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Modern physics deals with three basic types of spatial [[symmetry]]: [[Reflection (mathematics)|reflection]], [[Rotation (mathematics)|rotation]], and [[Translation (physics)|translation]]. The known [[elementary particle]]s respect rotation and translation symmetry but do not respect [[P-symmetry|mirror reflection symmetry]] (also called P-symmetry or parity). Of the [[Four fundamental forces|four fundamental interactions]]—[[electromagnetism]], the [[strong interaction]], the [[weak interaction]], and [[gravitation|gravity]]—only the weak interaction breaks parity.
Modern physics deals with three basic types of spatial [[symmetry]]: [[Reflection (mathematics)|reflection]], [[Rotation (mathematics)|rotation]], and [[Translation (physics)|translation]]. The known [[elementary particle]]s respect rotation and translation symmetry but do not respect [[P-symmetry|mirror reflection symmetry]] (also called P-symmetry or parity). Of the [[Four fundamental forces|four fundamental interactions]]—[[electromagnetism]], the [[strong interaction]], the [[weak interaction]], and [[gravitation|gravity]]—only the weak interaction breaks parity.


Parity violation in weak interactions was first postulated by [[Tsung Dao Lee]] and [[Chen Ning Yang]]<ref name="lee">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.104.254 |title=Question of Parity Conservation in Weak Interactions |journal=Physical Review |volume=104 |issue = 1 |pages=254–258 |year=1956 |last1=Lee |first1=T. D. |last2=Yang |first2=C. N. |bibcode = 1956PhRv..104..254L|doi-access=free }} {{Errata |bibcode=1957PhRv..106.1371L |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.106.1371 |checked=yes}}</ref> in 1956 as a solution to the [[Kaon#Parity violation|τ-θ puzzle]]. In consultation with the experimental physicist [[Chien-Shiung Wu]] a number of possibilities were proposed to test whether the weak interaction was in fact invariant under parity. One of the group's suggestions involved monitoring the decay of [[Cobalt-60]], <blockquote><math>{}^{60}_{27}\text{Co} \rightarrow {}^{60}_{28}\text{Ni} + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + 2{\gamma}</math></blockquote>to determine whether the electrons it emitted were radiated isotropically, like the two gamma rays. Wu performed this experiment in at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|National Bureau of Standards]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] after nine months of work. Contrary to most expectations, in December of 1956 she and her team observed anisotropic electron radiation, proving that the weak interactions of the known particles violate parity.<ref name="wu">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1103/PhysRev.105.1413|title = Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay| journal=Physical Review| volume=105| issue=4| pages=1413–1415|year = 1957|last1 = Wu|first1 = C. S.| last2=Ambler| first2=E.| last3=Hayward| first3=R. W.| last4=Hoppes| first4=D. D.| last5=Hudson| first5=R. P.| bibcode=1957PhRv..105.1413W| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1103/PhysRev.105.1415|title = Observations of the Failure of Conservation of Parity and Charge Conjugation in Meson Decays: The Magnetic Moment of the Free Muon| journal=Physical Review| volume=105| issue=4| pages=1415–1417|year = 1957|last1 = Garwin|first1 = Richard L.| last2=Lederman| first2=Leon M.| last3=Weinrich| first3=Marcel| bibcode=1957PhRv..105.1415G| doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1103/PhysRev.106.1290|title = Nuclear Emulsion Evidence for Parity Nonconservation in the Decay Chain π<sup>+</sup>→μ<sup>+</sup>→e<sup>+</sup>| journal=Physical Review| volume=106| issue=6| pages=1290–1293|year = 1957|last1 = Friedman|first1 = Jerome I.| last2=Telegdi| first2=V. L. |bibcode=1957PhRv..106.1290F}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chiang |first=Tsai-Chien |title=Madame Chien-Shiung Wu: The First Lady of Physics Research |publisher=World Scientific |year=2014 |isbn=978-981-4374-84-2 |pages=136–137}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wu |first=C. S. |title=Adventures in Experimental Physics: Gamma Volume |publisher=[[World Science Communications]] |year=1973 |editor-last=Maglich |editor-first=B. |location=Princeton |pages=101–123 |asin=B000ITLM9Q}}</ref><ref>{{Cite arXiv |eprint=hep-ph/0605017 |first1=T. D. |last1=Lee |title=New Insights to Old Problems |year=2006}}</ref>
Parity violation in weak interactions was first postulated by [[Tsung Dao Lee]] and [[Chen Ning Yang]]<ref name=lee>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=T.D. |author1-link=Tsung Dao Lee |last2=Yang |first2=C.N. |author2-link=Chen Ning Yang |year=1956 |title=Question of parity conservation in weak interactions |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=104 |issue = 1 |pages=254–258 |bibcode = 1956PhRv..104..254L |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.104.254 |doi-access=free }} {{erratum |bibcode=1957PhRv..106.1371L |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.106.1371 |checked=yes}} </ref> in 1956 as a solution to the [[Kaon#Parity violation|{{math|τ-θ}} puzzle]]. In consultation with the experimental physicist [[Chien-Shiung Wu]] a number of possibilities were proposed to test whether the weak interaction was in fact invariant under parity. One of the group's suggestions involved monitoring the decay of [[Cobalt-60]], <blockquote><math>{}^{60}_{27}\text{Co} \rightarrow {}^{60}_{28}\text{Ni} + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e + 2{\gamma}</math></blockquote>to determine whether the electrons it emitted were radiated isotropically, like the two gamma rays. Wu performed this experiment at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|National Bureau of Standards]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] after nine months of work. Contrary to most expectations, in December&nbsp;1956 she and her team observed anisotropic electron radiation, proving that the weak interactions of the known particles violate parity.<ref name=wu>{{cite journal |last1 = Wu |first1 = C.S. |author1-link=Chien-Shiung Wu |last2=Ambler |first2=E. |last3=Hayward |first3=R.W. |last4=Hoppes |first4=D.D. |last5=Hudson |first5=R.P. |year = 1957 |title = Experimental test of parity conservation in beta decay |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=105 |issue=4 |pages=1413–1415 |bibcode=1957PhRv..105.1413W |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.105.1413 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Garwin |first1 = Richard L. |last2=Lederman |first2=Leon M. |last3=Weinrich |first3=Marcel |year = 1957 |title = Observations of the failure of conservation of parity and charge conjugation in meson decays: The magnetic moment of the free muon |journal=Physical Review |volume=105 |issue=4 |pages=1415–1417 |bibcode=1957PhRv..105.1415G |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.105.1415 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Friedman |first1 = Jerome I. |last2=Telegdi |first2=V.L. |year = 1957 |title = Nuclear emulsion evidence for parity nonconservation in the decay chain {{math|π<sup>+</sup>→μ<sup>+</sup>→e<sup>+</sup>}} |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=1290–1293 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.106.1290 |bibcode=1957PhRv..106.1290F }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chiang |first=Tsai-Chien |year=2014 |title=Madame Chien-Shiung Wu: The first lady of physics research |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-4374-84-2 |pages=136–137 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Wu |first=C.S. |author-link=Chien-Shiung Wu |year=1973 |title=Adventures in Experimental Physics |volume=Gamma |publisher=World Science Communications |editor-last=Maglich |editor-first=B. |place=Princeton, NJ |pages=101–123 |asin=B000ITLM9Q }}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |first=T.D. |last=Lee |author-link=Tsung Dao Lee |year=2006 |title=New insights to old problems |eprint=hep-ph/0605017 }}</ref>


However, parity symmetry can be restored as a fundamental symmetry of nature if the particle content is enlarged so that every particle has a mirror partner. The theory in its modern form was described in 1991,<ref name="foot">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/0370-2693(91)91013-L|title = A model with fundamental improper spacetime symmetries|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 272|issue = 1–2|pages = 67–70|year = 1991|last1 = Foot|first1 = R.|last2 = Lew|first2 = H.|last3 = Volkas|first3 = R.R.|bibcode = 1991PhLB..272...67F}}</ref> although the basic idea dates back further.<ref name="lee"/><ref name="kob">{{cite journal |first1=I. |last1=Kobzarev |first2=L. |last2=Okun |first3=I. |last3=Pomeranchuk |title=On the possibility of observing mirror particles |journal=Soviet Journal of Nuclear Physics |volume=3 |page=837 |year=1966}}</ref><ref name="pav">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0105344 |doi = 10.1007/BF01810695 |title = External inversion, internal inversion, and reflection invariance |journal = International Journal of Theoretical Physics |volume = 9 |issue = 4 |pages = 229–244 |year = 1974 |last1 = Pavšič |first1 = Matej |bibcode = 1974IJTP....9..229P|s2cid = 15736872 }}</ref> Mirror particles interact amongst themselves in the same way as ordinary particles, except where ordinary particles have left-handed interactions, mirror particles have right-handed interactions. In this way, it turns out that mirror reflection symmetry can exist as an exact symmetry of nature, provided that a "mirror" particle exists for every ordinary particle. Parity can also be spontaneously broken depending on the [[Higgs potential]].<ref name="ber">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/9505385 |doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.52.6607 |pmid = 10019200 |title = Reconciling present neutrino puzzles: Sterile neutrinos as mirror neutrinos |journal = Physical Review D |volume = 52 |issue = 11 |pages = 6607–6611 |year = 1995 |last1 = Berezhiani |first1 = Zurab G. |last2 = Mohapatra |first2 = Rabindra N. |bibcode = 1995PhRvD..52.6607B|s2cid = 11306189 }}</ref><ref name="flv">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0006027 |doi = 10.1088/1126-6708/2000/07/032 |title = Unbroken versus broken mirror world: A tale of two vacua |journal = Journal of High Energy Physics |volume = 2000 |issue = 7 |pages = 032 |year = 2000 |last1 = Foot |first1 = Robert |last2 = Lew |first2 = Henry |last3 = Volkas |first3 = Raymond Robert |bibcode = 2000JHEP...07..032F|s2cid = 11013856 }}</ref> While in the case of unbroken parity symmetry the masses of particles are the same as their mirror partners, in case of broken parity symmetry the mirror partners are lighter or heavier.
However, parity symmetry can be restored as a fundamental symmetry of nature if the particle content is enlarged so that every particle has a mirror partner. The theory in its modern form was described in 1991,<ref name=foot>{{cite journal |last1 = Foot |first1 = R. |last2 = Lew |first2 = H. |last3 = Volkas |first3 = R.R. |year = 1991 |title = A model with fundamental improper spacetime symmetries |journal = [[Physics Letters B]] |volume = 272 |issue = 1–2 |pages = 67–70 |bibcode = 1991PhLB..272...67F |doi = 10.1016/0370-2693(91)91013-L }}</ref> although the basic idea dates back further.<ref name=lee/><ref name=kob>{{cite journal |first1=I. |last1=Kobzarev |first2=L. |last2=Okun |first3=I. |last3=Pomeranchuk |title=On the possibility of observing mirror particles |journal=[[Soviet Journal of Nuclear Physics]] |volume=3 |page=837 |year=1966}}</ref><ref name=pav>{{cite journal |last = Pavšič |first = Matej |year = 1974 |title = External inversion, internal inversion, and reflection invariance |journal = [[International Journal of Theoretical Physics]] |volume = 9 |issue = 4 |pages = 229–244 |arxiv = hep-ph/0105344 |doi = 10.1007/BF01810695 |bibcode = 1974IJTP....9..229P |s2cid = 15736872 }}</ref> Mirror particles interact amongst themselves in the same way as ordinary particles, except where ordinary particles have left-handed interactions, mirror particles have right-handed interactions. In this way, it turns out that mirror reflection symmetry can exist as an exact symmetry of nature, provided that a "mirror" particle exists for every ordinary particle. Parity can also be spontaneously broken depending on the [[Higgs potential]].<ref name=ber>{{cite journal |last1 = Berezhiani |first1 = Zurab G. |last2 = Mohapatra |first2 = Rabindra N. |year = 1995 |title = Reconciling present neutrino puzzles: Sterile neutrinos as mirror neutrinos |journal = [[Physical Review D]] |volume = 52 |issue = 11 |pages = 6607–6611 |arxiv = hep-ph/9505385 |doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.52.6607 |bibcode = 1995PhRvD..52.6607B |pmid = 10019200 |s2cid = 11306189 }}</ref><ref name=flv>{{cite journal |last1 = Foot |first1 = Robert |last2 = Lew |first2 = Henry |last3 = Volkas |first3 = Raymond Robert |year = 2000 |title = Unbroken versus broken mirror world: A tale of two vacua |journal = [[Journal of High Energy Physics]] |volume = 2000 |issue = 7 |page = 032 |bibcode = 2000JHEP...07..032F |arxiv = hep-ph/0006027 |doi = 10.1088/1126-6708/2000/07/032 |s2cid = 11013856 }}</ref> While in the case of unbroken parity symmetry the masses of particles are the same as their mirror partners, in case of broken parity symmetry the mirror partners are lighter or heavier.


Mirror matter, if it exists, would interact weakly in strength with ordinary matter. This is because the forces between mirror particles are mediated by mirror [[boson]]s. With the exception of the [[graviton]], none of the known bosons can be identical to their mirror partners. The only way mirror matter can interact with ordinary matter via forces other than gravity is via [[kinetic mixing]] of mirror bosons with ordinary bosons. These interactions can only be very weak. Mirror particles have therefore been suggested as candidates for the inferred [[dark matter]] in the universe.<ref name="blin1">{{cite journal | last1 = Blinnikov |first1=S. I. |last2=Khlopov |first2=M. Yu. | year = 1982 | title = On possible effects of 'mirror' particles | journal = Soviet Journal of Nuclear Physics | volume = 36 | page = 472 }}</ref><ref name="blin2">{{cite journal | last1 = Blinnikov |first1=S. I. |last2=Khlopov |first2=M. Yu. | year = 1983 | title = Possible astronomical effects of mirror particles | journal = Sov. Astron. | volume = 27 | pages = 371–375 | bibcode = 1983SvA....27..371B }}</ref><ref name="kolb">{{cite journal | author = Kolb E. W., Seckel M., Turner M. S. | year = 1985 | title = The shadow world of superstring theories | journal = Nature | volume = 314 | issue = 6010 | pages = 415–419 | doi = 10.1038/314415a0 | bibcode = 1985Natur.314..415K | s2cid = 4353658 }}</ref><ref name="khlp">{{cite journal |first1=M. Yu. |last1=Khlopov |first2=G. M. |last2=Beskin |first3=N. E. |last3=Bochkarev |first4=L. A. |last4=Pushtilnik |first5=S. A. |last5=Pushtilnik |title=Observational physics of mirror world |journal=Astron. Zh. Akad. Nauk SSSR |volume=68 |pages=42–57 |year=1991 |url=http://lss.fnal.gov/archive/1989/pub/Pub-89-193-A.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605225123/http://lss.fnal.gov/archive/1989/pub/Pub-89-193-A.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-05 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="hodg">{{cite journal | author = Hodges H. M. | year = 1993 | title = Mirror baryons as the dark matter | journal = Physical Review D| volume = 47 | issue = 2 | pages = 456–459 | bibcode = 1993PhRvD..47..456H | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.47.456 | pmid = 10015599 }}</ref>
Mirror matter, if it exists, would interact weakly in strength with ordinary matter. This is because the forces between mirror particles are mediated by mirror [[boson]]s. With the exception of the [[graviton]], none of the known bosons can be identical to their mirror partners. The only way mirror matter can interact with ordinary matter via forces other than gravity is via [[kinetic mixing]] of mirror bosons with ordinary bosons. These interactions can only be very weak. Mirror particles have therefore been suggested as candidates for the inferred [[dark matter]] in the universe.<ref name=blin1>{{cite journal | last1 = Blinnikov |first1=S.I. |last2=Khlopov |first2=M.Yu. | year = 1982 | title = On possible effects of 'mirror' particles | journal = [[Soviet Journal of Nuclear Physics]] | volume = 36 | page = 472 }}</ref><ref name=blin2>{{cite journal | last1 = Blinnikov |first1=S.I. |last2=Khlopov |first2=M. Yu. | year = 1983 | title = Possible astronomical effects of mirror particles | journal = Sov. Astron. | volume = 27 | pages = 371–375 | bibcode = 1983SvA....27..371B }}</ref><ref name="kolb">{{cite journal | last1 = Kolb | first1 = E.W. | last2 = Seckel | first2 = M. | last3 = Turner | first3 = M.S. | year = 1985 | title = The shadow world of superstring theories | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 314 | issue = 6010 | pages = 415–419 | doi = 10.1038/314415a0 | bibcode = 1985Natur.314..415K | s2cid = 4353658 }}</ref><ref name=khlp>{{cite journal |first1=M.Yu. |last1=Khlopov |first2=G. M. |last2=Beskin |first3=N.E. |last3=Bochkarev |first4=L.A. |last4=Pushtilnik |first5=S. A. |last5=Pushtilnik |title=Observational physics of mirror world |journal=Astron. Zh. Akad. Nauk SSSR |volume=68 |pages=42–57 |year=1991 |url=http://lss.fnal.gov/archive/1989/pub/Pub-89-193-A.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605225123/http://lss.fnal.gov/archive/1989/pub/Pub-89-193-A.pdf |archive-date=2011-06-05 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=hodg>{{cite journal | last = Hodges | first = H.M. | year = 1993 | title = Mirror baryons as the dark matter | journal = [[Physical Review D]] | volume = 47 | issue = 2 | pages = 456–459 | bibcode = 1993PhRvD..47..456H | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.47.456 | pmid = 10015599 }}</ref>


In another context,{{which |date=September 2016}} mirror matter has been proposed to give rise to an effective [[Higgs mechanism]] responsible for the [[electroweak symmetry breaking]]. In such a scenario, mirror [[fermion]]s have masses on the order of 1 TeV since they interact with an additional interaction, while some of the mirror [[boson]]s are identical to the ordinary gauge [[bosons]]. In order to emphasize the distinction of this model from the ones above,{{which |date=January 2016}} these mirror particles are usually called [[katoptron]]s.<ref name=katoptrons>{{cite journal | author = Triantaphyllou G | year = 2001 | title = Mass generation and the dynamical role of the Katoptron group | journal = Modern Physics Letters A| volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 53–62 | doi = 10.1142/S0217732301002274 | bibcode = 2001MPLA...16...53T | arxiv = hep-ph/0010147 | s2cid = 15689479 }}</ref><ref name=katoptrons2>{{cite journal | author = Triantaphyllou G., Zoupanos G. | year = 2000 | title = Strongly interacting fermions from a higher dimensional unified gauge theory | journal = Physics Letters B| volume = 489 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 420–426 | doi = 10.1016/S0370-2693(00)00942-4 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.347.9373 | bibcode = 2000PhLB..489..420T | arxiv = hep-ph/0006262 | s2cid = 17505679 }}</ref>
In another context,<ref name=katoptrons/> mirror matter has been proposed to give rise to an effective [[Higgs mechanism]] responsible for the [[electroweak symmetry breaking]]. In such a scenario, mirror [[fermion]]s acquire masses on the order of 1 TeV since they interact with an additional gauge interaction not only becoming strong around the characteristic energy scale of the electroweak interactions but also being theoretically unified with Standard Model interactions under a larger gauge symmetry near the Planck energy scale. In order to emphasize the distinction of this model from the ones above,<ref name=blin1/><ref name=blin2/><ref name=kolb/><ref name=khlp/><ref name=hodg/> these mirror particles are usually called [[katoptron]]s<ref name=katoptrons>{{cite journal | last = Triantaphyllou | first = G. | year = 2001 | title = Mass generation and the dynamical role of the Katoptron group | journal = [[Modern Physics Letters A]] | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 53–62 | doi = 10.1142/S0217732301002274 | bibcode = 2001MPLA...16...53T | arxiv = hep-ph/0010147 | s2cid = 15689479 }}</ref><ref name=katoptrons2>{{cite journal | last1 = Triantaphyllou | first1 = G. | last2 = Zoupanos | first2 = G. | year = 2000 | title = Strongly interacting fermions from a higher dimensional unified gauge theory | journal = [[Physics Letters B]] | volume = 489 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 420–426 | doi = 10.1016/S0370-2693(00)00942-4 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.347.9373 | bibcode = 2000PhLB..489..420T | arxiv = hep-ph/0006262 | s2cid = 17505679 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Triantaphyllou |first=G. |year=2016 |title=Mirror mesons at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) |journal=[[Electronic Journal of Theoretical Physics]] |volume=13 |issue=35 |pages=115–144 |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/1609.03404 |access-date=2024-02-07 |arxiv=1609.03404 }}</ref> within the context of the Katoptron model and they are expected to decay to Standard Model particles shortly after their creation.


==Observational effects==
==Observational effects==
===Abundance===
===Abundance===
Mirror matter could have been diluted to unobservably low densities during the [[Cosmic inflation|inflation]] epoch. [[Sheldon Glashow]] has shown that if at some high energy scale particles exist which interact strongly with both ordinary and mirror particles, [[Effective field theory|radiative corrections]] will lead to a mixing between [[photon]]s and mirror photons.<ref name="glas">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/0370-2693(86)90540-X|title = Positronium versus the mirror universe|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 167|issue = 1|pages = 35–36|year = 1986|last1 = Glashow|first1 = S.L.|bibcode = 1986PhLB..167...35G}}</ref> This mixing has the effect of giving mirror electric charges a very small ordinary electric charge. Another effect of photon–mirror photon mixing is that it induces oscillations between [[positronium]] and mirror positronium. Positronium could then turn into mirror positronium and then decay into mirror photons.
Mirror matter could have been diluted to unobservably low densities during the [[Cosmic inflation|inflation]] epoch. [[Sheldon Glashow]] has shown that if at some high energy scale particles exist which interact strongly with both ordinary and mirror particles, [[One-loop diagram|radiative corrections]] will lead to a mixing between [[photon]]s and mirror photons.<ref name="glas">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/0370-2693(86)90540-X|title = Positronium versus the mirror universe|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 167|issue = 1|pages = 35–36|year = 1986|last1 = Glashow|first1 = S.L.|bibcode = 1986PhLB..167...35G}}</ref> This mixing has the effect of giving mirror electric charges a very small ordinary electric charge. Another effect of photon–mirror photon mixing is that it induces oscillations between [[positronium]] and mirror positronium. Positronium could then turn into mirror positronium and then decay into mirror photons.


The mixing between photons and mirror photons could be present in tree-level [[Feynman diagram]]s or arise as a consequence of quantum corrections due to the presence of particles that carry both ordinary and mirror charges. In the latter case, the quantum corrections have to vanish at the one and two loop-level Feynman diagrams, otherwise the predicted value of the kinetic mixing parameter would be larger than experimentally allowed.<ref name="glas"/>
The mixing between photons and mirror photons could be present in tree-level [[Feynman diagram]]s or arise as a consequence of quantum corrections due to the presence of particles that carry both ordinary and mirror charges. In the latter case, the quantum corrections have to vanish at the one and two loop-level Feynman diagrams, otherwise the predicted value of the kinetic mixing parameter would be larger than experimentally allowed.<ref name="glas"/>


An experiment to measure this effect was being planned in November 2003. <ref name="bad">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ex/0311031|doi = 10.1142/S0217751X04020105|title = An Apparatus to Search for Mirror Dark Matter|journal = International Journal of Modern Physics A|volume = 19|issue = 23|pages = 3833–3847|year = 2004|last1 = Gninenko|first1 = S. N.|bibcode = 2004IJMPA..19.3833G|s2cid = 17721669}}</ref>
An experiment to measure this effect was being planned in November 2003.<ref name="bad">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ex/0311031|doi = 10.1142/S0217751X04020105|title = An Apparatus to Search for Mirror Dark Matter|journal = International Journal of Modern Physics A|volume = 19|issue = 23|pages = 3833–3847|year = 2004|last1 = Gninenko|first1 = S. N.|bibcode = 2004IJMPA..19.3833G|s2cid = 17721669}}</ref>


===Dark matter===
===Dark matter===
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===GZK puzzle===
===GZK puzzle===
Mirror matter could also be responsible for the [[Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit#Cosmic-ray paradox|GZK puzzle]]. [[Topological defect]]s in the mirror sector could produce mirror neutrinos which can oscillate to ordinary neutrinos.<ref name="uhecrtd">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/9908257|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.62.083512|title = Ultrahigh energy neutrinos from hidden-sector topological defects|journal = Physical Review D|volume = 62|issue = 8|pages = 083512|year = 2000|last1 = Berezinsky|first1 = V.|last2 = Vilenkin|first2 = A.|bibcode = 2000PhRvD..62h3512B|s2cid = 204936092}}</ref> Another possible way to evade the GZK bound is via neutron–mirror neutron oscillations.<ref name="uhecrn1">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0507031|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.081801|pmid = 16606167|title = Neutron–Mirror-Neutron Oscillations: How Fast Might They Be?|journal = Physical Review Letters|volume = 96|issue = 8|pages = 081801|year = 2006|last1 = Berezhiani|first1 = Zurab|last2 = Bento|first2 = Luís|bibcode = 2006PhRvL..96h1801B|s2cid = 2171296}}</ref><ref name="uhecrn2">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0602227|doi = 10.1016/j.physletb.2006.03.008|title = Fast neutron–mirror neutron oscillation and ultra high energy cosmic rays|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 635|issue = 5–6|pages = 253–259|year = 2006|last1 = Berezhiani|first1 = Zurab|last2 = Bento|first2 = Luís|bibcode = 2006PhLB..635..253B|s2cid = 119481860}}</ref><ref name="uhecrn3">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0508109|doi = 10.1016/j.physletb.2005.08.101|title = Some implications of neutron mirror neutron oscillation|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 627|issue = 1–4|pages = 124–130|year = 2005|last1 = Mohapatra|first1 = R.N.|last2 = Nasri|first2 = S.|last3 = Nussinov|first3 = S.|s2cid = 119028382}}</ref><ref name="uhecrn4">{{Cite journal |arxiv = nucl-ex/0601017|doi = 10.1016/j.physletb.2006.06.005|title = On the experimental search for neutron → mirror neutron oscillations|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 639|issue = 3–4|pages = 214–217|year = 2006|last1 = Pokotilovski|first1 = Yu.N.|bibcode = 2006PhLB..639..214P|s2cid = 16896749}}</ref>
Mirror matter could also be responsible for the [[Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit#Cosmic-ray paradox|GZK puzzle]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-11-12|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit#Cosmic-ray paradox|reason= The anchor (Cosmic-ray paradox) [[Special:Diff/1256873591|has been deleted]].}}. [[Topological defect]]s in the mirror sector could produce mirror neutrinos which can oscillate to ordinary neutrinos.<ref name="uhecrtd">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/9908257|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.62.083512|title = Ultrahigh energy neutrinos from hidden-sector topological defects|journal = Physical Review D|volume = 62|issue = 8|pages = 083512|year = 2000|last1 = Berezinsky|first1 = V.|last2 = Vilenkin|first2 = A.|bibcode = 2000PhRvD..62h3512B|s2cid = 204936092}}</ref> Another possible way to evade the GZK bound is via neutron–mirror neutron oscillations.<ref name="uhecrn1">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0507031|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.081801|pmid = 16606167|title = Neutron–Mirror-Neutron Oscillations: How Fast Might They Be?|journal = Physical Review Letters|volume = 96|issue = 8|pages = 081801|year = 2006|last1 = Berezhiani|first1 = Zurab|last2 = Bento|first2 = Luís|bibcode = 2006PhRvL..96h1801B|s2cid = 2171296}}</ref><ref name="uhecrn2">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0602227|doi = 10.1016/j.physletb.2006.03.008|title = Fast neutron–mirror neutron oscillation and ultra high energy cosmic rays|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 635|issue = 5–6|pages = 253–259|year = 2006|last1 = Berezhiani|first1 = Zurab|last2 = Bento|first2 = Luís|bibcode = 2006PhLB..635..253B|s2cid = 119481860}}</ref><ref name="uhecrn3">{{Cite journal |arxiv = hep-ph/0508109|doi = 10.1016/j.physletb.2005.08.101|title = Some implications of neutron mirror neutron oscillation|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 627|issue = 1–4|pages = 124–130|year = 2005|last1 = Mohapatra|first1 = R.N.|last2 = Nasri|first2 = S.|last3 = Nussinov|first3 = S.|s2cid = 119028382}}</ref><ref name="uhecrn4">{{Cite journal |arxiv = nucl-ex/0601017|doi = 10.1016/j.physletb.2006.06.005|title = On the experimental search for neutron → mirror neutron oscillations|journal = Physics Letters B|volume = 639|issue = 3–4|pages = 214–217|year = 2006|last1 = Pokotilovski|first1 = Yu.N.|bibcode = 2006PhLB..639..214P|s2cid = 16896749}}</ref>


===Gravitational effects===
===Gravitational effects===
Line 36: Line 36:


=== Neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations ===
=== Neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations ===
Neutrons which are electrically neutral particles of ordinary matter could oscillate into its mirror partner, the mirror neutron.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berezhiani |first1=Zurab |last2=Bento |first2=Luis |date=2006-02-27 |title=Neutron - Mirror Neutron Oscillations: How Fast Might They Be? |arxiv=hep-ph/0507031 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=96 |issue=8 |pages=081801 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.081801 |pmid=16606167 |bibcode=2006PhRvL..96h1801B |s2cid=2171296 |issn=0031-9007}}</ref> Recently experiments looked for neutrons vanishing into the mirror world. Most experiments found no signal and hence gave limits on transition rates to the mirror state,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ban |first1=G. |last2=Bodek |first2=K. |last3=Daum |first3=M. |last4=Henneck |first4=R. |last5=Heule |first5=S. |last6=Kasprzak |first6=M. |last7=Khomutov |first7=N. |last8=Kirch |first8=K. |last9=Kistryn |first9=S. |last10=Knecht |first10=A. |last11=Knowles |first11=P. |date=2007-10-19 |title=A direct experimental limit on neutron -- mirror neutron oscillations |arxiv=0705.2336 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=99 |issue=16 |pages=161603 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.161603 |pmid=17995237 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99p1603B |s2cid=20503448 |issn=0031-9007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Abel |first1=C. |last2=Ayres |first2=N. J. |last3=Ban |first3=G. |last4=Bison |first4=G. |last5=Bodek |first5=K. |last6=Bondar |first6=V. |last7=Chanel |first7=E. |last8=Chiu |first8=P.-J. |last9=Crawford |first9=C. |last10=Daum |first10=M. |last11=Dinani |first11=R. T. |date=January 2021 |title=A search for neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations |arxiv=2009.11046 |journal=Physics Letters B |volume=812 |pages=135993 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2020.135993|s2cid=228076358 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Serebrov |first1=A. P. |last2=Aleksandrov |first2=E. B. |last3=Dovator |first3=N. A. |last4=Dmitriev |first4=S. P. |last5=Fomin |first5=A. K. |last6=Geltenbort |first6=P. |last7=Kharitonov |first7=A. G. |last8=Krasnoschekova |first8=I. A. |last9=Lasakov |first9=M. S. |last10=Murashkin |first10=A. N. |last11=Shmelev |first11=G. E. |date=May 2008 |title=Experimental search for neutron - mirror neutron oscillations using storage of ultracold neutrons |arxiv=0706.3600 |journal=Physics Letters B |volume=663 |issue=3 |pages=181–185 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.04.014|bibcode=2008PhLB..663..181S |s2cid=119132581 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Altarev |first1=I. |last2=Baker |first2=C. A. |last3=Ban |first3=G. |last4=Bodek |first4=K. |last5=Daum |first5=M. |last6=Fierlinger |first6=P. |last7=Geltenbort |first7=P. |last8=Green |first8=K. |last9=van der Grinten |first9=M. G. D. |last10=Gutsmiedl |first10=E. |last11=Harris |first11=P. G. |date=2009-08-17 |title=Neutron to Mirror-Neutron Oscillations in the Presence of Mirror Magnetic Fields |arxiv=0905.4208 |journal=Physical Review D |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=032003 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.80.032003 |bibcode=2009PhRvD..80c2003A |s2cid=7423799 |issn=1550-7998}}</ref> one paper claimed signals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berezhiani |first1=Z. |last2=Biondi |first2=R. |last3=Geltenbort |first3=P. |last4=Krasnoshchekova |first4=I. A. |last5=Varlamov |first5=V. E. |last6=Vassiljev |first6=A. V. |last7=Zherebtsov |first7=O. M. |date=2018-09-01 |title=New experimental limits on neutron – mirror neutron oscillations in the presence of mirror magnetic field |url=https://epjc.epj.org/articles/epjc/abs/2018/09/10052_2018_Article_6189/10052_2018_Article_6189.html |journal=The European Physical Journal C |language=en |volume=78 |issue=9 |pages=717 |doi=10.1140/epjc/s10052-018-6189-y |arxiv=1712.05761 |bibcode=2018EPJC...78..717B |s2cid=119250376 |issn=1434-6044}}</ref> Current research looks for signals where an applied magnetic field adjust the energy level of the neutron to the mirror world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ayres |first1=N. J. |last2=Berezhiani |first2=Z. |last3=Biondi |first3=R. |last4=Bison |first4=G. |last5=Bodek |first5=K. |last6=Bondar |first6=V. |last7=Chiu |first7=P.-J. |last8=Daum |first8=M. |last9=Dinani |first9=R. T. |last10=Doorenbos |first10=C. B. |last11=Emmenegger |first11=S. |date=2021-10-31 |title=Improved search for neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations in the presence of mirror magnetic fields with a dedicated apparatus at the PSI UCN source |journal=Symmetry |volume=14 |issue=3 |page=503 |doi=10.3390/sym14030503 |arxiv=2111.02794 |bibcode=2022Symm...14..503A |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Broussard |first1=L. J. |last2=Bailey |first2=K. M. |last3=Bailey |first3=W. B. |last4=Barrow |first4=J. L. |last5=Berry |first5=K. |last6=Blose |first6=A. |last7=Crawford |first7=C. |last8=Debeer-Schmitt |first8=L. |last9=Frost |first9=M. |last10=Galindo-Uribarri |first10=A. |last11=Gallmeier |first11=F. X. |date=2019 |title=New search for mirror neutron regeneration |url=https://www.epj-conferences.org/articles/epjconf/abs/2019/24/epjconf-ppns2019_07002/epjconf-ppns2019_07002.html |journal=EPJ Web of Conferences |language=en |volume=219 |pages=07002 |doi=10.1051/epjconf/201921907002 |arxiv=1912.08264 |bibcode=2019EPJWC.21907002B |s2cid=209405136 |issn=2100-014X}}</ref> This energy difference can be interpreted due to [https://www.psi.ch/en/ltp-ucn-physics/dark-matter-search a] mirror magnetic field present in the mirror world or a mass difference of the neutron and its mirror partner. Such a transition to the mirror world could also solve the neutron lifetime puzzle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berezhiani |first=Zurab |date=2019-06-10 |title=Neutron lifetime puzzle and neutron–mirror neutron oscillation |url=https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-019-6995-x |journal=The European Physical Journal C |language=en |volume=79 |issue=6 |pages=484 |doi=10.1140/epjc/s10052-019-6995-x |arxiv=1807.07906 |bibcode=2019EPJC...79..484B |s2cid=119232602 |issn=1434-6052}}</ref> Experiments searching for mirror neutron oscillation are ongoing at the [[Paul Scherrer Institute]]'s [https://www.psi.ch/en/ltp-ucn-physics/dark-matter-search UCN source], Switzerland, [[Institut Laue–Langevin|Institut Laue-Langevin]], France and [https://neutrons.ornl.gov/content/leah-broussard-breaking-standard-model-fix-understanding-universe Spallation Neutron Source], USA.
Neutrons which are electrically neutral particles of ordinary matter could oscillate into its mirror partner, the mirror neutron.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Berezhiani |first1=Zurab |last2=Bento |first2=Luis |date=2006-02-27 |title=Neutron - mirror neutron oscillations: How fast might they be? |arxiv=hep-ph/0507031 |journal=[[Physical Review Letters]] |volume=96 |issue=8 |page=081801 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.081801 |pmid=16606167 |bibcode=2006PhRvL..96h1801B |s2cid=2171296 |issn=0031-9007}}</ref> Recent experiments looked for neutrons vanishing into the mirror world. Most experiments found no signal and hence gave limits on transition rates to the mirror state,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ban |first1=G. |last2=Bodek |first2=K. |last3=Daum |first3=M. |last4=Henneck |first4=R. |last5=Heule |first5=S. |last6=Kasprzak |first6=M. |last7=Khomutov |first7=N. |last8=Kirch |first8=K. |last9=Kistryn |first9=S. |last10=Knecht |first10=A. |last11=Knowles |first11=P. |display-authors=6 |date=2007-10-19 |title=A direct experimental limit on neutron – mirror neutron oscillations |arxiv=0705.2336 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=99 |issue=16 |pages=161603 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.99.161603 |pmid=17995237 |bibcode=2007PhRvL..99p1603B |s2cid=20503448 |issn=0031-9007}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abel |first1=C. |last2=Ayres |first2=N.J. |last3=Ban |first3=G. |last4=Bison |first4=G. |last5=Bodek |first5=K. |last6=Bondar |first6=V. |last7=Chanel |first7=E. |last8=Chiu |first8=P.-J. |last9=Crawford |first9=C. |last10=Daum |first10=M. |last11=Dinani |first11=R.T. |display-authors=6 |date=January 2021 |title=A search for neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations |arxiv=2009.11046 |journal=Physics Letters B |volume=812 |pages=135993 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2020.135993|s2cid=228076358 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Serebrov |first1=A.P. |last2=Aleksandrov |first2=E.B. |last3=Dovator |first3=N.A. |last4=Dmitriev |first4=S.P. |last5=Fomin |first5=A.K. |last6=Geltenbort |first6=P. |last7=Kharitonov |first7=A.G. |last8=Krasnoschekova |first8=I.A. |last9=Lasakov |first9=M.S. |last10=Murashkin |first10=A.N. |last11=Shmelev |first11=G.E. |display-authors=6 |date=May 2008 |title=Experimental search for neutron – mirror neutron oscillations using storage of ultracold neutrons |arxiv=0706.3600 |journal=Physics Letters B |volume=663 |issue=3 |pages=181–185 |doi=10.1016/j.physletb.2008.04.014|bibcode=2008PhLB..663..181S |s2cid=119132581 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Altarev |first1=I. |last2=Baker |first2=C.A. |last3=Ban |first3=G. |last4=Bodek |first4=K. |last5=Daum |first5=M. |last6=Fierlinger |first6=P. |last7=Geltenbort |first7=P. |last8=Green |first8=K. |last9=van der Grinten |first9=M.G.D. |last10=Gutsmiedl |first10=E. |last11=Harris |first11=P.G. |display-authors=6 |date=2009-08-17 |title=Neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations in the presence of mirror magnetic fields |arxiv=0905.4208 |journal=Physical Review D |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=032003 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.80.032003 |bibcode=2009PhRvD..80c2003A |s2cid=7423799 |issn=1550-7998}}</ref> one paper claimed signals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berezhiani |first1=Z. |last2=Biondi |first2=R. |last3=Geltenbort |first3=P. |last4=Krasnoshchekova |first4=I.A. |last5=Varlamov |first5=V.E. |last6=Vassiljev |first6=A.V. |last7=Zherebtsov |first7=O.M. |date=2018-09-01 |title=New experimental limits on neutron – mirror neutron oscillations in the presence of mirror magnetic field |url=https://epjc.epj.org/articles/epjc/abs/2018/09/10052_2018_Article_6189/10052_2018_Article_6189.html |journal=The [[European Physical Journal C]] |lang=en |volume=78 |issue=9 |pages=717 |doi=10.1140/epjc/s10052-018-6189-y |arxiv=1712.05761 |bibcode=2018EPJC...78..717B |s2cid=119250376 |issn=1434-6044}}</ref> Current research looks for signals where an applied magnetic field adjust the energy level of the neutron to the mirror world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ayres |first1=N.J. |last2=Berezhiani |first2=Z. |last3=Biondi |first3=R. |last4=Bison |first4=G. |last5=Bodek |first5=K. |last6=Bondar |first6=V. |last7=Chiu |first7=P.-J. |last8=Daum |first8=M. |last9=Dinani |first9=R.T. |last10=Doorenbos |first10=C.B. |last11=Emmenegger |first11=S. |display-authors=6 |date=2021-10-31 |title=Improved search for neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations in the presence of mirror magnetic fields with a dedicated apparatus at the PSI UCN source |journal=[[Symmetry (journal)|Symmetry]] |volume=14 |issue=3 |page=503 |doi=10.3390/sym14030503 |arxiv=2111.02794 |bibcode=2022Symm...14..503A |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Broussard-etal-2019>{{cite journal |last1=Broussard |first1=L.J. |last2=Bailey |first2=K.M. |last3=Bailey |first3=W.B. |last4=Barrow |first4=J. L. |last5=Berry |first5=K. |last6=Blose |first6=A. |last7=Crawford |first7=C. |last8=Debeer-Schmitt |first8=L. |last9=Frost |first9=M. |last10=Galindo-Uribarri |first10=A. |last11=Gallmeier |first11=F.X. |display-authors=6 |year=2019 |title=New search for mirror neutron regeneration |url=https://www.epj-conferences.org/articles/epjconf/abs/2019/24/epjconf-ppns2019_07002/epjconf-ppns2019_07002.html |journal=EPJ Web of Conferences |lang=en |volume=219 |pages=07002 |doi=10.1051/epjconf/201921907002 |arxiv=1912.08264 |bibcode=2019EPJWC.21907002B |s2cid=209405136 |issn=2100-014X }}</ref> This energy difference can be interpreted due to a mirror magnetic field present in the mirror world or a mass difference of the neutron and its mirror partner.<ref name=PSI-dark>{{cite web |title=Dark matter search |website=PSI Center for Neutron and Muon Sciences (psi.ch) |series=Laboratory for Particle Physics |publisher=[[Paul Scherrer Institute]] |place=Villigen & Würenlingen, CH |url=https://www.psi.ch/en/ltp-ucn-physics/dark-matter-search }} </ref> Such a transition to the mirror world could also solve the neutron lifetime puzzle.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Berezhiani |first=Zurab |date=2019-06-10 |title=Neutron lifetime puzzle and neutron – mirror neutron oscillation |url=https://doi.org/10.1140/epjc/s10052-019-6995-x |journal=The [[European Physical Journal C]] |lang=en |volume=79 |issue=6 |pages=484 |doi=10.1140/epjc/s10052-019-6995-x |arxiv=1807.07906 |bibcode=2019EPJC...79..484B |s2cid=119232602 |issn=1434-6052}}</ref>

Experiments searching for mirror neutron oscillation are ongoing at the [[Paul Scherrer Institute]]'s UCN source<ref name=PSI-dark/> in Switzerland, [[Institut Laue–Langevin|Institut Laue-Langevin]] in France, and via the Spallation Neutron Source at the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] in the U.S.<ref name=Broussard-etal-2019/><ref>{{cite press release |first=Dawn |last=Levy |date=26 July 2019 |title=Leah Broussard: Breaking the Standard Model to fix understanding of the Universe |via=neutrons.ornl.gov |publisher=[[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] |place=Oak Ridge, TN |url=https://neutrons.ornl.gov/content/leah-broussard-breaking-standard-model-fix-understanding-universe }} </ref>


==See also==
==See also==
Line 51: Line 53:


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist|25em}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{refbegin|25em|small=yes}}
* [http://people.zeelandnet.nl/smitra/mirror.htm A collection of scientific articles on various aspects of mirror matter theory]
* {{cite web |editor=smitra |title=Mirror |type=bibliography |url=http://people.zeelandnet.nl/smitra/mirror.htm |via=zeelandnet.nl/smitra }} — A collection of scientific articles' abstracts and media links for various aspects of mirror matter theory.
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1300429 Mirror matter] article on [[h2g2]]
* {{cite news |title=Mirror matter |series=[[h2g2]] |publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1300429 |via=bbc.co.uk }}
* {{cite journal|author=R. Foot | arxiv=astro-ph/0407623 | title = Mirror matter type dark matter | doi=10.1142/S0218271804006449 | volume=13 | issue=10 | journal=International Journal of Modern Physics D | pages=2161–2192| bibcode=2004IJMPD..13.2161F | year=2004 | s2cid=16148721 }}
* {{cite journal|author=L.B. Okun | arxiv=hep-ph/0606202 |title=Mirror particles and mirror matter: 50 years of speculation and search | doi=10.1070/PU2007v050n04ABEH006227 |volume=50 | issue=4 |journal=Physics-Uspekhi |pages=380–389|bibcode=2007PhyU...50..380O | year=2007 | s2cid=12137927 }}
* {{cite journal |first=R. |last=Foot | year=2004 | title = Mirror matter type dark matter | journal=[[International Journal of Modern Physics D]] | volume=13 | issue=10 | pages=2161–2192 | bibcode=2004IJMPD..13.2161F | s2cid=16148721 | arxiv=astro-ph/0407623 | doi=10.1142/S0218271804006449 }}
* {{cite journal|author=Z.K. Silagadze | arxiv=hep-ph/0002255 |title=TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs| journal= Acta Physica Polonica B| volume=32 | issue=1 | pages=99–128 | year=2001 | bibcode=2001AcPPB..32...99S }}
* {{cite journal |first=L.B. |last=Okun | year=2007 |title=Mirror particles and mirror matter: 50&nbsp;years of speculation and search |journal=[[Physics-Uspekhi]] |volume=50 | issue=4 |pages=380–389 |bibcode=2007PhyU...50..380O | arxiv=hep-ph/0606202 | s2cid=12137927 | doi=10.1070/PU2007v050n04ABEH006227 }}
* {{cite journal |first=Z.K. |last=Silagadze | year=2001 |title=TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs | journal=[[Acta Physica Polonica B]] | volume=32 | issue=1 | pages=99–128 | bibcode=2001AcPPB..32...99S | arxiv=hep-ph/0002255 }}
{{refend}}


{{Dark matter}}
{{Dark matter}}

Latest revision as of 20:57, 3 December 2024

Not to be confused with antimatter, mirror life, or mirror universe.

In physics, mirror matter, also called shadow matter or Alice matter, is a hypothetical counterpart to ordinary matter.[1]

Overview

[edit]

Modern physics deals with three basic types of spatial symmetry: reflection, rotation, and translation. The known elementary particles respect rotation and translation symmetry but do not respect mirror reflection symmetry (also called P-symmetry or parity). Of the four fundamental interactions—electromagnetism, the strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravity—only the weak interaction breaks parity.

Parity violation in weak interactions was first postulated by Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang[2] in 1956 as a solution to the τ-θ puzzle. In consultation with the experimental physicist Chien-Shiung Wu a number of possibilities were proposed to test whether the weak interaction was in fact invariant under parity. One of the group's suggestions involved monitoring the decay of Cobalt-60,

to determine whether the electrons it emitted were radiated isotropically, like the two gamma rays. Wu performed this experiment at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C. after nine months of work. Contrary to most expectations, in December 1956 she and her team observed anisotropic electron radiation, proving that the weak interactions of the known particles violate parity.[3][4][5][6][7][8]

However, parity symmetry can be restored as a fundamental symmetry of nature if the particle content is enlarged so that every particle has a mirror partner. The theory in its modern form was described in 1991,[9] although the basic idea dates back further.[2][10][11] Mirror particles interact amongst themselves in the same way as ordinary particles, except where ordinary particles have left-handed interactions, mirror particles have right-handed interactions. In this way, it turns out that mirror reflection symmetry can exist as an exact symmetry of nature, provided that a "mirror" particle exists for every ordinary particle. Parity can also be spontaneously broken depending on the Higgs potential.[12][13] While in the case of unbroken parity symmetry the masses of particles are the same as their mirror partners, in case of broken parity symmetry the mirror partners are lighter or heavier.

Mirror matter, if it exists, would interact weakly in strength with ordinary matter. This is because the forces between mirror particles are mediated by mirror bosons. With the exception of the graviton, none of the known bosons can be identical to their mirror partners. The only way mirror matter can interact with ordinary matter via forces other than gravity is via kinetic mixing of mirror bosons with ordinary bosons. These interactions can only be very weak. Mirror particles have therefore been suggested as candidates for the inferred dark matter in the universe.[14][15][16][17][18]

In another context,[19] mirror matter has been proposed to give rise to an effective Higgs mechanism responsible for the electroweak symmetry breaking. In such a scenario, mirror fermions acquire masses on the order of 1 TeV since they interact with an additional gauge interaction not only becoming strong around the characteristic energy scale of the electroweak interactions but also being theoretically unified with Standard Model interactions under a larger gauge symmetry near the Planck energy scale. In order to emphasize the distinction of this model from the ones above,[14][15][16][17][18] these mirror particles are usually called katoptrons[19][20][21] within the context of the Katoptron model and they are expected to decay to Standard Model particles shortly after their creation.

Observational effects

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Abundance

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Mirror matter could have been diluted to unobservably low densities during the inflation epoch. Sheldon Glashow has shown that if at some high energy scale particles exist which interact strongly with both ordinary and mirror particles, radiative corrections will lead to a mixing between photons and mirror photons.[22] This mixing has the effect of giving mirror electric charges a very small ordinary electric charge. Another effect of photon–mirror photon mixing is that it induces oscillations between positronium and mirror positronium. Positronium could then turn into mirror positronium and then decay into mirror photons.

The mixing between photons and mirror photons could be present in tree-level Feynman diagrams or arise as a consequence of quantum corrections due to the presence of particles that carry both ordinary and mirror charges. In the latter case, the quantum corrections have to vanish at the one and two loop-level Feynman diagrams, otherwise the predicted value of the kinetic mixing parameter would be larger than experimentally allowed.[22]

An experiment to measure this effect was being planned in November 2003.[23]

Dark matter

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If mirror matter does exist in large abundances in the universe and if it interacts with ordinary matter via photon—mirror photon mixing, then this could be detected in dark matter direct detection experiments such as DAMA/NaI and its successor DAMA/LIBRA. In fact, it is one of the few dark matter candidates which can explain the positive DAMA/NaI dark matter signal whilst still being consistent with the null results of other dark matter experiments.[24][25]

Electromagnetic effects

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Mirror matter may also be detected in electromagnetic field penetration experiments[26] and there would also be consequences for planetary science[27][28] and astrophysics.[29]

GZK puzzle

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Mirror matter could also be responsible for the GZK puzzle[broken anchor]. Topological defects in the mirror sector could produce mirror neutrinos which can oscillate to ordinary neutrinos.[30] Another possible way to evade the GZK bound is via neutron–mirror neutron oscillations.[31][32][33][34]

Gravitational effects

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If mirror matter is present in the universe with sufficient abundance then its gravitational effects can be detected. Because mirror matter is analogous to ordinary matter, it is then to be expected that a fraction of the mirror matter exists in the form of mirror galaxies, mirror stars, mirror planets etc. These objects can be detected using gravitational microlensing.[35] One would also expect that some fraction of stars have mirror objects as their companion. In such cases one should be able to detect periodic Doppler shifts in the spectrum of the star.[17] There are some hints that such effects may already have been observed.[36]

Neutron to mirror-neutron oscillations

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Neutrons which are electrically neutral particles of ordinary matter could oscillate into its mirror partner, the mirror neutron.[37] Recent experiments looked for neutrons vanishing into the mirror world. Most experiments found no signal and hence gave limits on transition rates to the mirror state,[38][39][40][41] one paper claimed signals.[42] Current research looks for signals where an applied magnetic field adjust the energy level of the neutron to the mirror world.[43][44] This energy difference can be interpreted due to a mirror magnetic field present in the mirror world or a mass difference of the neutron and its mirror partner.[45] Such a transition to the mirror world could also solve the neutron lifetime puzzle.[46]

Experiments searching for mirror neutron oscillation are ongoing at the Paul Scherrer Institute's UCN source[45] in Switzerland, Institut Laue-Langevin in France, and via the Spallation Neutron Source at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the U.S.[44][47]

See also

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References

[edit]
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