Caviar: Difference between revisions

Caviar
	Salmon roe (left) and sturgeon caviar (right) served with mother of pearl caviar spoons to avoid tainting the taste of the caviar.
Place of origin	Iran (Persia) and/or Russia
Region or state	Black Sea region, Sea of Azov region, Caspian Sea region
	Cookbook: Caviar; Media: Caviar;

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The rarest and most expensive form of caviar comes from the critically endangered beluga sturgeon that swims in the Caspian Sea.

Caviar (also known as caviare, originally from the Persian: خاویار, romanized: khâvyâr, lit. 'egg-bearing') is a food consisting of salt-cured roe of the family Acipenseridae. Caviar is considered a delicacy and is eaten as a garnish or spread.^[1] Traditionally, the term caviar refers only to roe from wild sturgeon in the Caspian Sea and Black Sea^[2] (beluga, ossetra and sevruga caviars). The term caviar can also describe the roe of other species of sturgeon or other fish such as paddlefish, salmon, steelhead, trout, lumpfish, whitefish,^[3] or carp.^[4]

The roe can be "fresh" (non-pasteurized) or pasteurized, which reduces its culinary and economic value.^[5]

Terminology

According to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization, roe from any fish not belonging to the Acipenseriformes order (including Acipenseridae, or sturgeon sensu stricto, and Polyodontidae or paddlefish) are not caviar, but "substitutes of caviar".^[6] This position is also adopted by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,^[7] the World Wide Fund for Nature,^[8] the United States Customs Service,^[9] and France.^[10]

The term caviar is sometimes used to describe dishes that are perceived to resemble caviar, such as "eggplant caviar" (made from eggplant) and "Texas caviar" (made from black-eyed peas).

History

Caviar and sturgeon from the Sea of Azov began reaching the tables of aristocratic and noble Greeks in the 10th century, after the commencement of large-scale trading between the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus'.^[11]

Varieties

The main types of caviar from sturgeon species native to the Caspian Sea are Beluga, Sterlet, Kaluga hybrid, Ossetra, Siberian sturgeon and Sevruga. American White Sturgeon caviar is abundant and native to California and the U.S. Pacific Northwest. The rarest and costliest is from beluga sturgeon that swim in the Caspian Sea, which is bordered by Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan. Wild caviar production was suspended in Russia between 2008 and 2011 to allow wild stocks to replenish. Azerbaijan and Iran also allow the fishing of sturgeon off their coasts. Beluga caviar is prized for its soft, extremely large (pea-size) eggs. It can range in colour from pale silver-grey to black. It is followed by the small golden sterlet caviar which is rare and was once reserved for Russian, Iranian and Austrian royalty. Next in quality is the medium-sized, light brown to rich brown Ossetra, also known as Russian caviar. Others in the quality ranking are the grey sevruga caviar, the Chinese Kaluga caviar, and the American white sturgeon caviar. The Siberian variety with black beads is similar to sevruga and is popular because of its reduced (five years) harvest period, but it has a higher brine content than other kinds. The Chinese Kaluga hybrid varies in colour from dark grey to light golden green and is a close cousin of beluga caviar.^{[citation needed]}

Quality factors and cost

An expensive caviar example at 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) sold for £20,000 (then US$34,500) is the Iranian 'Almas' product (from Persian: الماس, "diamond") produced from the eggs of a rare albino sturgeon between 60 and 100 years old from the southern Caspian Sea.^[12] Wild beluga sturgeon caviar from the Caspian Sea was priced in 2012 at $16,000 per 1 kilogram (35 oz).^[13] Cheaper alternatives have been developed from the roe of whitefish and the North Atlantic salmon.^{[citation needed]}

Conventional sturgeon caviar was priced in 2014 at about $105 per 1 ounce (28 g) and from albino sturgeon up to $800 per ounce.^[14] Other quality factors are texture – with firmness having higher quality value – flavour qualities, such as creaminess, butter taste, and brine or mild fish finish, and whether the caviar was taken from the fish by massage (higher value) rather than by killing it.^[14] Caviar is generally sold in ounces. An ounce of sturgeon caviar costs between $45 and $1,000, depending on the variety of sturgeon and other factors.

Industry

Top 16 Caviar Producers in 2017^[15]
Country	Caviar (Tonnes)
China	100
Russia	49
Italy	43
France	37
Poland	20
Germany	16
USA	16
Bulgaria	8
Uruguay	6
Israel	5
Saudi Arabia	5
Spain	5
Armenia	4
Belgium	4
Finland	4
Iran	4

China

China produces the most caviar of any single country.^[16] The largest caviar company in the world is the Chinese brand Kaluga Queen, which cultivates sturgeon at Qiandao Lake in Zhejiang.^[17]

Russia

In the wake of over-fishing, the harvest and sale of black caviar were banned in Russia in 2007.^[18] The ban on sturgeon fishing in the Caspian Sea has led to the development of aquaculture as an economically viable means of commercial caviar production.^[19] Russian caviar exports were also banned from 2002 to 2011.^[20]

Italy

Cristoforo da Messisbugo in his book Libro novo nel qual si insegna a far d'ogni sorte di vivanda, Venice, 1564, at page 110, gave the first recorded recipe in Italy about extraction of the eggs from the roe and caviar preparation "to be consumed fresh or to preserve".^[21] The writer and voyager Jérôme Lalande in his book "Voyage en Italie", Paris, 1771, vol. 8, page 269, noted that many sturgeon were caught in the Po delta area in the territory of Ferrara.^[22] In 1753 a diplomatic war broke out between the Papal States, governing the Ferrara territory, and the Venetian Republic about sturgeon fishing rights in the Po River, the border between the two states.^[23] From about 1920 and until 1942, there was a shop in Ferrara, named "Nuta" from the nickname of the owner Benvenuta Ascoli, that processed all the sturgeons caught in the Po River for caviar extraction, using an elaboration of the original Messisbugo recipe, and shipped it to Italy and Europe. A new owner sporadically continued production until 1972, when the sturgeon stopped swimming up the Po River. Since 2015, some sturgeon have reappeared in the Po.^[24]

Currently, Italian caviar is obtained almost entirely from bred sturgeons. The caviar production is concentrated predominantly in Brescia, which is considered the capital of Italian caviar:^[25] in this area, in Calvisano, is located the world's largest sturgeon farm^[26] that produces annually 25 tonnes of caviar.^[25] Italy is a top producer of caviar.^[27]

North America

In the early 20th century, Canada and the United States were the major caviar suppliers to Europe; they harvested roe from the lake sturgeon in the North American Midwest, and from the shortnose sturgeon and the Atlantic sturgeon spawning in the rivers of the East Coast of the United States. The American caviar industry started when Henry Schacht, a German immigrant, opened a business catching sturgeon on the Delaware River. He treated his caviar with German salt and exported a great deal of it to Europe. Around the same time, sturgeon was fished from the Columbia River on the West Coast of the United States, also supplying caviar. American caviar was so plentiful at the time that it was given away at bars to induce or prolong patrons' thirst.^[28]^[29]

Today, the shortnose sturgeon is rated Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of endangered species and rated Endangered per the Endangered Species Act. With the depletion of Caspian and Black Sea caviar, production of farmed or "sustainable" caviar^[30] has greatly increased. In particular, northern California is reported to account for 70% to 80% of U.S. production.^[31]

In 2021, a significant illegal sturgeon egg harvesting and selling ring run in part by the former top sturgeon biologist for the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) was discovered and broken up by investigators.^[32]

In coastal British Columbia, Fraser River white sturgeon are sustainably farmed to produce caviar.^[33]

Spain

The 17th-century book Don Quixote mentions "cavial"^[34]^[35] in a banquet of German pilgrims. Until 1992, sturgeons and caviar were collected at the lower parts of rivers Guadalquivir, Ebro, Duero and Tajo. From 1932 to 1970, the Ybarra family had a factory in Coria del Río.^[36] Overfishing, pollution and the Alcalá del Río dam eliminated the wild population of Acipenser naccarii. In Spain, a fish farm called Caviar de Riofrío^[37] produces organic caviar^[38] at Loja, Granada, Andalusia.

Uruguay

As well with Canada and the United States, Uruguay has become a major producer and exporter.^[39]

Israel

Kibbutz Dan in Israel^[40] produces four tons of caviar a year. The farm is fed by the Dan River, a tributary of the Jordan River.^[41]

Madagascar

Madagascar is the first African country that produces and exports caviar since 2018.^[42]

Malaysia

In Malaysia, caviar production is relatively new and smaller in scale. Caviar is harvested from farmed sturgeon fish in Tanjung Malim, Perak. The caviar produced here is marketed as "tropical caviar".^[43] The first Malaysian brand of tropical caviar was launched in March 2019.^[44]

Ecology

Overfishing, smuggling and pollution caused by sewage entry into the Caspian Sea have considerably reduced the sea's sturgeon population.^[45]

In September 2005, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service banned the import of Caspian Sea Beluga caviar to protect the endangered Beluga sturgeon; a month later, the ban was extended to include Beluga caviar from the entire Black Sea basin. In January 2006, the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES) supported an international embargo on caviar export.^[46] In January 2007, this ban was partly lifted, allowing the sale of 96 tons of caviar, 15% below the official 2005 level.^[47] In July 2010, Russia and some other CIS countries restarted the export of caviar.^[48] The 2010 quotas allow for the export of three tons of beluga, 17 tons of sevruga and 27 tons of osetra.^[48] In September 2010, Kazakhstan launched a state monopoly brand, Zhaik Balyk, from the Kazakh word for the Ural River. Under the CITES agreement, Kazakhstan was granted the right to produce 13 of the 80 tons allowed up until 28 February 2011.^[49]

Extraction

Commercial caviar production historically involved stunning the fish and extracting the ovaries. Another method of extracting caviar is by removing eggs through a small incision, which allows the female to continue producing roe.^[50] Other farmers use a process called "stripping", which extracts the caviar from the fish via a small incision made along the urogenital muscle when the fish is deemed to be ready to be processed. An ultrasound is used to determine the correct timing.^[51]^[52] Removing the caviar by massage may yield higher quality and a more sustainable source.^[14]

Preparation

Preparation follows a sequence that has not significantly changed over the last century. First, the ovaries are removed from a sedated female sturgeon and passed through a sieve to remove the membrane. Freed roes are rinsed to wash away impurities. Roes are now ready to become caviar by adding a precise amount of salt for taste and preservation. The fresh product is tasted and graded according to quality. Finally, the eggs are packed into lacquer-lined tins that will be further processed or sold directly to customers.^[53]

Substitutes

A sturgeon caviar imitation is a black or red-coloured lumpsucker caviar sold throughout Europe in small glass jars.

In Sweden and Finland, the roes of many fish species, including vendace, burbot, salmon and common whitefish, are also commonly eaten in a similar manner as caviar. However, they are not caviar 'substitutes' but are enjoyed in their own right.

Spherification of liquids with alginate (a seaweed polysaccharide) is used to recreate caviar's texture. With liquids flavored to resemble caviar, one obtains kosher and vegan caviar substitutes. They resemble beluga caviar in appearance and are either used as a food prop for television and film or enjoyed by vegetarians and other people worldwide.^[54]^[55]

In Scandinavia, a type of sandwich spread is available, made from smoked cod roe and other ingredients, which is referred to as smörgåskaviar (meaning "sandwich caviar"). Outside Scandinavia, the product is referred to as creamed smoked roe or in French as Caviar de Lysekil.

Storage and nutrition

Caviar is highly perishable and must be kept refrigerated until consumption.^[56]

Caviar is 48% water, 25% protein, 18% fats, and 4% carbohydrates.^[57]

In a common serving amount of 16 grams (one tablespoon), caviar supplies 44 kilocalories of food energy, 53% of the Daily Value (DV) of vitamin B12, and moderate amounts (10-15% DV) of sodium, iron, magnesium, and selenium, with no other micronutrients in significant content.^[57]^[58]

References

^ Goldstein, D. (1999). A Taste of Russia: A Cookbook of Russian Hospitality. Russian Life Books. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-880100-42-4. Retrieved 28 May 2017.
^ lan Davidson, Tom Jane, The Oxford companion to food, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-19-280681-5, ISBN 978-0-19-280681-9, p. 150.
^ "Smith Bros. Whitefish Caviar". web44.net. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014.
^ Fodor, Alexandrina, et al. "ASSESSMENT OF DEGREE OF FRESHNESS AND QUALITY OF PRODUCTS TYPE "FISH ROE" SOLD IN SUPERMARKET CHAIN STORES." Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxicologie, Zootehnie şi Tehnologii de Industrie Alimentară 10.A (2011): 177–181.
^ According to Jean-Pierre Esmilaire, Directeur Général of Caviar House & Prunier: "two-thirds of caviar's taste is lost through pasteurisation." (in "Three-star caviar", Caterersearch – The complete information source for hospitality, 1 February 2001).
^ "Roe coming from a fish other than Acipenseriformes is not caviar and is often classified as «caviar substitute»." in Catarci, Camillo (2004), "Sturgeons (Acipenseriformes)", in World markets and industry of selected commercially-exploited aquatic species with an international conservation profile, FAO Fisheries Circulars – C990, FAO Corporate Document Repository, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Department. Archived 12 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Caviar: processed roe of Acipenseriformes species." in CITES (2002), "Annex 1 – CITES guidelines for a universal labelling system for the trade-in and identification of caviar", in Resolution Conf. 12.7 – Conservation of and trade in sturgeons and paddlefish, Twelfth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Santiago (Chile), 3–15 November 2002. Archived 14 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Caviar is made from the unfertilized eggs of female sturgeon and paddlefish, among the oldest and largest species of fish living on earth." in World Wide Fund for Nature, Wildlife Trade – Caviar Trade FAQs. Archived 8 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^ "The United States of America Custom Service (US Customs & Border Protection, 2004) defines caviar thus: Caviar is the eggs or roe of sturgeon preserved with salt. It is prepared by removing the egg masses from freshly caught fish and passing them through a fine-mesh screen to separate the eggs and remove extraneous bits of tissue and fat. At the same time, 4–6 percent salt is added to preserve the eggs and bring out the flavour. Most caviar is produced in Azerbaijan, Russia, and Iran from fish taken from the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov." in Johannesson, J. (2006), "1. Fish roe products and relevant resources for the industry: Definitions of caviar", Lumpfish caviar – from vessel to consumer, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 485, Rome, FAO, p.1. Archived 10 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ Arrêté du 23 février 2007 Archived 3 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine (NOR: DEVN0750874A; Version consolidée au 06 mai 2007), Article 1: "a) Caviar : oeufs non-fécondés, traités, des espèces d'acipensériformes dont la liste figure en annexe du présent arrêté;".
^ Talbot Rice, Tamara (1967). Everyday Life in Byzantium. London: Hippocrene Books. pp. 139–140.
^ "Most expensive caviar". guinnessworldrecords.com. 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
^ Angelica Dubinsky (18 September 2012). "Black Gold: Russian caviar". Russian Cuisine. Archived from the original on 2 October 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c Alastair Bland (30 March 2014). "No-Kill Caviar Aims To Keep The Treat And Save The Sturgeon". US National Public Radio. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
^ Bronzi, Paolo; Chebanov, Mikhail; Michaels, James T.; Wei, Qiwei; Rosenthal, Harald; Gessner, Joern (February 2019). "Sturgeon meat and caviar production: Global update 2017". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 35 (1): 263. Bibcode:2019JApIc..35..257B. doi:10.1111/jai.13870.
^ "The World Is Eating Chinese Caviar (And Doesn't Know It)". that's. 4 February 2017.
^ Krader, Kate (19 September 2017). "The World's Best Caviar Doesn't Come From Russia Anymore". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
^ "After a nine year ban Russia has begun exporting sturgeon caviar to the European Union" Archived 6 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Newzy.net, 21 February 2011
^ California Farm Bureau Federation Archived 29 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine – Farmers tame prehistoric fish to make food fit for a king
^ Walker, Shaun. "Russian caviar goes back on the European menu after nine years". Retrieved 30 March 2024.
^ Cristoforo da Messisbugo (1564). "Libro novo nel qual si insegna a far d'ogni sorte di vivanda". Venezia.
^ Joseph-Jérôme De Lalande (1771). "Voyage en Italie". Paris.
^ Archivio di Stato di Roma, Commissariato Generale della Reverenda Camera Apostolica, busta 546, Controversia coi veneziani sulla pesca nel Po di Corbola
^ Area, Jam. "Big sturgeon". wscs.info.
^ ^a ^b "È Brescia la capitale mondiale del caviale" [Brescia is the world capital of caviar]. quibrescia.it (in Italian). 26 March 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
^ Black, Jane (26 September 2006). "Caviar from farms instead of the seas". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
^ AGI (5 April 2016). "Forget the Caspian Sea, Italy is king of caviar". AGI. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
^ Linda Stradley (20 September 2021). "Culinary Dictionary – C, Food Dictionary". What's Cooking America.
^ Linda Stradley (2 April 2015). "American Caviar – Think American Caviar!". What's Cooking America.
^ SUSTAINABLE CAVIAR PRODUCTION: SAVE OUR STURGEON! Archived 23 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine
^ "California caviar is big fish on this side of the pond". Los Angeles Times. 18 January 2013.
^ "DNR's top sturgeon biologist resigns, fined $500 in Calumet County caviar investigation for lying to game warden". thenorthwestern.com. Archived from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
^ Rockel, Nick (11 February 2015). "B.C. caviar farmer takes over where Russia left off". The Globe and Mail.
^ Don Quixote II, Chapter LIV: "They also put down a black dainty called, they say, caviar, and made of the eggs of fish, a great thirst-wakener."
^ Don Quijote de la Mancha II, capítulo LIV (in Spanish): "Pusieron asimismo un manjar negro que dicen que se llama cavial, y es hecho de huevos de pescados, gran despertador de la colambre."
^ El caviar del Guadalquivir Archived 4 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish), Diario de Sevilla, 5 June 2011.
^ "Tienda de caviar. Gourmet online. Comprar Caviar de Riofrío". Caviar de Riofrío.
^ "More than one fish egg in the sea". The Boston Globe.
^ "Uruguayan Aquaculture Farming Techniques Perfecting Caviar". The Wall Street Journal.
^ "New York's finest caviar: All the way from a socialist kibbutz in northern Israel". Haaretz. 27 April 2012.
^ ABC News. "Caviar, Israel's Latest Weapon Against Iran". ABC News.
^ Ihariliva, Mirana (27 June 2018). "Produits halieutiques – le caviar sur le-marché international". L'Express (in French). Retrieved 28 December 2019.
^ Lee, Kang Yi (6 May 2019). "Say what? Malaysia is producing caviar?". The Malay Mail.
^ Durai, Abirami (12 September 2019). "Local luxury: Malaysia's first caviar brand, T'lur Caviar". star2.com.
^ van Uhm, D.P.; Siegel, D. (2016). "The illegal trade in black caviar". Trends in Organized Crime. 19 (1): 67–87. doi:10.1007/s12117-016-9264-5. S2CID 155134345.
^ "Business – International caviar trade banned". BBC. 3 January 2006.
^ "Science/Nature – UN lifts embargo on caviar trade". BBC. 2 January 2007.
^ ^a ^b Orange, Richard (25 July 2010). "Caviar producers to restart wild caviar exports". London: The Daily Telegraph, UK. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
^ Orange, Richard (4 October 2010). "Kazakhstan launches state caviar monopoly". London: The Daily Telegraph, UK. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
^ Engber, Daniel (4 October 2015). "How Do They Harvest Caviar?". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
^ mottra.co.uk Archived 27 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine – The link to the Latvian farm which pioneered commercial "stripping" in 2007
^ Walsh, John (24 September 2009). "The new black: Can a revolutionary sustainable caviar make the grade?". The Independent. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
^ Welch, James (22 March 2014). "Caviar Production". caviarbase.com. Archived from the original on 23 March 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
^ Vegan Caviar. "Vegan Caviar, Seaweed Caviar, Vegetarian Caviar :: Buy Vegan Gourmet Food". vegancaviar.com.
^ "Kelp Caviar How It's Made! » Kelp Caviar". Archived from the original on 2 February 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
^ "How to Store Caviar to Maintain Freshness". Imperia Caviar. 29 June 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
^ ^a ^b "Fish, caviar, black and red, granular". FoodData Central, US Department of Agriculture. 1 April 2019. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
^ "Fish, caviar, black and red, granular; one tablespoon, 16 g". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast from the US Department of Agriculture. 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2022.

External links

Cooking For Engineers: Caviar, 2006
Caspian caviar in peril, 1994
Russian caviar: an old fish learns some new tricks, 2012 Archived 11 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine

[1] Goldstein, D. (1999). A Taste of Russia: A Cookbook of Russian Hospitality. Russian Life Books. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-880100-42-4. Retrieved 28 May 2017.

[2] Davidson, Tom Jane, The Oxford companion to food, Oxford University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-19-280681-5, ISBN 978-0-19-280681-9, p. 150.

[3] "Smith Bros. Whitefish Caviar". web44.net. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014.

[4] Fodor, Alexandrina, et al. "ASSESSMENT OF DEGREE OF FRESHNESS AND QUALITY OF PRODUCTS TYPE "FISH ROE" SOLD IN SUPERMARKET CHAIN STORES." Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula: Ecotoxicologie, Zootehnie şi Tehnologii de Industrie Alimentară 10.A (2011): 177–181.

[5] According to Jean-Pierre Esmilaire, Directeur Général of Caviar House & Prunier: "two-thirds of caviar's taste is lost through pasteurisation." (in "Three-star caviar", Caterersearch – The complete information source for hospitality, 1 February 2001).

[6] "Roe coming from a fish other than Acipenseriformes is not caviar and is often classified as «caviar substitute»." in Catarci, Camillo (2004), "Sturgeons (Acipenseriformes)", in World markets and industry of selected commercially-exploited aquatic species with an international conservation profile, FAO Fisheries Circulars – C990, FAO Corporate Document Repository, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Department. Archived 12 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine

[7] "Caviar: processed roe of Acipenseriformes species." in CITES (2002), "Annex 1 – CITES guidelines for a universal labelling system for the trade-in and identification of caviar", in Resolution Conf. 12.7 – Conservation of and trade in sturgeons and paddlefish, Twelfth meeting of the Conference of the Parties, Santiago (Chile), 3–15 November 2002. Archived 14 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine

[8] "Caviar is made from the unfertilized eggs of female sturgeon and paddlefish, among the oldest and largest species of fish living on earth." in World Wide Fund for Nature, Wildlife Trade – Caviar Trade FAQs. Archived 8 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine

[9] "The United States of America Custom Service (US Customs & Border Protection, 2004) defines caviar thus: Caviar is the eggs or roe of sturgeon preserved with salt. It is prepared by removing the egg masses from freshly caught fish and passing them through a fine-mesh screen to separate the eggs and remove extraneous bits of tissue and fat. At the same time, 4–6 percent salt is added to preserve the eggs and bring out the flavour. Most caviar is produced in Azerbaijan, Russia, and Iran from fish taken from the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azov." in Johannesson, J. (2006), "1. Fish roe products and relevant resources for the industry: Definitions of caviar", Lumpfish caviar – from vessel to consumer, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 485, Rome, FAO, p.1. Archived 10 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine

[10] Arrêté du 23 février 2007 Archived 3 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine (NOR: DEVN0750874A; Version consolidée au 06 mai 2007), Article 1: "a) Caviar : oeufs non-fécondés, traités, des espèces d'acipensériformes dont la liste figure en annexe du présent arrêté;".

[11] Talbot Rice, Tamara (1967). Everyday Life in Byzantium. London: Hippocrene Books. pp. 139–140.

[12] "Most expensive caviar". guinnessworldrecords.com. 2019. Retrieved 6 April 2019.

[13] Angelica Dubinsky (18 September 2012). "Black Gold: Russian caviar". Russian Cuisine. Archived from the original on 2 October 2012.

[NPR2014-14] Alastair Bland (30 March 2014). "No-Kill Caviar Aims To Keep The Treat And Save The Sturgeon". US National Public Radio. Retrieved 6 April 2019.

[caviar-production-15] Bronzi, Paolo; Chebanov, Mikhail; Michaels, James T.; Wei, Qiwei; Rosenthal, Harald; Gessner, Joern (February 2019). "Sturgeon meat and caviar production: Global update 2017". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 35 (1): 263. Bibcode:2019JApIc..35..257B. doi:10.1111/jai.13870.

[best-16] "The World Is Eating Chinese Caviar (And Doesn't Know It)". that's. 4 February 2017.

[17] Krader, Kate (19 September 2017). "The World's Best Caviar Doesn't Come From Russia Anymore". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 20 September 2017.

[18] "After a nine year ban Russia has begun exporting sturgeon caviar to the European Union" Archived 6 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Newzy.net, 21 February 2011

[19] California Farm Bureau Federation Archived 29 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine – Farmers tame prehistoric fish to make food fit for a king

[20] Walker, Shaun. "Russian caviar goes back on the European menu after nine years". Retrieved 30 March 2024.

[21] Cristoforo da Messisbugo (1564). "Libro novo nel qual si insegna a far d'ogni sorte di vivanda". Venezia.

[22] Joseph-Jérôme De Lalande (1771). "Voyage en Italie". Paris.

[23] Archivio di Stato di Roma, Commissariato Generale della Reverenda Camera Apostolica, busta 546, Controversia coi veneziani sulla pesca nel Po di Corbola

[24] Area, Jam. "Big sturgeon". wscs.info.

[BSCaviar-25] "È Brescia la capitale mondiale del caviale" [Brescia is the world capital of caviar]. quibrescia.it (in Italian). 26 March 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2017.

[26] Black, Jane (26 September 2006). "Caviar from farms instead of the seas". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 September 2017.

[ITCaviar-27] AGI (5 April 2016). "Forget the Caspian Sea, Italy is king of caviar". AGI. Retrieved 7 September 2017.

[28] Linda Stradley (20 September 2021). "Culinary Dictionary – C, Food Dictionary". What's Cooking America.

[29] Linda Stradley (2 April 2015). "American Caviar – Think American Caviar!". What's Cooking America.

[30] SUSTAINABLE CAVIAR PRODUCTION: SAVE OUR STURGEON! Archived 23 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine

[31] "California caviar is big fish on this side of the pond". Los Angeles Times. 18 January 2013.

[32] "DNR's top sturgeon biologist resigns, fined $500 in Calumet County caviar investigation for lying to game warden". thenorthwestern.com. Archived from the original on 31 July 2021. Retrieved 3 February 2022.

[33] Rockel, Nick (11 February 2015). "B.C. caviar farmer takes over where Russia left off". The Globe and Mail.

[Quixote_en-34] Don Quixote II, Chapter LIV: "They also put down a black dainty called, they say, caviar, and made of the eggs of fish, a great thirst-wakener."

[Quixote_es-35] Don Quijote de la Mancha II, capítulo LIV (in Spanish): "Pusieron asimismo un manjar negro que dicen que se llama cavial, y es hecho de huevos de pescados, gran despertador de la colambre."

[DiarioSevilla-36] El caviar del Guadalquivir Archived 4 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish), Diario de Sevilla, 5 June 2011.

[Riofrío-37] "Tienda de caviar. Gourmet online. Comprar Caviar de Riofrío". Caviar de Riofrío.

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[43] Lee, Kang Yi (6 May 2019). "Say what? Malaysia is producing caviar?". The Malay Mail.

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[51] ttra.co.uk Archived 27 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine – The link to the Latvian farm which pioneered commercial "stripping" in 2007

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