interval; now")
| *''i''maj / *''i''ma<br />("being interval; now")
|-
|-
| odor
| odor
| ''kwusu''<br />("is pleasantly odorous")
| ''kwusu''<br />("is pleasantly odorous")
| ''kusa-si''<br />("is smelly")
| ''kusa-si''<br />("is smelly")
| *''kusa''<br />("odor")
| *''kusa''<br />("odor")
|-
|-
| only
| only
| ''spwun''<br />("only, just")
| ''spwun''<br />("only, just")
| ''sapey''<br />("if only, just")
| ''sapey''<br />("if only, just")
| *''sapɨn''<br />("only, just")
| *''sapɨn''<br />("only, just")
|-
|-
| opens
| opens
| ''akwoy''<br />("hole, place where things come open or come apart")
| ''akwoy''<br />("hole, place where things come open or come apart")
| ''ak''<br />("it opens up")
| ''ak''<br />("it opens up")
| *''ak''<br />("it opens")
| *''ak''<br />("it opens")
|-
|-
| picks up
| picks up
| ''tul''<br />("holds up, raises")
| ''tul''<br />("holds up, raises")
| ''tor''<br />("picks up")
| ''tor''<br />("picks up")
| *''tɨr''<br />("picks up")
| *''tɨr''<br />("picks up")
|-
|-
| pigeon
| pigeon
| ''pitwulí, pitwulki''<br />("pigeon")
| ''pitwulí, pitwulki''<br />("pigeon")
| ''patwo''<br />("pigeon")
| ''patwo''<br />("pigeon")
| *''pato''<br />("pigeon")
| *''pato''<br />("pigeon")
|-
|-
| place
| place
| ''tóy''<br />("place")
| ''tóy''<br />("place")
| ''te''<br />("place [suffix]")
| ''te''<br />("place [suffix]")
| *''təj''<br />("place [suffix]")
| *''təj''<br />("place [suffix]")
|-
|-
| prepares water
| prepares water
| ''kóm''<br />("bathes (a bath)")
| ''kóm''<br />("bathes (a bath)")
| ''kum''<br />("draws water")
| ''kum''<br />("draws water")
| *''kɨmo''<br />("draws, prepares water")
| *''kɨmo''<br />("draws, prepares water")
|-
|-
| proceeds
| proceeds
| ''pek''<br />("is next, is after")
| ''pek''<br />("is next, is after")
| ''poka''<br />("other, besides")
| ''poka''<br />("other, besides")
| *''pək''<br />("comes after"),<br />*''pəka''<br />("that which has come after")
| *''pək''<br />("comes after"),<br />*''pəka''<br />("that which has come after")
|-
|-
| rain
| rain
| ''*mah''<br />("east-asian rainy season, rain")
| ''*mah''<br />("east-asian rainy season, rain")
| ''ama'' / ''ame''<br />("rain")
| ''ama'' / ''ame''<br />("rain")
| *''əmaŋ''<br />("rain")
| *''əmaŋ''<br />("rain")
|-
|-
| raptor
| raptor
| ''may''<br />("eagle; suffix in bird names")
| ''may''<br />("eagle; suffix in bird names")
| ''mey''<br />("suffix in bird names")
| ''mey''<br />("suffix in bird names")
| *''mari''<br />("predatory bird; suffix in bird names")
| *''mari''<br />("predatory bird; suffix in bird names")
|-
|-
| rubs
| rubs
| ''moncí'', ''moní''<br />("strokes, touches it")
| ''moncí'', ''moní''<br />("strokes, touches it")
| ''mom''<br />("kneads, rubs")
| ''mom''<br />("kneads, rubs")
| *''məm''<br />("touches, rubs")
| *''məm''<br />("touches, rubs")
|-
|-
| same
| same
| ''kóthó'', ''kót'', ''kotho''<br />("is similar, same")
| ''kóthó'', ''kót'', ''kotho''<br />("is similar, same")
| ''(no) goto si''<br />("is similar, same")
| ''(no) goto si''<br />("is similar, same")
| *''kətə''<br />("same")
| *''kətə''<br />("same")
|-
|-
| sea
| sea
| ''patáh''<br />("sea")
| ''patáh''<br />("sea")
| ''wata''<br />("sea")
| ''wata''<br />("sea")
| *''wat-a''<br />("that which has been crossed; sea")
| *''wat-a''<br />("that which has been crossed; sea")
|-
|-
| seaweed(1)
| seaweed(1)
| ''mól''<br />("seaweed")
| ''mól''<br />("seaweed")
| ''mo, mey''<br />("seaweed")
| ''mo, mey''<br />("seaweed")
| *''mər''<br />("seaweed")
| *''mər''<br />("seaweed")
|-
|-
| section
| section
| ''kic''<br />("a divided share")
| ''kic''<br />("a divided share")
| ''kida / kita''<br />("counter for cuts, sections; measurement of fabric and plots of land")
| ''kida / kita''<br />("counter for cuts, sections; measurement of fabric and plots of land")
| *''kinca''<br />("a cut, section")
| *''kinca''<br />("a cut, section")
|-
|-
| sent out
| sent out
| ''pwonáy''<br />("releases, sends it")
| ''pwonáy''<br />("releases, sends it")
| ''panas'' / ''panat''<br />("releases it")
| ''panas'' / ''panat''<br />("releases it")
| *''pə-na''<br />("see + go out")
| *''pə-na''<br />("see + go out")
|-
|-
| sets it down
| sets it down
| ''swuy''<br />("it rests")
| ''swuy''<br />("it rests")
| ''suwe''<br />("sets it, sets it down")
| ''suwe''<br />("sets it, sets it down")
| *''suwu''<br />("sets it down")
| *''suwu''<br />("sets it down")
|-
|-
| shape
| shape
| ''kací''<br />("kind, sort, variety")
| ''kací''<br />("kind, sort, variety")
| ''kata''<br />("shape, form")
| ''kata''<br />("shape, form")
| *''kacaj'' / ''kaca''<br />("shape")
| *''kacaj'' / ''kaca''<br />("shape")
|-
|-
| shines
| shines
| ''pozóy''<br />("is shiny, is dazzled")
| ''pozóy''<br />("is shiny, is dazzled")
| ''posi''<br />("star")
| ''posi''<br />("star")
| *''pəsə''<br />("shines")
| *''pəsə''<br />("shines")
|-
|-
| shuts in
| shuts in
| ''kóm''<br />("shuts [the eyes], closes [the eyes]")
| ''kóm''<br />("shuts [the eyes], closes [the eyes]")
| ''komor''<br />("is shut inside")
| ''komor''<br />("is shut inside")
| *''kəmə''<br />("shuts it in)
| *''kəmə''<br />("shuts it in)
|-
|-
| sidelines
| sidelines
| ''yehúy'' / ''yehoy''<br />("be separated from (a loved one)")
| ''yehúy'' / ''yehoy''<br />("be separated from (a loved one)")
| ''yoke''<br />("avoids it, averts it")
| ''yoke''<br />("avoids it, averts it")
| *''jəkə-i''<br />("sidelines; is aside")
| *''jəkə-i''<br />("sidelines; is aside")
|-
|-
| (simple past tense)
| (simple past tense)
| ''ke''<br />("perfective verb marker")
| ''ke''<br />("perfective verb marker")
| ''ki''<br />("simple past marker")
| ''ki''<br />("simple past marker")
| *''kə''<br />("past tense verb marker"),<br />< *''kə''<br />("comes")
| *''kə''<br />("past tense verb marker"),<br />< *''kə''<br />("comes")
|-
|-
| situation
| situation
| ''pa''<br />("place, situation, condition")
| ''pa''<br />("place, situation, condition")
| ''pa'' (conditional verb suffix; nominal topic/focus marker)
| ''pa'' (conditional verb suffix; nominal topic/focus marker)
| *''pa''<br />("place; situation")
| *''pa''<br />("place; situation")
|-
|-
| skewers
| skewers
| ''kwoc''<br />("skewers, stabs it") ''kwoc''<br />("skewer")
| ''kwoc''<br />("skewers, stabs it") ''kwoc''<br />("skewer")
| ''kusi''<br />("skewer")
| ''kusi''<br />("skewer")
| *''koc''<br />("skewers it"),<br />*''koc-i''<br />("a skewer")
| *''koc''<br />("skewers it"),<br />*''koc-i''<br />("a skewer")
|-
|-
| skin
| skin
| ''kaphól''<br />("sheath"),<br />''kepcil''<br />("bark")
| ''kaphól''<br />("sheath"),<br />''kepcil''<br />("bark")
| ''kapa''<br />("skin")
| ''kapa''<br />("skin")
| *''kapa''<br />("skin")
| *''kapa''<br />("skin")
|-
|-
| small bamboo
| small bamboo
| ''sasól''<br />("bamboo branch, stick for drawing lots")
| ''sasól''<br />("bamboo branch, stick for drawing lots")
| ''sasa''<br />("bamboo grass, small bamboo")
| ''sasa''<br />("bamboo grass, small bamboo")
| *''sasa''<br />("small bamboo")
| *''sasa''<br />("small bamboo")
|-
|-
| small piece
| small piece
| ''cwokak''<br />("piece, shard")
| ''cwokak''<br />("piece, shard")
| ''sukwo-si''<br />("little bit")
| ''sukwo-si''<br />("little bit")
| *''cok''<br />("is a small piece")
| *''cok''<br />("is a small piece")
|-
|-
| snake
| snake
| ''póyyám / póyam''<br />("snake")
| ''póyyám / póyam''<br />("snake")
| ''peymi''<br />("snake")
| ''peymi''<br />("snake")
| *''pəjami''<br />("snake")
| *''pəjami''<br />("snake")
|-
|-
| soaks through
| soaks through
| ''súmúy''<br />("permeates it, soaks through it")
| ''súmúy''<br />("permeates it, soaks through it")
| ''some''<br />("dyes it")
| ''some''<br />("dyes it")
| *''sɨmɨ''<br />("it soaks through")
| *''sɨmɨ''<br />("it soaks through")
|-
|-
| sour
| sour
| ''soy'', ''swuy''<br />("turns sour")
| ''soy'', ''swuy''<br />("turns sour")
| ''suyur''<br />("turns sour")
| ''suyur''<br />("turns sour")
| *''sɨju''<br />("turns sour")
| *''sɨju''<br />("turns sour")
|-
|-
| speaks
| speaks
| ''íp''<br />("mouth")
| ''íp''<br />("mouth")
| ''ip''<br />("says")
| ''ip''<br />("says")
| *''ip''<br />("speaks")
| *''ip''<br />("speaks")
|-
|-
| spider
| spider
| ''kemúy''<br />("spider")
| ''kemúy''<br />("spider")
| ''kumo''<br />("spider")
| ''kumo''<br />("spider")
| *''komo''<br />("spider")
| *''komo''<br />("spider")
|-
|-
| splits it
| splits it
| ''kask''<br />("trims, cuts it")
| ''kask''<br />("trims, cuts it")
| ''sak''<br />("splits it")
| ''sak''<br />("splits it")
| *''sak''<br />("splits it by cutting")
| *''sak''<br />("splits it by cutting")
|-
|-
| stale
| stale
| ''kwut''<br />("is hard")
| ''kwut''<br />("is hard")
| ''kutar''<br />("gets old, stale, rotten")
| ''kutar''<br />("gets old, stale, rotten")
| *''kut''<br />("gets stale, hard")
| *''kut''<br />("gets stale, hard")
|-
|-
| suits for use
| suits for use
| ''psú''<br />("uses it")
| ''psú''<br />("uses it")
| ''pusap''<br />("suits, is suitable")
| ''pusap''<br />("suits, is suitable")
| *''pusa''<br />("uses it; suits it for use")
| *''pusa''<br />("uses it; suits it for use")
|-
|-
| sun
| sun
| ''hóy''<br />("sun; year")
| ''hóy''<br />("sun; year")
| ''ka'' / ''key''<br />("day"),<br />''koyomi''<br />("calendar")
| ''ka'' / ''key''<br />("day"),<br />''koyomi''<br />("calendar")
| *''xəj''<br />("sun")
| *''xəj''<br />("sun")
|-
|-
| swamp
| swamp
| ''nwup''<br />("swamp, bog")
| ''nwup''<br />("swamp, bog")
| ''numa''<br />("swamp, bog")
| ''numa''<br />("swamp, bog")
| *''nu''<br />("swamp, wet")
| *''nu''<br />("swamp, wet")
|-
|-
| swells
| swells
| ''pulu'' / ''pull''<br />("gets full, (stomach) swells")
| ''pulu'' / ''pull''<br />("gets full, (stomach) swells")
| ''puye''<br />("increases, swells", ''puyas''<br />("makes it increase")
| ''puye''<br />("increases, swells", ''puyas''<br />("makes it increase")
| *''purɨr''<br />("swells")
| *''purɨr''<br />("swells")
|-
|-
| takes in
| takes in
| ''tothwó''<br />("fights"),<br />''thi''<br />("strikes"),<br />''tho''<br />("takes in, receives")
| ''tothwó''<br />("fights"),<br />''thi''<br />("strikes"),<br />''tho''<br />("takes in, receives")
| ''tatak'' ("strikes"),<br />''tatakap''<br />("fights")
| ''tatak'' ("strikes"),<br />''tatakap''<br />("fights")
| *''takə''<br />("takes in, receives"),<br />*''ta(r)takə''<br />("strikes")
| *''takə''<br />("takes in, receives"),<br />*''ta(r)takə''<br />("strikes")
|-
|-
| that (mesial)
| that (mesial)
| ''so''<br />("the fact, the thing"; complementizer)
| ''so''<br />("the fact, the thing"; complementizer)
| ''so''<br />("that [mesial]")
| ''so''<br />("that [mesial]")
| *''sə''<br />("that [mesial]"; complementizer))
| *''sə''<br />("that [mesial]"; complementizer))
|-
|-
| this
| this
| ''ku''<br />("that (mesial)")
| ''ku''<br />("that (mesial)")
| ''ko''<br />("this (proximal)")
| ''ko''<br />("this (proximal)")
| *''kɨ''<br />("this (proximal)")
| *''kɨ''<br />("this (proximal)")
|-
|-
| time period
| time period
| ''woláy''<br />("long time")
| ''woláy''<br />("long time")
| ''wori''<br />("period of time, time")
| ''wori''<br />("period of time, time")
| *''orɨj'' ("period of time")
| *''orɨj'' ("period of time")
|-
|-
| time when
| time when
| ''cek'', ''cey''<br />("time when")
| ''cek'', ''cey''<br />("time when")
| ''toki''<br />("time when")
| ''toki''<br />("time when")
| *''ceki''<br />("time when")
| *''ceki''<br />("time when")
|-
|-
| together
| together
| ''tamós''<br />("together")
| ''tamós''<br />("together")
| ''tomo''<br />("together; companion")
| ''tomo''<br />("together; companion")
| *''təmə'' ("together")<br />+ pk *''s''<br />("substantive")
| *''təmə'' ("together")<br />+ pk *''s''<br />("substantive")
|-
|-
| uproar
| uproar
| ''sa(g)wónaw''<br />("is rough, wild, fierce")
| ''sa(g)wónaw''<br />("is rough, wild, fierce")
| ''sawak''<br />("is noisy, bustling"),<br />''sawa'-sawa''<br />("noisy")
| ''sawak''<br />("is noisy, bustling"),<br />''sawa'-sawa''<br />("noisy")
| *''sawə''<br />("uproarious")
| *''sawə''<br />("uproarious")
|-
|-
| vacant
| vacant
| ''pwuy''<br />("is empty")
| ''pwuy''<br />("is empty")
| ''pima''<br />("open, spare time")
| ''pima''<br />("open, spare time")
| *''pi''<br />("vacant")
| *''pi''<br />("vacant")
|-
|-
| valued
| valued
| ''pum''<br />("matters, bears a connection to")
| ''pum''<br />("matters, bears a connection to")
| ''pome''<br />("praises it")
| ''pome''<br />("praises it")
| *''pɨm''<br />("is valued")
| *''pɨm''<br />("is valued")
|-
|-
| walks
| walks
| ''ke:t-'' ("walks")
| ''ke:t-'' ("walks")
| ''kati''<br />("walking")
| ''kati''<br />("walking")
| *''katu''<br />("walks")
| *''katu''<br />("walks")
|-
|-
| wasp
| wasp
| ''pátólí''<br />("yellowjacket")
| ''pátólí''<br />("yellowjacket")
| ''pati''<br />("bee")
| ''pati''<br />("bee")
| *''pator''<br />("wasp")
| *''pator''<br />("wasp")
|-
|-
| waterlogged
| waterlogged
| ''mol''<br />("soaks it in liquid")
| ''mol''<br />("soaks it in liquid")
| ''mor''<br />("leaks"),<br />''mor''<br />("fills up")
| ''mor''<br />("leaks"),<br />''mor''<br />("fills up")
| *''mər''<br />("gets filled with water, water-logged")
| *''mər''<br />("gets filled with water, water-logged")
|-
|-
| wears
| wears
| ''kís''<br />("lapel, collar; outer layer of cloth")
| ''kís''<br />("lapel, collar; outer layer of cloth")
| ''ki''<br />("wears on the body")
| ''ki''<br />("wears on the body")
| *''ki''<br />("wears on the body")
| *''ki''<br />("wears on the body")
|-
|-
| weaves
| weaves
| ''pcó''<br />("weaves together")
| ''pcó''<br />("weaves together")
| ''pata''<br />("loom; woven cloth")
| ''pata''<br />("loom; woven cloth")
| *''pəca''<br />("weaves")
| *''pəca''<br />("weaves")
|-
|-
| wet highland
| wet highland
| ''swúp'', ''swuphúl'', ''swúh''<br />("forest")
| ''swúp'', ''swuphúl'', ''swúh''<br />("forest")
| ''sapa'' ("swamp, mountain, marsh, glen")
| ''sapa'' ("swamp, mountain, marsh, glen")
| *''sɨpa''<br />("wet highland")
| *''sɨpa''<br />("wet highland")
|-
|-
| what
| what
| ''musúk''<br />("what") ''musu''<br />("what, which [prenoun])")<br />< *musuk
| ''musúk''<br />("what") ''musu''<br />("what, which [prenoun])")<br />< *musuk
| ''mosi''<br />("perchance"; adverb introducing polar interrogatives)
| ''mosi''<br />("perchance"; adverb introducing polar interrogatives)
| *''mɨsɨŋ''<br />("which")
| *''mɨsɨŋ''<br />("which")
|-
|-
| whether
| whether
| ''na''<br />("whether, or, although")
| ''na''<br />("whether, or, although")
| ''na''<br />("whether or, both, and")
| ''na''<br />("whether or, both, and")
| *''na''<br />("whether")
| *''na''<br />("whether")
|-
|-
| wild field
| wild field
| ''nwón''<br />("wet field")
| ''nwón''<br />("wet field")
| ''nwo''<br />("wild field, plain")
| ''nwo''<br />("wild field, plain")
| *''non'' or *''no''<br />("wild field")
| *''non'' or *''no''<br />("wild field")
|-
|-
| wishes
| wishes
| ''pólá-''<br />("wishes it")
| ''pólá-''<br />("wishes it")
| ''por-''<br />("wishes it")
| ''por-''<br />("wishes it")
| *''pə-ara-''<br />("wishes it")
| *''pə-ara-''<br />("wishes it")
|-
|-
| woman
| woman
| ''myenól, myenólí, myenúlí''<br />("daughter''in''law")
| ''myenól, myenólí, myenúlí''<br />("daughter''in''law")
| ''mye''<br />("woman, wife")<br />< Proto-Japanese *''me''
| ''mye''<br />("woman, wife")<br />< Proto-Japanese *''me''
| *''me''<br />("woman")
| *''me''<br />("woman")
|-
|-
| wood
| wood
| ''kuluh''<br />("tree stump")
| ''kuluh''<br />("tree stump")
| ''kwi''<br />("tree, wood") < *kəj
| ''kwi''<br />("tree, wood") < *kəj
| *''kɨr''<br />("wood")
| *''kɨr''<br />("wood")
|-
|-
| word
| word
| ''kolochí''<br />("instructs, teaches"),<br />''kol''<br />("words, speaking"),<br />ilkhot''/l''<br />("calls out")
| ''kolochí''<br />("instructs, teaches"),<br />''kol''<br />("words, speaking"),<br />ilkhot''/l''<br />("calls out")
| ''koto''<br />("word; thing"),<br />''katar''<br />("tells")
| ''koto''<br />("word; thing"),<br />''katar''<br />("tells")
| *''kətə''<br />("word; thing [non-concrete]")
| *''kətə''<br />("word; thing [non-concrete]")
|-
|-
| wraps
| wraps
| ''cwúm'', ''cwumekwúy''<br />("fist")
| ''cwúm'', ''cwumekwúy''<br />("fist")
| ''tum''<br />("grasps, wraps")
| ''tum''<br />("grasps, wraps")
| *''cum''<br />("wraps, grasps in hand")
| *''cum''<br />("wraps, grasps in hand")
|-
|-
Line 851: Line 831:
! Proposed<br />Proto-Japanese-Korean
! Proposed<br />Proto-Japanese-Korean
|-
|-
| (negative)
| (negative)
| ''aní''<br />(verbal negative; negative copula)
| ''aní''<br />(verbal negative; negative copula)
| [[Proto-Japanese|PJ]] *''an''<br />(verbal negative)
| [[Proto-Japanese|PJ]] *''an''<br />(verbal negative)
| *''an''<br />(negative)
| *''an''<br />(negative)
|-
|-
| deep
| deep
| [[Modern Korean|NK]] ''phwuk''<br />("deeply, fully")
| [[Modern Korean|NK]] ''phwuk''<br />("deeply, fully")
| OJ ''puka si''<br />("is deep")
| OJ ''puka si''<br />("is deep")
| *''puka''<br />("deep")
| *''puka''<br />("deep")
|-
|-
| numb
| numb
| [[Early Modern Korean|ENK]] ''kwop''<br />("is numb, stiff from cold")
| [[Early Modern Korean|ENK]] ''kwop''<br />("is numb, stiff from cold")
| OJ ''kopor''<br />("freezes")
| OJ ''kopor''<br />("freezes")
| *''kəpə''<br />("is numb")
| *''kəpə''<br />("is numb")
|-
|-
| slope
| slope
| ENK ''swok''<br />("droops, becomes slanted down")
| ENK ''swok''<br />("droops, becomes slanted down")
| OJ ''saka''<br />("down slope")
| OJ ''saka''<br />("down slope")
| *''səka''<br />("slope")
| *''səka''<br />("slope")
|-
|-
| soaks
| soaks
| ENK ''chwuk''<br />("gets wet")
| ENK ''chwuk''<br />("gets wet")
| OJ ''tuke''<br />("soaks it")
| OJ ''tuke''<br />("soaks it")
| *''cuku''<br />("soaks")
| *''cuku''<br />("soaks")
|-
|-
| traps
| traps
| ENK ''kali''<br />("fish trap")
| ENK ''kali''<br />("fish trap")
| OJ ''kar''<br />("traps, hunts, catches an animal")
| OJ ''kar''<br />("traps, hunts, catches an animal")
| *''kara''<br />("traps, hunts")
| *''kara''<br />("traps, hunts")
|-
|-
| ground
| ground
| MK ''mith''<br />("base, bottom")
| MK ''mith''<br />("base, bottom")
| PJ *''mita''<br />("ground, dry earth")
| PJ *''mita''<br />("ground, dry earth")
| *''mita''<br />("ground")
| *''mita''<br />("ground")
|-
|-
| (kin prefix)
| (kin prefix)
| [[Proto-Korean|PK]] *''a''<br />("kinship prefix")
| [[Proto-Korean|PK]] *''a''<br />("kinship prefix")
| [[Old Japanese|OJ]] ''a''<br />("my; kinship prefix")
| [[Old Japanese|OJ]] ''a''<br />("my; kinship prefix")
| *''a''<br />("my; kinship prefix")
| *''a''<br />("my; kinship prefix")
|-
|-
| land
| land
| PK *''na''<br />("land, ground")
| PK *''na''<br />("land, ground")
| pre-OJ ''*na''<br />("earth, land")
| pre-OJ ''*na''<br />("earth, land")
| *''na''<br />("land, ground")
| *''na''<br />("land, ground")
|-
|-
| deceived
| deceived
| MK ''swok''<br />("is deceived"),<br />''swokí''<br />("deceives it")
| MK ''swok''<br />("is deceived"),<br />''swokí''<br />("deceives it")
| [[Middle Japanese (disambiguation)|MJ]] ''sukas''<br />("deceives it")
| [[Middle Japanese (disambiguation)|MJ]] ''sukas''<br />("deceives it")
| *''sok''<br />("is deceived")
| *''sok''<br />("is deceived")
|-
|-
| dreams
| dreams
| MJ ''skwú''<br />("dreams")
| MJ ''skwú''<br />("dreams")
| MJ ''suk''<br />("is infatuated, has passion"),<br />''suki''<br />("refinement; lust, passion")
| MJ ''suk''<br />("is infatuated, has passion"),<br />''suki''<br />("refinement; lust, passion")
| *''sɨku''<br />("fantasizes, idealizes")
| *''sɨku''<br />("fantasizes, idealizes")
|-
|-
|}
|}
⚫
In addition to the above, there may be a relation between the words for morning (朝, asa; 아침, achim). A historical variant in Korean may have been pronounced "asa" (see: [[Asadal]]).
-->

⚫
<!--In addition to the above, there may be a relation between the words for morning (朝, asa; 아침, achim). A historical variant in Korean may have been pronounced "asa" (see: [[Asadal]]).-->
There is a minority theory attributing the name of the city Nara to a loanword from Korean (see: [[Nara, Nara#Etymology]]).
There is a minority theory attributing the name of the city Nara to a loanword from Korean (see: [[Nara, Nara#Etymology]]).

Phonetically, Korean and Japanese have a similarly limited inventory of vowel sounds. While modern standard Korean only makes use of vowel length for conjugations of 낫다, 나아지다 and the like (ex. 나아), both Japanese and old Korean (and some dialects of modern Korean) make use of vowel length.

Korean particles and polite grammatical ending conjugations can sometimes share a superficial similarity with Japanese. The Japanese particle が (ga) is similar to the particle 가 (ka) in function and sound. The informal and impolite conjugation of Korean's [[copula (linguistics)|copula]] 야 (ya) is similar to the dialectal informal copula や (ya) in Japanese (corresponding to だ in standardized Japanese).

Functionally, some peculiar aspects of particles and particle usage are also the same in both languages. For example, the particles 도 (*do*) and も (*mo*) not only share an inclusive function (similar to "too" in English), they also both function to emphasize sheer lack in negative sentences, or sheer intensity in positive sentences. 에 (e) and へ (he) have similar sounds, and one of 에's usages is similar to へ. Particles are also used in the same way to form basic vocabulary words. I.e., 도 (do) and も (mo) in the words for *no one* (아무도, 誰も), and the similar sounding 가 (ga) and か (ka) particle sometimes adding an unknown/questioning element to a word to form the equivalent meaning to English *some*, (i.e. in 뭔가 and 何か, meaning *something*).{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

However, some percentage of vocabulary in any language may be expected to resemble vocabulary in any other language to a certain extent through random coincidence. The likelihood that a word in one language will be perceived as resembling a word in another language is inversely correlated with the number of phonemes in the word (''i.e.'' the shorter a word is, the more likely it will randomly resemble a short word in another language) and positively correlated with the degree of overlap in the languages' phonological systems (''i.e.'' the more similar the sound systems of the two languages, the more likely it is that any word from one language will be perceived as sounding similar to a word from the other language).{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
Line 933: Line 905:
| 10 || dok || to<sub>2</sub> / to<sub>2</sub>wo
| 10 || dok || to<sub>2</sub> / to<sub>2</sub>wo
|}
|}

The [[Sillan language]] called the number three "mil" as well.


Note: See [[Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai]] for information on Old Japanese subscript notation.
Note: See [[Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai]] for information on Old Japanese subscript notation.
Line 948: Line 918:


==Honorifics==
==Honorifics==
Both languages have similar elaborate, multilevel systems of [[honorifics]], and furthermore both Korean and Japanese also separate the concept of honorifics from formality in speech and writing in their own ways (See [[Korean speech levels]] and [[Honorific speech in Japanese#Grammatical overview|Honorific speech in Japanese § Grammatical overview]]). They are cited as the two most elaborate honorific systems, perhaps unrivaled by any other languages.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 41913346|title = Contrasts Between Korean and Japanese Honorifics|journal = Rivista Degli Studi Orientali|volume = 81|issue = 1/4|pages = 369–385|last1 = Brown|first1 = Lucien|year = 2008}}</ref> It has been argued that certain honorific words may share a common origin.<ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237116691_Grammaticalization_in_Sentence-Final_Politeness_Marking_in_Korean_and_Japanese{{bare URL inline|date=October 2021}}</ref> Uniquely, the honorifics rely heavily on changing verb conjugations rather than only using [[t-v distinction]] or other common methods of signifying honorifics. See [[Korean honorifics]] and [[Japanese honorifics]].
Both languages have similar elaborate, multilevel systems of [[honorifics]], and furthermore both Korean and Japanese also separate the concept of honorifics from formality in speech and writing in their own ways (See [[Korean speech levels]] and [[Honorific speech in Japanese#Grammatical overview|Honorific speech in Japanese § Grammatical overview]]). They are cited as the two most elaborate honorific systems, perhaps unrivaled by any other languages.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor = 41913346|title = Contrasts Between Korean and Japanese Honorifics|journal = Rivista Degli Studi Orientali|volume = 81|issue = 1/4|pages = 369–385|last1 = Brown|first1 = Lucien|year = 2008}}</ref> It has been argued that certain honorific words may share a common origin.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237116691| title = Grammaticalization in Sentence-Final Politeness Marking in Korean and Japanese}}</ref> Uniquely, the honorifics rely heavily on changing verb conjugations rather than only using [[t-v distinction]] or other common methods of signifying honorifics. See [[Korean honorifics]] and [[Japanese honorifics]].


==See also==
==See also==

Latest revision as of 21:47, 27 November 2024

"Korean vs. Japanese" redirects here. For relations, see Japan–South Korea relations. For relations again, see Japan–North Korea relations. For disputes, see Japan–Korea disputes. For history, see History of Japan–Korea relations.

Map of Koreanic (left) and Japonic languages and dialects

The geographically proximate languages of Japanese (part of the Japonic languages) and Korean (part of the Koreanic languages) share considerable similarity in syntactic and morphological typology while having a small number of lexical resemblances. Observing the said similarities and probable history of Korean influence on Japanese culture, linguists have formulated different theories proposing a genetic relationship between them.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] These studies either lack conclusive evidence or were subsets of theories that have largely been discredited (like versions of the well-known Altaic hypothesis that mainly attempted to group the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic languages together).[9][10][11][12] There has been new research which has revived the possibility of a genealogical link, such as the Transeurasian hypothesis (a neo-Altaic proposal) by Robbeets et al., supported by computational linguistics and archaeological evidence, but this view has received significant criticism as well.[13][14]

Korean and Japanese have very different native scripts (Hangul and kana, respectively), although they both make use of Chinese characters to some extent; Kanji still are a core part of modern Japanese orthography, while Hanja were historically used to write Korean. Today, Hanja are only used in South Korea for limited academic, legal, media, stylistic and disambiguation purposes and are not used at all in North Korea. Although both Hangul and the two modern kana systems (katakana and hiragana) show syllable/mora boundaries, Hangul syllable blocks break down into a featural alphabet, while the kana are essentially pure syllabaries.

Overview

[edit]
Korean Japanese
Speakers 83 million 126.4 million
Countries  South Korea
 North Korea
 China 		 Japan
 Palau
Family Koreanic Japonic
Writing Hangul,
Hanja (South Korea),
Idu, Gugyeol, Hyangchal (formerly) 		Kana,
Kanji,
Man'yōgana (formerly)

Grammar

[edit]

Korean and Japanese both have an agglutinative morphology in which verbs may function as prefixes[15] and a subject–object–verb (SOV) typology.[16][17][18] They are both topic-prominent, null-subject languages. Both languages extensively utilize turning nouns into verbs via the "to do" helper verbs (Japanese suru する; Korean hada 하다).

Vocabulary

[edit]

The two languages have been thought to not share any cognates (other than loanwords),[4] for their vocabularies do not phonetically resemble each other.

However, a 2016 paper proposing a common lineage between Korean and Japanese traces around 500 core words thought to share a common origin.[19] Most resembling lexicon in the study has been observed between Middle Korean (15th century) and earlier Old Japanese (8th century), some of which is shown in the following table:

Keyword Middle Korean Old Japanese Proposed
Proto-Japanese-Korean
abandons stú
("scoops it out, removes a part from the whole") 		sute
("abandons it, throws it away") 		*sɨtu
("abandons it, throws it out")
adds kwop
("doubles, increases it two-fold") 		kupape
("adds it") 		*kop
("increases it in number by adding")
(adjectivizer) k
("adjectivizing suffix on nominals") 		ka
("property suffix on nominals") 		*k
("adjectivizing suffix on nominals")
+ *a
("deverbal")
avoids skúy
("shuns, avoids; is unwilling") 		sake
("avoids, dodges") 		*səka
("avoids")
bamboo táy
("bamboo")
?< *taGVy 		takey
("bamboo") 		*takəj
basket kwulek
("[mesh] basket") 		kwo
("basket") 		*kura / *kuwa
("basket")
bear kwom
("bear")
< Proto-Korean *komá 		kuma
("bear") 		*koma
("bear")
below aláy
("below") 		aye
("falls to the ground") 		*ar
("below")
bestows kwomá
("reverence"),
kwómáw
("honored, thankful") 		kubar / kumar
("apportions and bestows") 		*kuma
("bestows")
bird say
("bird") 		sagi
("heron; suffix in bird names") 		*saŋi
("bird")
bites kemelí
("leech"),
kam-spol
("licks it up, sucks up food") 		kam
("bites") 		*kamɨ
("bites")
body mwóm
("body")

< Old Korean *muma

mu- / mwi
("body") 		*mom
("body")
boils it nóy
("smoke, vapor") 		ni
("boils it") 		*nəj
("boils it")
bottom stáh
("ground") 		sita
("below, bottom") 		*sita
("bottom")
box pakwoní
("basket") 		pakwo
("box") 		*pako
("box")
brings into life wum
("a sprout, a shoot, a growth") 		um
("gives birth to, brings into life") 		*um
("brings into life")
bundles mwusk
("binds it into a bundle") 		musub
("binds it into a bundle") 		*musu
("binds, bundles it")
buries it wumúl
("well"),
wúmh
("grain pit dug out of the ground"),
wumwuk-ho
("is hollow") 		ume
("buries it in the ground") 		*umu
("buries it in the ground")
cage wulí
("cage") 		wori
("cage") 		*orɨj
("cage")
carbon swusk
("charcoal") 		susu
("soot") 		*susu
("soot; carbon")
carries on back ep
("bears, carries on the back") 		op
("bears on the back") 		*əp
("carries on back")
carves a line kuzu
("draws a line, rules") 		kizam
("carves"),
kisage
("shaves stone") 		*kinsɨ
("carves, cuts a line")
cat kwoy
("cat") 		nekwo
("cat") 		*ko
("cat")
ceremony kwús
("exorcism, shamanistic ceremony") 		kusi
("is strange, mysterious, otherwordly") 		*kusuj
("shamanistic ceremony")
changes kaph
("returns it, pays it back") 		kap
("buys it"),
kape
("exchanges, changes it"),
kapar
("it changes") 		*kap
("it changes, changes hands")
cheek pwól
("cheek") 		popo < *po-po
("cheek") 		*por
("cheek")
chicken tolk
("chicken") 		tori
("bird, chicken") 		*tərəŋ
("chicken")
closes it tat
("closes it") 		tat
("interrupts, cuts off, finishes it") 		*tat
("closes it")
cloth swowom
("cotton") 		swo
("clothing; cloth; hemp") 		*so
("cloth")
cloudy skí
("gets dusty, cloudy") 		sike
("sky gets cloudy") 		*siki
("gets cloudy")
collects kat
("collects it, gathers it in") 		kate
("joins it, mixes it, adds it in") 		*kat
("collects")
comes ká
("goes") 		ko
("comes") 		*kə
("comes")
confines kalm
("hides it, puts it away, keeps it, treasures it") 		karame
("arrests it, catches and confines it") 		*karama
("confines it")
congeals kel
("thickens, congeals; is rich, thick") 		kor
("it thickens, congeals") 		*kərɨ
("it thickens, congeals")
correct mac
("is correct"),
maskaw
("is correct") 		masa
("correct, upright") 		*masa
("correct, upright")
countryside wúy ánh
("countryside") 		wi naka
("countryside") 		*uj
("countryside") + inside
daytime nác
("daytime; afternoon")

< Early Middle Korean *nacay

natu
("summer") 		*nacu
("daytime")
deep inside swop / swok
("deep inside")
?< *swowók 		oku
("deep inside, interior") 		*owoku
("deep inside")
dissolves / lonely súl
("disappears, dissolves, rusts"),
sulgwú
("makes it dissolve, rusts"),
sulphu
("is sad"),
sulh
("is sad") 		sabwi
("rusts"),
sabu, EMJ sabi
("is sad, lonely") 		*sɨr
("dissolves; sad, lonely")
drags kuzu
("drags, draws, pulls") 		kozi
("pulls out by the roots") 		*kɨnsɨ
("drags out")
drawn in pemúli
("gets drawn in"),
pemúl
("surrounds, encircles"),
pemúl
("intrudes in") 		pame
("throws it in, drops it in") 		*pamɨ
("it gets drawn in")
drops twú
("keeps, leaves it as is, places it down") 		otos
("drops it"),
oti
("it drops down"),
otor
("is low") 		*ɨtɨ
("drops, puts down")
each mata
("each one, every") 		mata
("again; every"),
mata-si
("all, complete") 		*mata
("each, every")
edge pask
("outside") 		pasi
("outside edge") 		*pasi
("edge")
empties sku, pskú
("puts it out, turns off, extinguishes, quenches it") 		suk
("empties, is empty") 		*sukɨ
("empties")
end patáng, modern korean patak
("sole, bottom") 		pate
("limit, end"),
patas
("makes it an end") 		*pataŋ
("end")
enfolds mek
("eats, holds in the mouth; harbors, takes in, has inside") 		mak
("enfolds, rolls up, encircles") 		*mek or *mak
("enfolds")
et cetera (i)yá / (i)yé
("whether, or") 		ya
("also, and the like") 		*ja
("whether; et cetera")
evergreen swól
("pine") 		sugwi
("cryptomeria [japanese cedar]") 		*suŋor
("evergreen")
exchanges kaph
("repays")
kaps
("price")
< *kap
("exchanges") 		kap
("buys") 		*kap
("exchanges")
exhausts cwuk
("dies") 		tukwi
("is exhausted, used up") tukus
("exhausts it, uses it up") 		*cuk
("is exhausted")
+ Proto-Japanese *wo
("active marker")
expresses emotion noch
("face, expression") 		natuk
("expresses emotion; is fond of") 		*nəcuk
("expresses emotion")
extremity kiph
("is deep") 		kipa
("extremity") 		*kipa
("depth, extremity")
faces mwok
("neck") 		muk
("turn one"s head, faces") 		*mok
("faces")
faint kaskaw
("is close to"),
kezúy
("almost") 		kasu-ka
("faint"),
kasu
("barely") 		*kasu
("faint")
farm field path
("farm field") 		pata, patake
("farm field") 		*pata
("farm field")
fat pwutúlew
("soft"),
modern korean pwutwung
("chubby") 		putwo
("fat") 		*puto
("fat")
ferments sek
("rots, ferments") 		saka / sakey
("alcohol, rice wine") 		*sek
("ripens, grows [rotten]")
fills tam
("fills it up") 		tamar
("it fills up"),
tame
("fills it") 		*tama
("fills it")
fire púl
("fire") 		pwi / po
("fire") 		*pɨr
("fire")
flattens it tatóm
("smooths cloth, trims it, rubs it together"),
modern korean tatumicil
("beating cloth out to smooth it") 		tatam
("folds it up, layers it"),
tatami
("mat, flattened thing") 		*tatəm
("folds, flattens it"),
tatəm-i
("flattening")
fork motoy
("joint, knuckle") 		mata
("fork, bend; crotch") 		*mataj or *mətaj
("fork, bend")
full michu / micho
("reaches it") 		mit
("gets full, reaches its limit") 		*mica
("reaches, gets full")
gathers a crowd múli / mwuli / mwúl
("crowd") 		mure
("gathers a crowd") 		*mur(u)
("gathers a crowd")
gets et
("gets it") 		atar
("gets it") 		*atɨ
("gets it")
goes out ná
("goes out; is born") 		nar
("becomes") 		*na
("goes out")
grabs az
("grabs it") 		asar
("scavenges it") 		*asa
("grabs it")
harbors phwúm
("embraces, harbors") 		pukum
("harbor, comprise, contain") 		*pukum
("embraces, harbors")
hatchet nát
("sickle, scythe") 		nata
("machete; small, thick bladed instrument") 		*natə
("bladed instrument for chopping plants")
heart kwokoyyang
("heart or core of vegetable, pith"),
kwokáy
("head") 		kokoro
("seat of feeling / thought; emotion") 		*kəkərə
("the heart, core, essence")
heats with fire tahí
("makes a fire, heats with fire") 		tak
("heats with fire") 		*taka
("heats with fire")
high talak
("loft, attic") 		take / taka
("height") 		*takar
("height")
holds motó, moti
("is long-lasting, is durable; keeps things") 		mot
("holds") 		*mətə
("holds")
hot tew
("hot") tos / toso / tusu
("hot"),
tusi
("warmly") 		atu-si
("hot") 		*ətu
("hot")
husk kephí
("husk, bark") 		kabi
("husk") 		*kaŋpiri
("husk")
imposes sikhó
("orders, commands"),
sikpu
("wants [to do]") 		sik
("imposes, lays out, takes a position, commands") 		*sik
("makes, imposes")
indeed kús
("certainly, without fail") 		koso
("indeed, verily, without fail") 		*kɨsə
("indeed")
= *kɨ
("this")
+ *sə
("that, that thing")
inserts pak
("inserts it, fills it") 		pak
("puts on, slips on [lower body clothing, footwear])" 		*pak
("puts it through")
(interrogative) ká
(interrogative suffix for yes/no questions) 		ka (interrogative suffix (kmp); distal demonstrative) *ka
("that [distal]"; interrogative suffix problematizing an identification)
island syem
("island") 		sima
("island"),
sime
("closes it off") 		*sima
("enclosed area; island")
jar twok
("jar, pot") 		tuki
("cup, saucer [for alcohol]") 		*toki
("jar")
just tamón / tamóyn
("only, just") 		damwi
("just, about") 		*tam
("just")
late nuc
("is late") 		noti
("later, afterwards") 		*nɨc
("is late")
loves kwoy
("is loved") 		kwopwi
("loves") 		*kopo
("loves it")
lurks swúm
("hides, lurks in (of animals)") 		sum
("lives, resides in") 		*sum
("lurks, resides")
magpie kachí
("magpie") 		kasa-sagi
("magpie") 		*kacɨ
("magpie"),
+ *saŋi
("bird")
meshes elk
("binds, ties up, meshes together"),
modern korean wolk
("weaves together") 		or
("weaves") 		*ər
("ties with string, rope, meshes")
mold kwomphwúy
("mildew, mold grows") 		kabwi
("mildew, mold") 		*kənpom
mother émí / émanim
("mother") 		omo
("mother") 		*əmə
("mother")
mows kal
("plows it, cultivates it") 		kar
("mows, harvests it") 		*kara
("mows it")
much manhó
("is many") man
("only, just") 		mane-si, (s)amane-si
("many times, many") 		*mana
("much")
+ *i
("be")
now imúy, imuysye
("already") 		ima
("now") 		*imaj / *ima
("being interval; now")
odor kwusu
("is pleasantly odorous") 		kusa-si
("is smelly") 		*kusa
("odor")
only spwun
("only, just") 		sapey
("if only, just") 		*sapɨn
("only, just")
opens akwoy
("hole, place where things come open or come apart") 		ak
("it opens up") 		*ak
("it opens")
picks up tul
("holds up, raises") 		tor
("picks up") 		*tɨr
("picks up")
pigeon pitwulí, pitwulki
("pigeon") 		patwo
("pigeon") 		*pato
("pigeon")
place tóy
("place") 		te
("place [suffix]") 		*təj
("place [suffix]")
prepares water kóm
("bathes (a bath)") 		kum
("draws water") 		*kɨmo
("draws, prepares water")
proceeds pek
("is next, is after") 		poka
("other, besides") 		*pək
("comes after"),
*pəka
("that which has come after")
rain *mah
("east-asian rainy season, rain") 		ama / ame
("rain") 		*əmaŋ
("rain")
raptor may
("eagle; suffix in bird names") 		mey
("suffix in bird names") 		*mari
("predatory bird; suffix in bird names")
rubs moncí, moní
("strokes, touches it") 		mom
("kneads, rubs") 		*məm
("touches, rubs")
same kóthó, kót, kotho
("is similar, same") 		(no) goto si
("is similar, same") 		*kətə
("same")
sea patáh
("sea") 		wata
("sea") 		*wat-a
("that which has been crossed; sea")
seaweed(1) mól
("seaweed") 		mo, mey
("seaweed") 		*mər
("seaweed")
section kic
("a divided share") 		kida / kita
("counter for cuts, sections; measurement of fabric and plots of land") 		*kinca
("a cut, section")
sent out pwonáy
("releases, sends it") 		panas / panat
("releases it") 		*pə-na
("see + go out")
sets it down swuy
("it rests") 		suwe
("sets it, sets it down") 		*suwu
("sets it down")
shape kací
("kind, sort, variety") 		kata
("shape, form") 		*kacaj / kaca
("shape")
shines pozóy
("is shiny, is dazzled") 		posi
("star") 		*pəsə
("shines")
shuts in kóm
("shuts [the eyes], closes [the eyes]") 		komor
("is shut inside") 		*kəmə
("shuts it in)
sidelines yehúy / yehoy
("be separated from (a loved one)") 		yoke
("avoids it, averts it") 		*jəkə-i
("sidelines; is aside")
(simple past tense) ke
("perfective verb marker") 		ki
("simple past marker") 		*kə
("past tense verb marker"),
< *kə
("comes")
situation pa
("place, situation, condition") 		pa (conditional verb suffix; nominal topic/focus marker) *pa
("place; situation")
skewers kwoc
("skewers, stabs it") kwoc
("skewer") 		kusi
("skewer") 		*koc
("skewers it"),
*koc-i
("a skewer")
skin kaphól
("sheath"),
kepcil
("bark") 		kapa
("skin") 		*kapa
("skin")
small bamboo sasól
("bamboo branch, stick for drawing lots") 		sasa
("bamboo grass, small bamboo") 		*sasa
("small bamboo")
small piece cwokak
("piece, shard") 		sukwo-si
("little bit") 		*cok
("is a small piece")
snake póyyám / póyam
("snake") 		peymi
("snake") 		*pəjami
("snake")
soaks through súmúy
("permeates it, soaks through it") 		some
("dyes it") 		*sɨmɨ
("it soaks through")
sour soy, swuy
("turns sour") 		suyur
("turns sour") 		*sɨju
("turns sour")
speaks íp
("mouth") 		ip
("says") 		*ip
("speaks")
spider kemúy
("spider") 		kumo
("spider") 		*komo
("spider")
splits it kask
("trims, cuts it") 		sak
("splits it") 		*sak
("splits it by cutting")
stale kwut
("is hard") 		kutar
("gets old, stale, rotten") 		*kut
("gets stale, hard")
suits for use psú
("uses it") 		pusap
("suits, is suitable") 		*pusa
("uses it; suits it for use")
sun hóy
("sun; year") 		ka / key
("day"),
koyomi
("calendar") 		*xəj
("sun")
swamp nwup
("swamp, bog") 		numa
("swamp, bog") 		*nu
("swamp, wet")
swells pulu / pull
("gets full, (stomach) swells") 		puye
("increases, swells", puyas
("makes it increase") 		*purɨr
("swells")
takes in tothwó
("fights"),
thi
("strikes"),
tho
("takes in, receives") 		tatak ("strikes"),
tatakap
("fights") 		*takə
("takes in, receives"),
*ta(r)takə
("strikes")
that (mesial) so
("the fact, the thing"; complementizer) 		so
("that [mesial]") 		*sə
("that [mesial]"; complementizer))
this ku
("that (mesial)") 		ko
("this (proximal)") 		*kɨ
("this (proximal)")
time period woláy
("long time") 		wori
("period of time, time") 		*orɨj ("period of time")
time when cek, cey
("time when") 		toki
("time when") 		*ceki
("time when")
together tamós
("together") 		tomo
("together; companion") 		*təmə ("together")
+ pk *s
("substantive")
uproar sa(g)wónaw
("is rough, wild, fierce") 		sawak
("is noisy, bustling"),
sawa'-sawa
("noisy") 		*sawə
("uproarious")
vacant pwuy
("is empty") 		pima
("open, spare time") 		*pi
("vacant")
valued pum
("matters, bears a connection to") 		pome
("praises it") 		*pɨm
("is valued")
walks ke:t- ("walks") kati
("walking") 		*katu
("walks")
wasp pátólí
("yellowjacket") 		pati
("bee") 		*pator
("wasp")
waterlogged mol
("soaks it in liquid") 		mor
("leaks"),
mor
("fills up") 		*mər
("gets filled with water, water-logged")
wears kís
("lapel, collar; outer layer of cloth") 		ki
("wears on the body") 		*ki
("wears on the body")
weaves pcó
("weaves together") 		pata
("loom; woven cloth") 		*pəca
("weaves")
wet highland swúp, swuphúl, swúh
("forest") 		sapa ("swamp, mountain, marsh, glen") *sɨpa
("wet highland")
what musúk
("what") musu
("what, which [prenoun])")
< *musuk 		mosi
("perchance"; adverb introducing polar interrogatives) 		*mɨsɨŋ
("which")
whether na
("whether, or, although") 		na
("whether or, both, and") 		*na
("whether")
wild field nwón
("wet field") 		nwo
("wild field, plain") 		*non or *no
("wild field")
wishes pólá-
("wishes it") 		por-
("wishes it") 		*pə-ara-
("wishes it")
woman myenól, myenólí, myenúlí
("daughterinlaw") 		mye
("woman, wife")
< Proto-Japanese *me 		*me
("woman")
wood kuluh
("tree stump") 		kwi
("tree, wood") < *kəj 		*kɨr
("wood")
word kolochí
("instructs, teaches"),
kol
("words, speaking"),
ilkhot/l
("calls out") 		koto
("word; thing"),
katar
("tells") 		*kətə
("word; thing [non-concrete]")
wraps cwúm, cwumekwúy
("fist") 		tum
("grasps, wraps") 		*cum
("wraps, grasps in hand")

Although fewer in number, there have been also comparisons between stages other than Old Japanese and Middle Korean:

Keyword Koreanic Japonic Proposed
Proto-Japanese-Korean
(negative) aní
(verbal negative; negative copula) 		PJ *an
(verbal negative) 		*an
(negative)
deep NK phwuk
("deeply, fully") 		OJ puka si
("is deep") 		*puka
("deep")
numb ENK kwop
("is numb, stiff from cold") 		OJ kopor
("freezes") 		*kəpə
("is numb")
slope ENK swok
("droops, becomes slanted down") 		OJ saka
("down slope") 		*səka
("slope")
soaks ENK chwuk
("gets wet") 		OJ tuke
("soaks it") 		*cuku
("soaks")
traps ENK kali
("fish trap") 		OJ kar
("traps, hunts, catches an animal") 		*kara
("traps, hunts")
ground MK mith
("base, bottom") 		PJ *mita
("ground, dry earth") 		*mita
("ground")
(kin prefix) PK *a
("kinship prefix") 		OJ a
("my; kinship prefix") 		*a
("my; kinship prefix")
land PK *na
("land, ground") 		pre-OJ *na
("earth, land") 		*na
("land, ground")
deceived MK swok
("is deceived"),
swokí
("deceives it") 		MJ sukas
("deceives it") 		*sok
("is deceived")
dreams MJ skwú
("dreams") 		MJ suk
("is infatuated, has passion"),
suki
("refinement; lust, passion") 		*sɨku
("fantasizes, idealizes")

In addition to the above, there may be a relation between the words for morning (朝, asa; 아침, achim). A historical variant in Korean may have been pronounced "asa" (see: Asadal).

There is a minority theory attributing the name of the city Nara to a loanword from Korean (see: Nara, Nara#Etymology).

Numerals

[edit]

Similarities have been drawn between the four attested numerals of Goguryeo, an ancient Korean relative, and its equivalents in Old Japanese.[20][21]

Numeral Goguryeo Old Japanese
3 mil mi1
5 uc itu
7 na-nin nana
10 dok to2 / to2wo

Note: See Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai for information on Old Japanese subscript notation.

Writing

[edit]

Both languages use, to some extent, a combination of native scripts and Chinese characters.

Korean is mostly written in the Korean featural alphabet (known as Hangul in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea). The traditional hanja (Chinese characters adapted for Korean) are sometimes used in South Korea, but only for specific purposes such as to clarify homophones (especially in TV show subtitles), linguistic or historic study, artistic expression, legal documents, and newspapers. Native Korean words do not use hanja anymore. In North Korea, the hanja have been largely suppressed in an attempt to remove Chinese influence, although they are still used in some cases and the number of hanja taught in North Korean schools is greater than that of South Korean schools.[22]

Japanese is written with a combination of kanji (Chinese characters adapted for Japanese) and kana (two writing systems representing the same sounds, composed primarily of syllables, each used for different purposes).[23][24] Unlike Korean hanja, however, kanji can be used to write both Sino-Japanese words and native Japanese words.

Historically, both Korean and Japanese were written solely with Chinese characters, with the writing experiencing a gradual mutation through centuries into its modern form.[25]

Honorifics

[edit]

Both languages have similar elaborate, multilevel systems of honorifics, and furthermore both Korean and Japanese also separate the concept of honorifics from formality in speech and writing in their own ways (See Korean speech levels and Honorific speech in Japanese § Grammatical overview). They are cited as the two most elaborate honorific systems, perhaps unrivaled by any other languages.[26] It has been argued that certain honorific words may share a common origin.[27] Uniquely, the honorifics rely heavily on changing verb conjugations rather than only using t-v distinction or other common methods of signifying honorifics. See Korean honorifics and Japanese honorifics.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Andrew Logie (November 22, 2013). "Are Korean and Japanese related? The Altaic hypothesis continued". Koreanology. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
  2. ^ Kornicki, Peter. Aston, Cambridge and Korea Archived May 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  3. ^ Poppe 1965:137
  4. ^ a b Martin, Samuel (1990).
  5. ^ Whitman, John (1985).
  6. ^ E. Riley, Barbara (2004).
  7. ^ Starostin, Sergei (Moscow, 1991). The Altaic Problem and the Origins of the Japanese Language.
  8. ^ Georg et al. 1999:72, 74
  9. ^ "While 'Altaic' is repeated in encyclopedias and handbooks most specialists in these languages no longer believe that the three traditional supposed Altaic groups, Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic, are related." Lyle Campbell & Mauricio J. Mixco, A Glossary of Historical Linguistics (2007, University of Utah Press), pg. 7.
  10. ^ "When cognates proved not to be valid, Altaic was abandoned, and the received view now is that Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic are unrelated." Johanna Nichols, Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time (1992, Chicago), pg. 4.
  11. ^ "Careful examination indicates that the established families, Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic, form a linguistic area (called Altaic)...Sufficient criteria have not been given that would justify talking of a genetic relationship here." R.M.W. Dixon, The Rise and Fall of Languages (1997, Cambridge), pg. 32.
  12. ^ "...[T]his selection of features does not provide good evidence for common descent" and "we can observe convergence rather than divergence between Turkic and Mongolic languages--a pattern than is easily explainable by borrowing and diffusion rather than common descent", Asya Pereltsvaig, Languages of the World, An Introduction (2012, Cambridge) has a good discussion of the Altaic hypothesis (pp. 211-216).
  13. ^ Robbeets, Martine and Bouckaert, Remco. Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of the Transeurasian family Archived July 27, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Robbeets, Martine et al. 2021 Triangulation supports agricultural spread of the Transeurasian languages, Nature 599, 616–621
  14. ^ Tian, Zheng; Tao, Yuxin; Zhu, Kongyang; Jacques, Guillaume; Ryder, Robin J.; de la Fuente, José Andrés Alonso; Antonov, Anton; Xia, Ziyang; Zhang, Yuxuan; Ji, Xiaoyan; Ren, Xiaoying; He, Guanglin; Guo, Jianxin; Wang, Rui; Yang, Xiaomin; Zhao, Jing; Xu, Dan; Gray, Russell D.; Zhang, Menghan; Wen, Shaoqing; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Pellard, Thomas (June 12, 2022), Triangulation fails when neither linguistic, genetic, nor archaeological data support the Transeurasian narrative, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, doi:10.1101/2022.06.09.495471, S2CID 249649524
  15. ^ Bernard Comrie: "Introduction", p. 7 and 9 in Comrie (1990).
  16. ^ S. Tomlin, Russell. Surveyed in the 1980s.
  17. ^ Introducing English Linguistics International Student Edition by Charles F. Meyer
  18. ^ Russell Tomlin, "Basic Word Order: Functional Principles", Croom Helm, London, 1986, page 22
  19. ^ Francis-Ratte, Alexander Takenobu (2016). Proto-Korean-Japanese: A New Reconstruction of the Common Origin of the Japanese and Korean Languages (Thesis). The Ohio State University.
  20. ^ Shinmura, Izuru (1916). "國語及び朝 鮮語の數詞について [Regarding numerals in Japanese and Korean]". Geibun. 7.2–7.4.
  21. ^ Yi, Ki-Mun (1972). "Kugosa Kaesol [Introduction to the history of Korean]". Seoul: Minjung Sogwan. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  22. ^ Hannas 1997: 68. "Although North Korea has removed Chinese characters from its written materials, it has, paradoxically, ended up with an educational program that teaches more characters than either South Korea or Japan, as Table 2 shows."
  23. ^ Advances in Psychology Research. Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-08-24.
  24. ^ Learning Japanese in the Network Society. Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved on 2013-08-24.
  25. ^ The Handbook of Korean Linguistics By Jaehoon Yeon
  26. ^ Brown, Lucien (2008). "Contrasts Between Korean and Japanese Honorifics". Rivista Degli Studi Orientali. 81 (1/4): 369–385. JSTOR 41913346.
  27. ^ "Grammaticalization in Sentence-Final Politeness Marking in Korean and Japanese".
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