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{{Short description|Ancient Greek temple of necromancy}} |
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The '''Nekromanteion''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Νεκρομαντεῖον) is the ancient Greek temple of [[necromancy]] devoted to [[Hades#Hades, the god of the Underworld|Hades]] and [[Persephone]]. It is situated on an archaeological site located in northwestern Greece ([[Kichyro|Ephyra]]) overlooking the [[Acheron]] river. This site was believed by devotees to be the door to [[Hades]], the realm of the dead. The word ''Nekromanteion'' means "[[Oracle]] of [[Death]]", and the faithful came here to talk with their late ancestors. Although other [[Greek temple|ancient temples]] such as the Temple of [[Poseidon]] in [[Cape Matapan|Taenaron]] as well as those in [[Argolis]], [[Kymi|Kyme]], and [[Heraclea Pontica|Herakleia in Pontos]] are known to have housed nekyomanteia (priests/oracles of the dead) The Nekromanteion of Ephyra is the only Oracle of Death in Greece<ref name=newsfinder>[http://www.newsfinder.org/site/more/the_nekromanteio_at_acheron/ Newsfinder (2002) "The Nekromanteio at Acheron"], Accessed: [[October 13]], [[2008]]. "Forty years ago the Greek archaeologist Sotirios Dakaris discovered a remarkable late fourth- or early third-century B.C. building complex on the hill of St. John Prodromos (John the Baptist), which rises above the Acheron River about 1.5 miles from its mouth at Phanari Bay in Epirus, northwestern Greece. Its central structure was 72 feet square with extraordinarily thick (about 11 feet) walls of carefully fitted polygonal stone blocks. Below this Dakaris found a subterranean chamber. He identified the building as the famous Nekyomanteion, or Oracle of the Dead, to which Periander, tyrant of Corinth in the sixth century B.C., had sent emissaries to consult his dead wife, Melissa, as recounted in Herodotus. Dakaris believed it to be the place Homer had in mind in his account of the visit of Odysseus to "the Halls of Hades and Dread Persephone" to consult the dead seer Tiresias about how he might return to Ithaca. The remains of the Nekyomanteion have been preserved. The ancient Greeks believed that the dead (in Greek: “Nekys”, “Nekroi") stayed in the earth as a perishable body while as a soul they were released and found their way to the Underworld through deep gorges, crevices and caves. The souls of the dead did not have ordinary consciousness but had other capabilities not possessed by the living such as the ability to know the future. Based on such beliefs, the Homeric Odysseus descended to Hades, [the world of the dead], to meet the soul of Teiresias the great diviner to find out what was hidden in his future. In the rhapsody “Nekyia” of the Odyssey we have exact descriptions about the care that should be exercised by the living when approaching the souls of the dead, since the miasma of death was very powerful. Faith in such beliefs led many among the ancients to visit sites, which were reputed to be entrances to the Underworld in order to receive prophecies from the Oracles of the Dead ("Nekyomanteia") established in these locations. Among the more famous were the temple of Poseidon in Taenaron as well as those in Hermione of Argolis, Kyme in Italy and Herakleia in Pontos. Yet the most important Nekyomanteion by far was the one at Lake Acherousia and the three rivers of Hades, near the Thesprotian city of Ephyra, at the place were according to tradition Odysseus communicated with the dead. Excavations unearthed a building complex with a rectangular courtyard surrounding a square building, from the 4th century BC, which functioned as the temple and consisted of a central hall with side aisles. Below the central hall was an underground chamber cut into the rock, presumably at the location of an ancient cave. This served as the pitch-dark palace of Hades and Persephone. The arches supporting the roof of the chamber were also the foundation for the floor of the upper chamber. The continuous corridors at three of the sides and the rooms to the north and east have also been attributed to the 4th century. Later, a central court was added to the west as well as more rooms for the pilgrims. From the north gate the pilgrim would pass to the northern corridor and to the left he saw two rooms and a washroom, which would serve him during the period of bodily and psychological purification, which inevitably preceded the entrance to the sanctum. For a certain period of time, and in total darkness, the pilgrim ate food appropriate for the dead such as broad beans, pork, barley bread and oysters and underwent purification by washing and prayers. The purpose of these procedures was presumably to strengthen the pilgrim’s defences against the psychologically powerful contact with the death experience. With yet more severe fasting and meditation the pilgrim would also stay in the northern room of the eastern corridor until the time of the oracle. Then, together with a priest, he would enter the eastern corridor, would sacrifice a sheep and then, holding bloodless offerings in his hand, he would follow a meandric corridor with three ironclad gates, as many as the gates of Hades. He would leave some of his offerings there, and would offer the rest in the central hall, which was the place where the souls of the dead would appear. During the whole process the priest would chant prayers and evoke the dead. The long preparation in such an imposing environment, and the special fasting [and meditations] together with the faith in the appearance of the dead would induce the pilgrim to see the shadows of the dead. The 4th century, however, was a rational century, with less possibility for the psyche of the pilgrims to experience the miracle, so the Oracle took appropriate measures as discovered by the excavations. Specifically, at the end of the central hall, at the place where the images of the dead were to appear, the archaeologists found wheels, copper catapult gear and ratchets which probably indicate the presence of a crane, which had a human image at one side and a counterweight at the other. The latter were discovered in an adjacent room. Anyway, the pilgrim would exit from the opposite side and would then undergo a three-day purification procedure. From then on he was expected to keep absolute silence about what he had seen and heard and the penalty for revealing the mysteries of Hades was death. Various votive offering by the faithful have been found dating from the 7th century BC and thereafter, however, it is evident that with the construction of the Hellenistic temple most of the artifacts from the previous period were destroyed. The Romans burned the temple in 167 BC, but traces of habitation after the 1st century have been discovered in the area where the courtyard used to be."</ref> It belonged to the [[Thesprotians]], an early Greek tribe who settled in this area about 2000 BC. |
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The '''Nekromanteion''' ({{langx|el|Νεκρομαντεῖον}}) was an ancient Greek temple of [[necromancy]] devoted to [[Hades#King of the underworld|Hades]] and [[Persephone]]. According to tradition, it was located on the banks of the [[Acheron]] river in [[Epirus]], near the ancient city of [[Kichyro|Ephyra]]. This site was believed by devotees to be the door to [[Greek underworld|Hades]], the realm of the dead. The site is at the meeting point of the Acheron, [[Phlegethon|Pyriphlegethon]] and [[Cocytus]] rivers, believed to flow through and water the kingdom of Hades. The meaning of the names of the rivers has been interpreted to be "joyless", "burning coals" and "lament", respectively.<ref>Olalla, Pedro. ''Mythological Atlas of Greece.'' Athens: Road Editions, 2002, p. 38. See also map 20 in this book.</ref> |
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Rediscovered in 1958 by archaeologist, Sotirios Dakaris, the temple was excavated throughout the 1960s and 1970s. It was identified as the Nekromanteion due to its geographic location and its similarities to descriptions found in history ([[Herodotus]]) and literature ([[Homer]]). |
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A site in Mesopotamos, [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] was proposed as the site of the Necromanteion in 1958, but this identification is now questioned. |
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| ⚫ | According to Herodotus' account, it was to the |
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==Background== |
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The word ''Necromanteion'' means "[[Oracle]] of the Dead", and the faithful came here to talk with their dead ancestors. Although other [[Greek temple|ancient temples]] such as the Temple of [[Poseidon]] in [[Cape Matapan|Taenaron]] as well as those in [[Argolis]], [[Cumae]], and [[Heraclea Pontica|Herakleia in Pontos]] are known to have housed oracles of the dead, the Necromanteion of Ephyra was the most important.<ref name=newsfinder>[http://www.newsfinder.org/site/more/the_nekromanteio_at_acheron/ Newsfinder (2002) "The Nekromanteio at Acheron"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607193200/http://www.newsfinder.org/site/more/the_nekromanteio_at_acheron/ |date=2015-06-07 }}, Accessed: October 13, 2008.</ref> It belonged to the [[Thesprotians]], the local [[Epirus|Epirot]] Greek tribe. |
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| ⚫ | According to Herodotus' account, it was to the Necromanteion that [[Periander]], the 6th century BC tyrant of [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], sent [[legation|legates]] to ask questions of his dead wife, Melissa.<ref>Herodotus. ''Histories'', 5.92.</ref> In Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', the Necromanteion was also described as the entrance by which [[Odysseus]] made his [[katabasis]].<ref>''Odyssey'' x 513ff</ref> |
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==Ritual use== |
==Ritual use== |
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| ⚫ | Ritual use of the |
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| ⚫ | Ritual use of the Necromanteion involved elaborate ceremonies wherein celebrants seeking to speak to the dead would start by gathering in the [[ziggurat]]-like temple<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://utenti.lycos.it/giuliodeflorio/oracle/oracolo.htm |title=Ephyra's Nekromanteion |access-date=2008-09-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080321225252/http://utenti.lycos.it/giuliodeflorio/oracle/oracolo.htm |archive-date=2008-03-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and consuming a meal of broad beans, pork, barley bread, oysters, and a [[narcotic]] compound.<ref name=newsfinder/><ref name=mlahanas>[http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/InventionsC.htm Ancient Greek Inventions (Michael Lahanas)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130124615/http://mlahanas.de/Greeks/InventionsC.htm |date=2009-01-30 }}</ref> Following a cleansing ceremony and the sacrifice of sheep, the faithful would descend through a [[chthonic]] series of meandering corridors leaving offerings as they passed through a number of iron gates. The nekromanteia would pose a series of questions and chant prayers and the celebrants would then witness the priest arise from the floor and begin to fly through the temple through the use of [[Mechane|theatrical cranes]].<ref name=mlahanas/> |
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== Location == |
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Prefecture of Preveza - Municipality of Fanari |
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In Mesopotamo. 52km south of [[Igoumenitsa]], 20km south of [[Parga]]. |
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==Disputed archaeological site== |
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== History == |
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An archaeological site discovered in 1958 and excavated during 1958–64 and 1976–77 was identified as the Necromanteion by archaeologist Sotirios Dakaris based on its geographical location and its similarities to descriptions found in [[Herodotus]] and [[Homer]].<ref>S. Dakaris, ''The Antiquity of Epirus: The Acheron Necromanteion: Ephyra-Pandosia-Coassope'' (Athens, 1973); ''idem'', in: ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'' (1976), pp. 310f. s.v. ''Ephyra''</ref> However, its topographical situation on a hill commanding the immediate neighbourhood does not fit this interpretation and the ruins dated to no earlier than the later 4th century BC.<ref>D. Baatz, "Teile hellenistischer Geschütze aus Griechenland", ''Archäologischer Anzeiger'' 1979 (1979), pp. 68-75.</ref> |
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*[[8th Century BC]] - Described by [[Homer]]. |
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*18th Century - Monastery of [[St. John the Baptist]] built on top. |
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*1958-1964 - Excavated by the archaeologist Sotirios Dakaris. |
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*1976-1977 - More excavations by Sotirios Dakaris. |
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It is now also believed that the site was a fortified farmhouse of a sort common in the [[Hellenistic period]].<ref>J. Wiseman, [https://archive.archaeology.org/9805/abstracts/insight.html "Rethinking the 'Halls of Hades'"], ''Archaeology'' 51.3 (1998), pp. 12-18; D. Baatz, "Wehrhaftes Wohnen. Ein befestigter hellenistischer Adelssitz bei Ephyra (Nordgriechenland)", ''Antike Welt'' 30.2 (1999), pp. 151-155.</ref> |
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Besides quantities of household ceramics, the site produced agricultural tools and weaponry, including Roman [[pilum|pila]] from the final destruction of the site by the Romans in 167 BC.<ref>Livy 45.34.</ref> Most surprising of all were 21 washers (the distinctive bronze ''modioli'') from at least seven different catapults, which Dakaris had mistakenly identified as components from a crane.<ref>D. Baatz, "Hellenistische Katapulte aus Ephyra (Epirus)", ''Mitteilungen des deutschen archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung'' 97 (1982), pp. 211-233; D.B. Campbell, ''Greek and Roman Artillery, 399 BC-AD 363'' (Oxford, 2003), pp. 13-14 and plate B (p. 26).</ref> |
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<div style="height: 250px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA; reflist4" > |
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{{reflist}} |
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</div> |
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=== Timeline === |
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*8th century BC – Necromanteion described by [[Homer]]. |
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<gallery> |
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File:DSCF6210 Νεκρομαντειο του Αχεροντα.jpg |
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File:DSCF6131 Νεκρομαντειο του Αχεροντα.jpg |
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File:DSCF6205 Νεκρομαντειο του Αχεροντα.jpg|Pottery at the Necromanteion |
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File:Basement of Necromanteion.jpg|One of the tunnels on the site |
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File:Labyrinth halls at Nekromanteion.jpg|Halls leading to the central room |
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File:Nekromanteion Main Sanctuary.jpg|Central room |
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File:Nekromateion Underground Tunnel.jpg|Tunnel |
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<!-- File:Aerial view of the archaeological site of Nekromanteion.jpg|Aerial view of the archaeological site of Nekromanteion from 1958 --> |
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</gallery> |
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{{Reflist}} |
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<ref>{{Cite web |title=Did Hades accept visitors? The acoustical properties of the underground crypt of the Acheron Nekromanteion, Preveza, Greece. |url=https://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/124480/files/Did |website=ikee.lib.auth.gr}}</ref> Conference paper about the acoustic properties of the crypt of Acheron Necromantion |
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{{coord|39.2362|N|20.5345|E|source:wikidata|display=title}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:1958 archaeological discoveries]] |
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[[de:Nekromanteion]] |
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[[fi:Nekromanteion]] |
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[[Category:Temples in ancient Epirus]] |
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[[tr:Nekromanteion]] |
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[[Category:Buildings and structures in Preveza (regional unit)]] |
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[[Category:Archaeological sites in Epirus (region)]] |
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[[Category:Classical oracles]] |
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[[Category:Necromancy]] |
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Latest revision as of 02:38, 30 November 2024
The Nekromanteion (Greek: Νεκρομαντεῖον) was an ancient Greek temple of necromancy devoted to Hades and Persephone. According to tradition, it was located on the banks of the Acheron river in Epirus, near the ancient city of Ephyra. This site was believed by devotees to be the door to Hades, the realm of the dead. The site is at the meeting point of the Acheron, Pyriphlegethon and Cocytus rivers, believed to flow through and water the kingdom of Hades. The meaning of the names of the rivers has been interpreted to be "joyless", "burning coals" and "lament", respectively.[1]
A site in Mesopotamos, Epirus was proposed as the site of the Necromanteion in 1958, but this identification is now questioned.
Background
[edit]The word Necromanteion means "Oracle of the Dead", and the faithful came here to talk with their dead ancestors. Although other ancient temples such as the Temple of Poseidon in Taenaron as well as those in Argolis, Cumae, and Herakleia in Pontos are known to have housed oracles of the dead, the Necromanteion of Ephyra was the most important.[2] It belonged to the Thesprotians, the local Epirot Greek tribe. According to Herodotus' account, it was to the Necromanteion that Periander, the 6th century BC tyrant of Corinth, sent legates to ask questions of his dead wife, Melissa.[3] In Homer's Odyssey, the Necromanteion was also described as the entrance by which Odysseus made his katabasis.[4]
Ritual use
[edit]Ritual use of the Necromanteion involved elaborate ceremonies wherein celebrants seeking to speak to the dead would start by gathering in the ziggurat-like temple[5] and consuming a meal of broad beans, pork, barley bread, oysters, and a narcotic compound.[2][6] Following a cleansing ceremony and the sacrifice of sheep, the faithful would descend through a chthonic series of meandering corridors leaving offerings as they passed through a number of iron gates. The nekromanteia would pose a series of questions and chant prayers and the celebrants would then witness the priest arise from the floor and begin to fly through the temple through the use of theatrical cranes.[6]
Disputed archaeological site
[edit]An archaeological site discovered in 1958 and excavated during 1958–64 and 1976–77 was identified as the Necromanteion by archaeologist Sotirios Dakaris based on its geographical location and its similarities to descriptions found in Herodotus and Homer.[7] However, its topographical situation on a hill commanding the immediate neighbourhood does not fit this interpretation and the ruins dated to no earlier than the later 4th century BC.[8]
It is now also believed that the site was a fortified farmhouse of a sort common in the Hellenistic period.[9] Besides quantities of household ceramics, the site produced agricultural tools and weaponry, including Roman pila from the final destruction of the site by the Romans in 167 BC.[10] Most surprising of all were 21 washers (the distinctive bronze modioli) from at least seven different catapults, which Dakaris had mistakenly identified as components from a crane.[11]
Timeline
[edit]- 8th century BC – Necromanteion described by Homer.
- 5th century BC – Necromanteion described by Herodotus.
- Late 4th century BC – Site building erected.
- 167 BC – Site burned down by the Romans.
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Pottery at the Necromanteion -
One of the tunnels on the site -
Halls leading to the central room -
Central room -
Tunnel
References
[edit]- ^ Olalla, Pedro. Mythological Atlas of Greece. Athens: Road Editions, 2002, p. 38. See also map 20 in this book.
- ^ a b Newsfinder (2002) "The Nekromanteio at Acheron" Archived 2015-06-07 at the Wayback Machine, Accessed: October 13, 2008.
- ^ Herodotus. Histories, 5.92.
- ^ Odyssey x 513ff
- ^ "Ephyra's Nekromanteion". Archived from the original on 2008-03-21. Retrieved 2008-09-30.
- ^ a b Ancient Greek Inventions (Michael Lahanas) Archived 2009-01-30 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ S. Dakaris, The Antiquity of Epirus: The Acheron Necromanteion: Ephyra-Pandosia-Coassope (Athens, 1973); idem, in: The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites (1976), pp. 310f. s.v. Ephyra
- ^ D. Baatz, "Teile hellenistischer Geschütze aus Griechenland", Archäologischer Anzeiger 1979 (1979), pp. 68-75.
- ^ J. Wiseman, "Rethinking the 'Halls of Hades'", Archaeology 51.3 (1998), pp. 12-18; D. Baatz, "Wehrhaftes Wohnen. Ein befestigter hellenistischer Adelssitz bei Ephyra (Nordgriechenland)", Antike Welt 30.2 (1999), pp. 151-155.
- ^ Livy 45.34.
- ^ D. Baatz, "Hellenistische Katapulte aus Ephyra (Epirus)", Mitteilungen des deutschen archäologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung 97 (1982), pp. 211-233; D.B. Campbell, Greek and Roman Artillery, 399 BC-AD 363 (Oxford, 2003), pp. 13-14 and plate B (p. 26).
[1] Conference paper about the acoustic properties of the crypt of Acheron Necromantion 39°14′10″N 20°32′04″E / 39.2362°N 20.5345°E
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