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{{short description|Contrast of one emotion from another}}
{{short description|Contrast of one emotion from another}}
{{Emotion}}[[File:Sixteen_faces_expressing_the_human_passions._Wellcome_L0068375_(cropped).jpg|thumb|248x248px|Colored [[Intaglio (printmaking)|intaglio]] [[Printmaking|prints]] by [[Charles Le Brun]] and J. Pass depicting the [[facial expression]]s of sixteen emotions]]
[[File:Sixteen_faces_expressing_the_human_passions._Wellcome_L0068375_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Colored [[Intaglio (printmaking)|intaglio]] [[Printmaking|prints]] by [[Charles Le Brun]] and J. Pass depicting the [[facial expression]]s of sixteen emotions]]
{{Emotion}}

'''Emotion classification''', the means by which one may distinguish or contrast one emotion from another, is a contested issue in emotion research and in [[affective science]]. Researchers have approached the classification of emotions from one of two fundamental viewpoints:{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}
'''Emotion classification''', the means by which one may distinguish or contrast one [[emotion]] from another, is a contested issue in emotion research and in [[affective science]]. Researchers have approached the classification of emotions from one of two fundamental viewpoints:{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}


# that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs
# that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs
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== Emotions as discrete categories ==
== Emotions as discrete categories ==


In [[discrete emotion theory]], all humans are thought to have an innate set of basic emotions that are cross-culturally recognizable. These basic emotions are described as "discrete" because they are believed to be distinguishable by an individual's facial expression and biological processes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Colombetti|first=Giovanna|title=From affect programs to dynamical discrete emotions|journal=Philosophical Psychology|date=August 2009|volume=22 |issue= 4|pages=407–425|doi=10.1080/09515080903153600|citeseerx= 10.1.1.728.9666|s2cid=40157414}}</ref> Theorists have conducted studies to determine which emotions are basic. A popular example is [[Paul Ekman]] and his colleagues' cross-cultural study of 1992, in which they concluded that the six basic emotions are [[Anger|anger]], [[Disgust|disgust]], [[Fear|fear]], [[Happiness|happiness]], [[Sadness|sadness]], and [[Surprise (emotion)|surprise]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=Facial Expressions of Emotion: New Findings, New Questions|journal=Psychological Science|date=January 1992|volume=3 |issue= 1|pages=34–38|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00253.x|s2cid=9274447}}</ref> Ekman explains that there are particular characteristics attached to each of these emotions, allowing them to be expressed in varying degrees in a non-verbal manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bąk |first=Halszka |date=2023-12-01 |title=Issues in the translation equivalence of basic emotion terms |journal=Ampersand |volume=11 |pages=100128 |doi=10.1016/j.amper.2023.100128 |issn=2215-0390|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Elfenbein |first1=Hillary Anger |last2=Ambady |first2=Nalini |date=2003-10-01 |title=Universals and Cultural Differences in Recognizing Emotions |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8721.01252 |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=159–164 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.01252 |s2cid=262438746 |issn=0963-7214}}</ref> Each emotion acts as a discrete category rather than an individual emotional state.<ref name="ekman" />
In [[discrete emotion theory]], all humans are thought to have an innate set of basic emotions that are cross-culturally recognizable. These basic emotions are described as "discrete" because they are believed to be distinguishable by an individual's facial expression and biological processes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Colombetti|first=Giovanna|title=From affect programs to dynamical discrete emotions|journal=Philosophical Psychology|date=August 2009|volume=22 |issue= 4|pages=407–425|doi=10.1080/09515080903153600|citeseerx= 10.1.1.728.9666|s2cid=40157414}}</ref> Theorists have conducted studies to determine which emotions are basic. A popular example is [[Paul Ekman]] and his colleagues' cross-cultural study of 1992, in which they concluded that the six basic emotions are [[anger]], [[disgust]], [[fear]], [[happiness]], [[sadness]], and [[Surprise (emotion)|surprise]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=Facial Expressions of Emotion: New Findings, New Questions|journal=Psychological Science|date=January 1992|volume=3 |issue= 1|pages=34–38|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00253.x|s2cid=9274447}}</ref> Ekman explains that there are particular characteristics attached to each of these emotions, allowing them to be expressed in varying degrees in a non-verbal manner.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bąk |first=Halszka |date=2023-12-01 |title=Issues in the translation equivalence of basic emotion terms |journal=Ampersand |volume=11 |pages=100128 |doi=10.1016/j.amper.2023.100128 |issn=2215-0390|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Elfenbein |first1=Hillary Anger |last2=Ambady |first2=Nalini |date=2003-10-01 |title=Universals and Cultural Differences in Recognizing Emotions |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8721.01252 |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=159–164 |doi=10.1111/1467-8721.01252 |s2cid=262438746 |issn=0963-7214}}</ref> Each emotion acts as a discrete category rather than an individual emotional state.<ref name="ekman" />


=== Simplicity debate ===
=== Simplicity debate ===
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On "basic emotion" accounts, activation of an emotion, such as anger, sadness, or fear, is "triggered" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from observing the biological signatures.<ref name="ekman">{{cite journal|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=An Argument for Basic Emotions|journal=Cognition and Emotion|year=1992|volume=6|issue=3/4|pages=169–200|doi=10.1080/02699939208411068|citeseerx=10.1.1.454.1984}}</ref>
On "basic emotion" accounts, activation of an emotion, such as anger, sadness, or fear, is "triggered" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from observing the biological signatures.<ref name="ekman">{{cite journal|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=An Argument for Basic Emotions|journal=Cognition and Emotion|year=1992|volume=6|issue=3/4|pages=169–200|doi=10.1080/02699939208411068|citeseerx=10.1.1.454.1984}}</ref>


On "constructionist" accounts, the emotion a person feels in response to a stimulus or event is "constructed" from more elemental biological and psychological ingredients. Two hypothesized ingredients are "core affect" (characterized by, e.g., hedonic<!-- What the heck is this supposed to mean? --> valence and physiological arousal) and conceptual knowledge (such as the semantic meaning of the emotion labels themselves, e.g., the word "anger"). A theme common to many constructionist theories is that different emotions do not have specific locations in the nervous system or distinct physiological signatures, and that context is central to the emotion a person feels because of the accessibility of different concepts afforded by different contexts.<ref name="paradox">{{cite journal|last=Barrett|first=Lisa Feldman|title=Solving the Emotion Paradox: Categorization and the Experience of Emotion|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|year=2006|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–46|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2|pmid=16430327|s2cid=7750265}}</ref>
On "constructionist" accounts, the emotion a person feels in response to a stimulus or event is "constructed" from more elemental biological and psychological ingredients. Two hypothesized ingredients are "core affect" (characterized by, e.g., hedonic<!-- What the heck is this supposed to mean? --> [[Valence (psychology)|valence]] and physiological arousal) and conceptual knowledge (such as the semantic meaning of the emotion labels themselves, e.g., the word "anger"). A theme common to many constructionist theories is that different emotions do not have specific locations in the nervous system or distinct physiological signatures, and that context is central to the emotion a person feels because of the accessibility of different concepts afforded by different contexts.<ref name="paradox">{{cite journal|last=Barrett|first=Lisa Feldman|title=Solving the Emotion Paradox: Categorization and the Experience of Emotion|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|year=2006|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–46|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2|pmid=16430327|s2cid=7750265}}</ref>

=== Semantically distinct emotions ===

[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Eugene-Bann Eugene Bann]<!-- Try to find a better source than Research Gate on Eugene Bann, he does have a LinkedIn, X, and Crunchbase account. --> proposed a theory that people transmit their understanding of emotions through the language they use that surrounds mentioned emotion keywords. He posits that the more distinct language is used to express a certain emotion, then the more distinct the perception (including proprioception) of that emotion is, and thus more basic. This allows us to select the dimensions best representing the entire spectrum of emotion. Coincidentally, it was found that Ekman's (1972) basic emotion set, arguably the most frequently used for classifying emotions, is the most semantically distinct.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bann|first1= E. Y.|last2= Bryson|first2= J. J.|title= The Conceptualisation of Emotion Qualia: Semantic Clustering of Emotional Tweets |journal = Proceedings of the 13th Neural Computation and Psychology Workshop|pages= 249–263|url = http://www.cs.bath.ac.uk/~jjb/ftp/BannNCPW13.pdf |doi = 10.1142/9789814458849_0019|year= 2014|isbn= 978-981-4458-83-2|s2cid= 13929466}}</ref>


== Dimensional models of emotion ==
== Dimensional models of emotion ==


For both theoretical and practical reasons researchers define emotions according to one or more dimensions. In his philosophical treatise, [[The Passions of the Soul]], Descartes defines and investigates the six primary passions ([[Wonder (emotion)|Wonder]], [[Love|love]], [[Hate|hate]], [[Desire|desire]], [[Joy|joy]], and sadness). [[Wilhelm Wundt|Wilhelm Max Wundt]], the father of modern psychology, proposed in 1897 that emotions can be described by three dimensions: "pleasurable versus unpleasurable", "arousing or subduing" and "strain or [[Relaxation (psychology)|relaxation]]".<ref>W.M. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology. (1897). In: Classics in the history of psychology. http://psychclassics.asu.edu/index.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010224041216/http://psychclassics.asu.edu/index.htm |date=2001-02-24 }}, York University 2010, Toronto.</ref> In 1954 [[Harold H. Schlosberg|Harold Schlosberg]] named three dimensions of emotion: "pleasantness–unpleasantness", "attention–rejection" and "level of activation".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schlosberg | first1 = H. | s2cid = 27914497 | year = 1954 | title = Three dimensions of emotion | journal = [[Psychological Review]] | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 81–8 | doi=10.1037/h0054570| pmid = 13155714 }}</ref>
For both theoretical and practical reasons, researchers define emotions according to one or more dimensions. In his philosophical treatise, [[The Passions of the Soul]], Descartes defines and investigates the six primary passions ([[Wonder (emotion)|Wonder]], [[love]], [[hate]], [[desire]], [[joy]], and sadness). In 1897, [[Wilhelm Wundt|Wilhelm Max Wundt]], the father of modern psychology, proposed that emotions can be described by three dimensions: "pleasurable versus unpleasurable", "arousing or subduing", and "strain or [[Relaxation (psychology)|relaxation]]".<ref>W.M. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology. (1897). In: Classics in the history of psychology. http://psychclassics.asu.edu/index.htm {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010224041216/http://psychclassics.asu.edu/index.htm |date=2001-02-24 }}, York University 2010, Toronto.</ref> In 1954, [[Harold H. Schlosberg|Harold Schlosberg]] named three dimensions of emotion: "pleasantness–unpleasantness", "attention–rejection" and "level of activation".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schlosberg | first1 = H. | s2cid = 27914497 | year = 1954 | title = Three dimensions of emotion | journal = [[Psychological Review]] | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 81–8 | doi=10.1037/h0054570| pmid = 13155714 }}</ref>


Dimensional models of emotion attempt to conceptualize human emotions by defining where they lie in two or three dimensions. Most dimensional models incorporate [[Valence (psychology)|valence]] and [[arousal]] or intensity dimensions. Dimensional models of emotion suggest that a common and interconnected neurophysiological system is responsible for all affective states.<ref name="Posner Russell Peterson">{{cite journal|last=Posner|first=Jonathan |author2=Russell, J.A. |author3=Peterson, B. S.|title=The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology|journal=Development and Psychopathology|year=2005|volume=17|issue=3 |pages=715–734|doi=10.1017/s0954579405050340|pmid=16262989|pmc=2367156}}</ref> These models contrast theories of basic emotion, which propose that different emotions arise from separate neural systems.<ref name="Posner Russell Peterson" /> Several dimensional models of emotion have been developed, though there are just a few that remain as the dominant models currently accepted by most.<ref name="Rubin Telerico" /> The two-dimensional models that are most prominent are the circumplex model, the vector model, and the Positive Activation – Negative Activation (PANA) model.<ref name="Rubin Telerico">{{cite journal|last=Rubin|first=D. C.|author2=Talerico, J.M.|title=A comparison of dimensional models of emotion|journal=Memory|year=2009|volume=17|issue=8|pages=802–808|doi=10.1080/09658210903130764|pmid=19691001|pmc=2784275}}</ref>
Dimensional models of emotion attempt to conceptualize human emotions by defining where they lie in two or three dimensions. Most dimensional models incorporate [[Valence (psychology)|valence]] and [[arousal]] or intensity dimensions. Dimensional models of emotion suggest that a common and interconnected neurophysiological system is responsible for all affective states.<ref name="Posner Russell Peterson">{{cite journal|last=Posner|first=Jonathan |author2=Russell, J.A. |author3=Peterson, B. S.|title=The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology|journal=Development and Psychopathology|year=2005|volume=17|issue=3 |pages=715–734|doi=10.1017/s0954579405050340|pmid=16262989|pmc=2367156}}</ref> These models contrast theories of basic emotion, which propose that different emotions arise from separate neural systems.<ref name="Posner Russell Peterson" /> Several dimensional models of emotion have been developed, though there are just a few that remain as the dominant models currently accepted by most.<ref name="Rubin Telerico" /> The two-dimensional models that are most prominent are the circumplex model, the vector model, and the Positive Activation – Negative Activation (PANA) model.<ref name="Rubin Telerico">{{cite journal|last=Rubin|first=D. C.|author2=Talerico, J.M.|title=A comparison of dimensional models of emotion|journal=Memory|year=2009|volume=17|issue=8|pages=802–808|doi=10.1080/09658210903130764|pmid=19691001|pmc=2784275}}</ref>
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The circumplex model of emotion was developed by James Russell.<ref name="Russell1980">{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=James|title=A circumplex model of affect|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=1980|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1161–1178|doi=10.1037/h0077714|hdl=10983/22919|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This model suggests that emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space, containing arousal and valence dimensions. Arousal represents the vertical axis and valence represents the horizontal axis, while the center of the circle represents a neutral valence and a medium level of arousal.<ref name="Rubin Telerico" /> In this model, emotional states can be represented at any level of valence and arousal, or at a neutral level of one or both of these factors. Circumplex models have been used most commonly to test stimuli of emotion words, emotional facial expressions, and [[Affect (psychology)|affective]] states.<ref name="Remington">{{cite journal|last=Remington|first=N. A.|author2=Fabrigar, L. R. |author3=Visser, P. S. |title=Re-examining the circumplex model of affect|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=2000|volume=79|issue=2|pages=286–300|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.2.286|pmid=10948981}}</ref>
The circumplex model of emotion was developed by James Russell.<ref name="Russell1980">{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=James|title=A circumplex model of affect|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=1980|volume=39|issue=6|pages=1161–1178|doi=10.1037/h0077714|hdl=10983/22919|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This model suggests that emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space, containing arousal and valence dimensions. Arousal represents the vertical axis and valence represents the horizontal axis, while the center of the circle represents a neutral valence and a medium level of arousal.<ref name="Rubin Telerico" /> In this model, emotional states can be represented at any level of valence and arousal, or at a neutral level of one or both of these factors. Circumplex models have been used most commonly to test stimuli of emotion words, emotional facial expressions, and [[Affect (psychology)|affective]] states.<ref name="Remington">{{cite journal|last=Remington|first=N. A.|author2=Fabrigar, L. R. |author3=Visser, P. S. |title=Re-examining the circumplex model of affect|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=2000|volume=79|issue=2|pages=286–300|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.2.286|pmid=10948981}}</ref>


Russell and [[Lisa Feldman Barrett]] describe their modified circumplex model as representative of core affect, or the most elementary feelings that are not necessarily directed toward anything. Different prototypical emotional episodes, or clear emotions that are evoked or directed by specific objects, can be plotted on the circumplex, according to their levels of arousal and [[Pleasure|pleasure]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=James|author2=Feldman Barrett, Lisa|title=Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=1999|volume=76|issue=5|pages=805–819|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805|pmid=10353204}}</ref>
Russell and [[Lisa Feldman Barrett]] describe their modified circumplex model as representative of core affect, or the most elementary feelings that are not necessarily directed toward anything. Different prototypical emotional episodes, or clear emotions that are evoked or directed by specific objects, can be plotted on the circumplex, according to their levels of arousal and [[pleasure]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Russell|first=James|author2=Feldman Barrett, Lisa|title=Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|year=1999|volume=76|issue=5|pages=805–819|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805|pmid=10353204}}</ref>


=== Vector model ===
=== Vector model ===
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* The Pleasure-Displeasure Scale measures how pleasant an emotion may be. For instance, both anger and fear are unpleasant emotions, and score high on the displeasure scale. However, joy is a pleasant emotion.<ref name="Mehrabian1" />
* The Pleasure-Displeasure Scale measures how pleasant an emotion may be. For instance, both anger and fear are unpleasant emotions, and score high on the displeasure scale. However, joy is a pleasant emotion.<ref name="Mehrabian1" />


* The Arousal-Nonarousal Scale measures how energized or soporific one feels. It is not the intensity of the emotion—for [[Grief|grief]] and [[Depression (mood)|depression]] can be low arousal intense feelings. While both anger and [[Rage (emotion)|rage]] are unpleasant emotions, rage has a higher intensity or a higher arousal state. However [[Boredom|boredom]], which is also an unpleasant state, has a low arousal value.<ref name="Mehrabian1" />
* The Arousal-Nonarousal Scale measures how energized or soporific one feels. It is not the intensity of the emotion—for [[grief]] and [[Depression (mood)|depression]] can be low arousal intense feelings. While both anger and [[Rage (emotion)|rage]] are unpleasant emotions, rage has a higher intensity or a higher arousal state. However [[boredom]], which is also an unpleasant state, has a low arousal value.<ref name="Mehrabian1" />


* The Dominance-Submissiveness Scale represents the controlling and dominant nature of the emotion. For instance, while both fear and anger are unpleasant emotions, anger is a dominant emotion, while fear is a submissive emotion.<ref name="Mehrabian1" />
* The Dominance-Submissiveness Scale represents the controlling and dominant nature of the emotion. For instance, while both fear and anger are unpleasant emotions, anger is a dominant emotion, while fear is a submissive emotion.<ref name="Mehrabian1" />
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The largest piece of evidence that disputes the universality of emotions is language. Differences within languages directly correlate to differences in emotion taxonomy. Languages differ in that they categorize emotions based on different components. Some may categorize by event types, whereas others categorize by action readiness. Furthermore, emotion taxonomies vary due to the differing implications emotions have in different languages.<ref name="Mesquita" /> That being said, not all English words have equivalents in all other languages and vice versa, indicating that there are words for emotions present in some languages but not in others.<ref name="Wierzbicka">{{cite journal|last=Wierzbicka|first=Anna|title=Human Emotions: Universal or Culture-Specific?|journal=American Anthropologist|date=September 1986|volume=88|issue=3|pages=584–594|doi=10.1525/aa.1986.88.3.02a00030|jstor=679478}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Emotions such as the [[schadenfreude]] in German and [[saudade]] in Portuguese are commonly expressed in emotions in their respective languages, but lack an English equivalent.
The largest piece of evidence that disputes the universality of emotions is language. Differences within languages directly correlate to differences in emotion taxonomy. Languages differ in that they categorize emotions based on different components. Some may categorize by event types, whereas others categorize by action readiness. Furthermore, emotion taxonomies vary due to the differing implications emotions have in different languages.<ref name="Mesquita" /> That being said, not all English words have equivalents in all other languages and vice versa, indicating that there are words for emotions present in some languages but not in others.<ref name="Wierzbicka">{{cite journal|last=Wierzbicka|first=Anna|title=Human Emotions: Universal or Culture-Specific?|journal=American Anthropologist|date=September 1986|volume=88|issue=3|pages=584–594|doi=10.1525/aa.1986.88.3.02a00030|jstor=679478}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Emotions such as the [[schadenfreude]] in German and [[saudade]] in Portuguese are commonly expressed in emotions in their respective languages, but lack an English equivalent.


Some languages do not differentiate between emotions that are considered to be the basic emotions in English. For instance, certain African languages have one word for both anger and sadness, and others for [[Shame|shame]] and fear. There is ethnographic evidence that even challenges the universality of the category "emotions" because certain cultures lack a specific word relating to the English word "emotions".<ref name="Russell1991" />
Some languages do not differentiate between emotions that are considered to be the basic emotions in English. For instance, certain African languages have one word for both anger and sadness, and others for [[shame]] and fear. There is ethnographic evidence that even challenges the universality of the category "emotions" because certain cultures lack a specific word relating to the English word "emotions".<ref name="Russell1991" />


== Lists of emotions ==
== Lists of emotions ==
Emotions are categorized into various affects, which correspond to the current situation.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Solving the Emotion Paradox : Categorization and the Experience of Emotion|author=Lisa Feldman Barrett|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|year=2006|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–46|s2cid=7750265|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2|pmid=16430327}}</ref> An affect is the range of feeling experienced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/samplechapter/0132431564.pdf|title=Emotions and Moods|website=Catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk|access-date=20 October 2017}}</ref> Both positive and negative emotions are needed in our daily lives.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYKmAgAAQBAJ&q=positive+vs+negative+emotions|title=The Positive Side of Negative Emotions|last=Parrott|first=W. Gerrod|date=27 January 2014|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=9781462513338|access-date=19 December 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref> Many theories of emotion have been proposed,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://brainblogger.com/2014/10/22/comparing-the-5-theories-of-emotion/|title=Comparing The 5 Theories of Emotion – Brain Blogger|journal=Mind|year=1884|volume=os-IX|issue=34|pages=188–205|doi=10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> with contrasting views.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExILFpIhgpAC&q=contrasting+theories+on+emotion&pg=PA10|title=Emotion|last=Candland|first=Douglas|date=23 November 2017|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595270262|access-date=23 November 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref>
Emotions are categorized into various affects, which correspond to the current situation.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Solving the Emotion Paradox : Categorization and the Experience of Emotion|author=Lisa Feldman Barrett|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|year=2006|volume=10|issue=1|pages=20–46|s2cid=7750265|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2|pmid=16430327}}</ref> An affect is the range of feeling experienced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/samplechapter/0132431564.pdf|title=Emotions and Moods|website=Catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk|access-date=20 October 2017|archive-date=8 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200108054918/http://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/samplechapter/0132431564.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Both positive and negative emotions are needed in our daily lives.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PYKmAgAAQBAJ&q=positive+vs+negative+emotions|title=The Positive Side of Negative Emotions|last=Parrott|first=W. Gerrod|date=27 January 2014|publisher=Guilford Publications|isbn=9781462513338|access-date=19 December 2018|via=Google Books}}</ref> Many theories of emotion have been proposed,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://brainblogger.com/2014/10/22/comparing-the-5-theories-of-emotion/|title=Comparing The 5 Theories of Emotion – Brain Blogger|journal=Mind|year=1884|volume=os-IX|issue=34|pages=188–205|doi=10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> with contrasting views.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ExILFpIhgpAC&q=contrasting+theories+on+emotion&pg=PA10|title=Emotion|last=Candland|first=Douglas|date=23 November 2017|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=9780595270262|access-date=23 November 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref>


=== Basic emotions ===
=== Basic emotions ===


* [[William James]] in 1890 proposed four basic emotions: fear, grief, love, and rage, based on bodily involvement.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPFIy6WBgPYC&q=Fear,+grief,+love,+rage+william+james&pg=PA449|title=The Principles of Psychology|last=James|first=William|date=1 April 2007|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=9781602063136|access-date=20 October 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref>
* [[William James]] in 1890 proposed four basic emotions: fear, grief, love, and rage, based on bodily involvement.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nPFIy6WBgPYC&q=Fear,+grief,+love,+rage+william+james&pg=PA449|title=The Principles of Psychology|last=James|first=William|date=1 April 2007|publisher=Cosimo, Inc.|isbn=9781602063136|access-date=20 October 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref>
* [[Paul Ekman]] identified six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.<ref name="Handel">{{cite web|url=http://www.theemotionmachine.com/classification-of-emotions|title=Classification of Emotions|last=Handel|first=Steven|date=2011-05-24|access-date=30 April 2012}}</ref> Wallace V. Friesen and [[Phoebe C. Ellsworth]] worked with him on the same basic structure.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Are-There-Basic-Emotions1.pdf|title=Are There Basic Emotions?|website=Paulekam.com|access-date=20 October 2017}}</ref> The emotions can be linked to facial expressions. In the 1990s, Ekman proposed an expanded list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions that are not all encoded in facial muscles.<ref name="Ekman 1999">{{citation|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=Handbook of Cognition and Emotion|url=http://www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Basic-Emotions.pdf|year=1999|editor1-last=Dalgleish|editor1-first=T|contribution=Basic Emotions|place=Sussex, UK|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|editor2-last=Power|editor2-first=M}}</ref> The newly included emotions are: [[Amusement|amusement]], [[Contempt|contempt]], [[Contentment|contentment]], [[Embarrassment|embarrassment]], excitement, [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], pride in achievement, [[Relief (emotion)|relief]], satisfaction, sensory pleasure, and shame.<ref name="Ekman 1999" />
* [[Paul Ekman]] identified six basic emotions: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.<ref name="Handel">{{cite web|url=http://www.theemotionmachine.com/classification-of-emotions|title=Classification of Emotions|last=Handel|first=Steven|date=2011-05-24|access-date=30 April 2012}}</ref> Wallace V. Friesen and [[Phoebe C. Ellsworth]] worked with him on the same basic structure.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Are-There-Basic-Emotions1.pdf|title=Are There Basic Emotions?|website=Paulekam.com|access-date=20 October 2017}}</ref> The emotions can be linked to facial expressions. In the 1990s, Ekman proposed an expanded list of basic emotions, including a range of positive and negative emotions that are not all encoded in facial muscles.<ref name="Ekman 1999">{{citation|last=Ekman|first=Paul|title=Handbook of Cognition and Emotion|url=http://www.paulekman.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Basic-Emotions.pdf|year=1999|editor1-last=Dalgleish|editor1-first=T|contribution=Basic Emotions|place=Sussex, UK|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|editor2-last=Power|editor2-first=M}}</ref> The newly included emotions are: [[amusement]], [[contempt]], [[contentment]], [[embarrassment]], excitement, [[Guilt (emotion)|guilt]], pride in achievement, [[Relief (emotion)|relief]], satisfaction, sensory pleasure, and shame.<ref name="Ekman 1999" />
* [[Richard Lazarus|Richard and Bernice Lazarus]] in 1996 expanded the list to 15 emotions: aesthetic experience, anger, [[Anxiety|anxiety]], [[Compassion|compassion]], depression, [[Envy|envy]], fright, [[Gratitude|gratitude]], guilt, happiness, [[Hope|hope]], [[Jealousy|jealousy]], love, [[Pride|pride]], relief, sadness, and shame, in the book ''Passion and Reason''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kj5RDAAAQBAJ|title=Passion and Reason: Making Sense of Our Emotions|last1=Lazarus|first1=Richard S.|last2=Lazarus|first2=Bernice N.|date=23 September 1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195104615|access-date=23 September 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/recognizing.htm|title=Emotional Competency – Recognize these emotions|website=Emotionalcompetency.com|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref>
* [[Richard Lazarus|Richard and Bernice Lazarus]] in 1996 expanded the list to 15 emotions: aesthetic experience, anger, [[anxiety]], [[compassion]], depression, [[envy]], fright, [[gratitude]], guilt, happiness, [[hope]], [[jealousy]], love, [[pride]], relief, sadness, and shame, in the book ''Passion and Reason''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kj5RDAAAQBAJ|title=Passion and Reason: Making Sense of Our Emotions|last1=Lazarus|first1=Richard S.|last2=Lazarus|first2=Bernice N.|date=23 September 1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195104615|access-date=23 September 2017|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/recognizing.htm|title=Emotional Competency – Recognize these emotions|website=Emotionalcompetency.com|access-date=23 September 2017}}</ref>
* Researchers<ref>{{cite journal|title=Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients|last1=Cowen|first1=Alan S.|last2=Keltner|first2=Dacher|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=2017|volume=114|issue=38|pages=E7900–E7909|doi=10.1073/pnas.1702247114|pmid=28874542|pmc=5617253|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E7900C |doi-access=free}}</ref> at [[University of California, Berkeley]] identified 27 categories of emotion: [[Admiration|admiration]], [[Adoration|adoration]], aesthetic appreciation, amusement, anger, anxiety, [[Awe|awe]], awkwardness, boredom, [[Calmness|calmness]], [[Confusion|confusion]], craving, disgust, [[Empathy|empathic pain]], entrancement, excitement, fear, [[Fear|horror]], [[Interest (emotion)|interest]], joy, [[Nostalgia|nostalgia]], relief, romance, sadness, satisfaction, sexual desire and surprise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sci-news.com/othersciences/psychology/27-categories-emotion-05212.html|title=Psychologists Identify Twenty Seven Distinct Categories of Emotion – Psychology|website=Sci-news.com|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> This was based on 2185 short videos intended to elicit a certain emotion. These were then modeled onto a "map" of emotions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html|title=The Emotions Evoked by Video|access-date=2017-09-11}}</ref>
* Researchers<ref>{{cite journal|title=Self-report captures 27 distinct categories of emotion bridged by continuous gradients|last1=Cowen|first1=Alan S.|last2=Keltner|first2=Dacher|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=2017|volume=114|issue=38|pages=E7900–E7909|doi=10.1073/pnas.1702247114|pmid=28874542|pmc=5617253|bibcode=2017PNAS..114E7900C |doi-access=free}}</ref> at [[University of California, Berkeley]] identified 27 categories of emotion: [[admiration]], [[adoration]], aesthetic appreciation, amusement, anger, anxiety, [[awe]], awkwardness, boredom, [[calmness]], [[confusion]], craving, disgust, [[Empathy|empathic pain]], entrancement, excitement, fear, [[Fear|horror]], [[Interest (emotion)|interest]], joy, [[nostalgia]], relief, romance, sadness, satisfaction, sexual desire and surprise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sci-news.com/othersciences/psychology/27-categories-emotion-05212.html|title=Psychologists Identify Twenty Seven Distinct Categories of Emotion – Psychology|website=Sci-news.com|access-date=23 November 2017}}</ref> This was based on 2185 short videos intended to elicit a certain emotion. These were then modeled onto a "map" of emotions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com/emogifs/map.html|title=The Emotions Evoked by Video|access-date=2017-09-11}}</ref>


=== Contrasting basic emotions ===
=== Contrasting basic emotions ===
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|-
|-
| rowspan="3" |Related to object properties
| rowspan="3" |Related to object properties
|''Interest'', [[Curiosity|curiosity]], [[Enthusiasm|enthusiasm]]
|''Interest'', [[curiosity]], [[enthusiasm]]
|''Indifference'', habituation, boredom
|''Indifference'', habituation, boredom
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|''Surprise'', amusement
|''Surprise'', amusement
|''Alarm'', [[Panic|panic]]
|''Alarm'', [[panic]]
|-
|-
|Future appraisal
|Future appraisal
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|-
|-
|''Contentment''
|''Contentment''
|''Discontentment'', [[Disappointment|disappointment]]
|''Discontentment'', [[disappointment]]
|-
|-
|Self-appraisal
|Self-appraisal
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|}
|}


=== Emotion Dynamics ===
=== Emotion dynamics ===
Researchers distinguish several emotion dynamics, most commonly how intense (mean level), variable (fluctuations), inert (temporal dependency), instable (magnitude of moment-to-moment fluctuations), or differentiated someone's emotions are (the specificity of granularity of emotions), and whether and how an emotion augments or blunts other emotions.<ref name="Reitsema, A.M. 2022 374–396">{{cite journal |author=Reitsema, A.M. |year=2022 |title=Emotion dynamics in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic and descriptive review |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/157627760/2021_Reitsema_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Children_and_Adolescents.pdf |journal=Emotion |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=374–396 |doi=10.1037/emo0000970 |pmid=34843305 |s2cid=244748515}}</ref> Meta-analytic reviews show systematic developmental changes in emotion dynamics throughout childhood and adolescence and substantial between-person differences.<ref name="Reitsema, A.M. 2022 374–396" />
Researchers distinguish several emotion dynamics, most commonly how intense (mean level), variable (fluctuations), inert (temporal dependency), instable (magnitude of moment-to-moment fluctuations), or differentiated someone's emotions are (the specificity of granularity of emotions), and whether and how an emotion augments or blunts other emotions.<ref name="Reitsema, A.M. 2022 374–396">{{cite journal |author=Reitsema, A.M. |year=2022 |title=Emotion dynamics in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic and descriptive review |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/157627760/2021_Reitsema_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Children_and_Adolescents.pdf |journal=Emotion |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=374–396 |doi=10.1037/emo0000970 |pmid=34843305 |s2cid=244748515}}</ref> Meta-analytic reviews show systematic developmental changes in emotion dynamics throughout childhood and adolescence and substantial between-person differences.<ref name="Reitsema, A.M. 2022 374–396" />


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| image1 = Plutchik-wheel.svg
| image1 = Plutchik-wheel.svg
| caption1 = Plutchik's original emotion wheel
| caption1 = Plutchik's original emotion wheel
| image2 = Plutchik Dyads.png
| image2 = Plutchik Dyads.svg
| caption2 = A diagram depicting the primary, secondary, and tertiary dyads
| caption2 = A diagram depicting the primary, secondary, and tertiary dyads
| total_width =
| total_width =
| alt1 =
| alt1 =
}}In 1980, [[Robert Plutchik]] diagrammed a wheel of eight emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and [[Anticipation (emotion)|anticipation]], inspired by his ''Ten Postulates''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html|title=Basic Emotions—Plutchik|website=Personalityresearch.org|access-date=1 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html|title=The Nature of Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=R|access-date=14 April 2011|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010716082847/http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html|archive-date=July 16, 2001|publisher=American Scientist|author-link=Robert Plutchik}}</ref> Plutchik also theorized twenty-four "Primary", "Secondary", and "Tertiary" dyads (feelings composed of two emotions).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adliterate.com/archives/Plutchik.emotion.theorie.POSTER.pdf|title=Robert Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary Theory of Basic Emotions|website=Adliterate.com|access-date=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref name="Turner20002">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEeSmDRsXkcC&pg=PA76|title=On the Origins of Human Emotions: A Sociological Inquiry Into the Evolution of Human Affect|author=Jonathan Turner|date=1 June 2000|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-6436-0|page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Atifa Athar|author2=M. Saleem Khan|author3=Khalil Ahmed|author4=Aiesha Ahmed|author5=Nida Anwar|date=June 2011|title=A Fuzzy Inference System for Synergy Estimation of Simultaneous Emotion Dynamics in Agents|url=http://www.ijser.org/paper/A_Fuzzy_Inference_System_for_Synergy_Estimation_of_Simultaneous_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Agents.html|journal=International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research|volume=2|issue=6}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yUAlDwAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+dyads&pg=PA67|title=Alienation and Affect|last=TenHouten|first=Warren D.|date=1 December 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781317678533|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vBWcCgAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+dyads&pg=PA47|title=Entertainment Computing - ICEC 2015: 14th International Conference, ICEC 2015, Trondheim, Norway, September 29 - October 2, 2015, Proceedings|last1=Chorianopoulos|first1=Konstantinos|last2=Divitini|first2=Monica|last3=Hauge|first3=Jannicke Baalsrud|last4=Jaccheri|first4=Letizia|last5=Malaka|first5=Rainer|date=24 September 2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783319245898|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaQauznPoiEC&q=emotion+intensity+plutchik+wheel|title=The Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=Robert|date=25 June 1991|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780819182869|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDGICgAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+adoration&pg=PT481|title=Consumer Behaviour: Perspectives, Findings and Explanations|last=O'Shaughnessy|first=John|date=4 December 2012|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education|isbn=9781137003782|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref> The wheel emotions can be paired in four groups:
}}In 1980, [[Robert Plutchik]] diagrammed a wheel of eight emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and [[Anticipation (emotion)|anticipation]], inspired by his ''Ten Postulates''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.personalityresearch.org/basicemotions/plutchik.html|title=Basic Emotions—Plutchik|website=Personalityresearch.org|access-date=1 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html|title=The Nature of Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=R|access-date=14 April 2011|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010716082847/http://americanscientist.org/articles/01articles/Plutchik.html|archive-date=July 16, 2001|publisher=American Scientist|author-link=Robert Plutchik}}</ref> Plutchik also theorized twenty-four "Primary", "Secondary", and "Tertiary" dyads (feelings composed of two emotions).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adliterate.com/archives/Plutchik.emotion.theorie.POSTER.pdf|title=Robert Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary Theory of Basic Emotions|website=Adliterate.com|access-date=2017-06-05}}</ref><ref name="Turner20002">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aEeSmDRsXkcC&pg=PA76|title=On the Origins of Human Emotions: A Sociological Inquiry Into the Evolution of Human Affect|author=Jonathan Turner|date=1 June 2000|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-6436-0|page=76}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Atifa Athar|author2=M. Saleem Khan|author3=Khalil Ahmed|author4=Aiesha Ahmed|author5=Nida Anwar|date=June 2011|title=A Fuzzy Inference System for Synergy Estimation of Simultaneous Emotion Dynamics in Agents|url=http://www.ijser.org/paper/A_Fuzzy_Inference_System_for_Synergy_Estimation_of_Simultaneous_Emotion_Dynamics_in_Agents.html|journal=International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research|volume=2|issue=6}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yUAlDwAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+dyads&pg=PA67|title=Alienation and Affect|last=TenHouten|first=Warren D.|date=1 December 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781317678533|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vBWcCgAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+dyads&pg=PA47|title=Entertainment Computing - ICEC 2015: 14th International Conference, ICEC 2015, Trondheim, Norway, September 29 - October 2, 2015, Proceedings|last1=Chorianopoulos|first1=Konstantinos|last2=Divitini|first2=Monica|last3=Hauge|first3=Jannicke Baalsrud|last4=Jaccheri|first4=Letizia|last5=Malaka|first5=Rainer|date=24 September 2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=9783319245898|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaQauznPoiEC&q=emotion+intensity+plutchik+wheel|title=The Emotions|last=Plutchik|first=Robert|date=25 June 1991|publisher=University Press of America|isbn=9780819182869|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CDGICgAAQBAJ&q=plutchik+adoration&pg=PT481|title=Consumer Behaviour: Perspectives, Findings and Explanations|last=O'Shaughnessy|first=John|date=4 December 2012|publisher=Macmillan International Higher Education|isbn=9781137003782|access-date=25 June 2019|via=Google Books}}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The wheel emotions can be paired in four groups:


: Primary dyad = one petal apart = '''Love''' = ''Joy'' + ''Trust''
: Primary dyad = one petal apart = '''Love''' = ''Joy'' + ''Trust''
Line 528: Line 524:


=== Six emotion axes ===
=== Six emotion axes ===
MIT researchers <ref name="interplay" /> published a paper titled "An Affective Model of Interplay Between Emotions and Learning: Reengineering Educational Pedagogy—Building a Learning Companion" that lists six axes of emotions with different opposite emotions, and different emotions coming from ranges.<ref name="interplay">{{cite book|title=Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies|last1=Kort|first1=B.|last2=Reilly|first2=R.|last3=Picard|first3=R.W.|year=2001|isbn=0-7695-1013-2|pages=43–46|chapter=An affective model of interplay between emotions and learning: Reengineering educational pedagogy-building a learning companion|doi=10.1109/ICALT.2001.943850|s2cid=9573470|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/568626|via=www.academia.edu}}</ref>
MIT researchers <ref name="interplay" /> published a paper titled "An Affective Model of Interplay Between Emotions and Learning: Reengineering Educational Pedagogy—Building a Learning Companion" that lists six axes of emotions with different opposite emotions, and different emotions coming from ranges.<ref name="interplay">{{cite book|title=Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies|last1=Kort|first1=B.|last2=Reilly|first2=R.|last3=Picard|first3=R.W.|year=2001|isbn=0-7695-1013-2|pages=43–46|chapter=An affective model of interplay between emotions and learning: Reengineering educational pedagogy-building a learning companion|doi=10.1109/ICALT.2001.943850|s2cid=9573470|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/568626|via=Academia.edu}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Emotional flow
|+Emotional flow
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|Confusion
|Confusion
|[[Insight]]
|[[Insight]]
|[[Enlightenment (spiritual)|Enlightenment]]
|Enlightenment
|[[Epiphany (feeling)|Epiphany]]
|[[Epiphany (feeling)|Epiphany]]
|-
|-
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=== ''The Book of Human Emotions'' ===
=== ''The Book of Human Emotions'' ===
Tiffany Watt Smith listed 154 different worldwide emotions and feelings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anarchiveforemotions.com/files/DisOrder_uploads/images/TheBookOfHumanEmotions.pdf |title=The Book of Human Emotions: An Encyclopedia of Feeling from Anger to Wanderlust |author=Tiffany Watt Smith |website=Anarchiveforemotions.com |access-date=2017-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418032350/http://anarchiveforemotions.com/files/DisOrder_uploads/images/TheBookOfHumanEmotions.pdf |archive-date=18 April 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Tiffany Watt Smith listed 154 different worldwide emotions and feelings.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anarchiveforemotions.com/files/DisOrder_uploads/images/TheBookOfHumanEmotions.pdf |title=The Book of Human Emotions: An Encyclopedia of Feeling from Anger to Wanderlust |author=Tiffany Watt Smith |website=Anarchiveforemotions.com |access-date=2017-05-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418032350/http://anarchiveforemotions.com/files/DisOrder_uploads/images/TheBookOfHumanEmotions.pdf |archive-date=18 April 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=13em}}
{{div col|colwidth=13em}}
*A
*A
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**Excitement
**Excitement
*F
*F
**Fago
**Fear
**Fear
**[[Contentment|Feeling good]] (about yourself)
**[[Contentment|Feeling good]] (about yourself)
Line 692: Line 690:
*I
*I
**''[[wikt:いじらしい|Ijirashi]]''
**''[[wikt:いじらしい|Ijirashi]]''
**Ikstuarpok
**''[[Ilinx]]''
**''[[Ilinx]]''
**[[Impatience]]
**[[Impatience]]
Line 717: Line 716:
**''[[Mono no aware]]''
**''[[Mono no aware]]''
**[[Morbid curiosity]]
**[[Morbid curiosity]]
**Mudita
*N
*N
**''[[wikt:naches|Nakhes]]''
**''[[wikt:naches|Nakhes]]''
Line 765: Line 765:
**''[[wikt:тоска#Russian|Toska]]''
**''[[wikt:тоска#Russian|Toska]]''
**Triumph
**Triumph
*U
**Umpty
**Uncertainty
*V
*V
**Vengefulness
**Vengefulness
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Scientists map twenty-one different facial emotions<ref>{{cite news |date=31 March 2014 |title=Happily disgusted? Scientists map facial expressions for 21 emotions |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/31/happily-disgusted-scientists-map-facial-expressions}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Jacque Wilson |date=2014-04-04 |title=Happily disgusted? 15 new emotions ID'd |url=http://www.ksl.com/?sid=29340839&nid= |access-date=2017-07-16 |website=KSL.com}}</ref> expanded from Paul Ekman's six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise:
Scientists map twenty-one different facial emotions<ref>{{cite news |date=31 March 2014 |title=Happily disgusted? Scientists map facial expressions for 21 emotions |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/mar/31/happily-disgusted-scientists-map-facial-expressions}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Jacque Wilson |date=2014-04-04 |title=Happily disgusted? 15 new emotions ID'd |url=http://www.ksl.com/?sid=29340839&nid= |access-date=2017-07-16 |website=KSL.com}}</ref> expanded from Paul Ekman's six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
⚫
|
⚫
|Happy
|Sad
|
|Fearful
|Fearful
|Angry
|Angry
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|Disgusted
|Disgusted
|-
|-
⚫
|Happy
⚫
|
|
|
|
|
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|Happily Disgusted
|Happily Disgusted
|-
|-
|
|Sad
|
|
|Sadly Fearful
|Sadly Fearful
Line 832: Line 835:
* [[Alexithymia]]
* [[Alexithymia]]
* [[Emotion and memory]]
* [[Emotion and memory]]
* [[Emotional granularity]]
* [[List of virtues]]
* [[List of virtues]]
* [[Mood (psychology)]]
* [[Mood (psychology)]]
Line 869: Line 873:


* [[Jesse Prinz|Prinz, J.]] (2004). ''Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotions''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780195309362}}
* [[Jesse Prinz|Prinz, J.]] (2004). ''Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotions''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780195309362}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Sugu | first1 = Dana | last2 = Chaterjee | first2 = Amita | year = 2010 | title = Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions | url = https://sites.google.com/site/sugudana/articles-1 | journal = International Journal on Humanistic Ideology | volume = 3 | issue = 1}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Sugu | first1 = Dana | last2 = Chaterjee | first2 = Amita | year = 2010 | title = Flashback: Reshuffling Emotions | url = https://sites.google.com/site/sugudana/articles-1 | journal = International Journal on Humanistic Ideology | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | access-date = 2010-11-11 | archive-date = 2011-04-30 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110430041037/https://sites.google.com/site/sugudana/articles-1 | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.37.3.345 | last1 = Russell | first1 = J.A. | s2cid = 17557962 | year = 1979 | title = Affective space is bipolar | journal = [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 345–356 }}
* {{cite journal | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.37.3.345 | last1 = Russell | first1 = J.A. | s2cid = 17557962 | year = 1979 | title = Affective space is bipolar | journal = [[Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]] | volume = 37 | issue = 3| pages = 345–356 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Russell | first1 = J.A. | title = Culture and the categorization of emotions | journal = [[Psychological Bulletin]] | volume = 110 | issue = 3 | pages = 426–50 | year = 1991 | pmid = 1758918 | url = https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf | access-date = 15 December 2015 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.426 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190605/https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Russell | first1 = J.A. | title = Culture and the categorization of emotions | journal = [[Psychological Bulletin]] | volume = 110 | issue = 3 | pages = 426–50 | year = 1991 | pmid = 1758918 | url = https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf | access-date = 15 December 2015 | doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.426 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190605/https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1991.pdf | archive-date = 2016-03-04 | url-status = dead }}

Latest revision as of 09:48, 4 December 2024

Colored intaglio prints by Charles Le Brun and J. Pass depicting the facial expressions of sixteen emotions
Part of a series on
Emotions
Emotions

Emotion classification, the means by which one may distinguish or contrast one emotion from another, is a contested issue in emotion research and in affective science. Researchers have approached the classification of emotions from one of two fundamental viewpoints:[citation needed]

  1. that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs
  2. that emotions can be characterized on a dimensional basis in groupings

Emotions as discrete categories

[edit]

In discrete emotion theory, all humans are thought to have an innate set of basic emotions that are cross-culturally recognizable. These basic emotions are described as "discrete" because they are believed to be distinguishable by an individual's facial expression and biological processes.[1] Theorists have conducted studies to determine which emotions are basic. A popular example is Paul Ekman and his colleagues' cross-cultural study of 1992, in which they concluded that the six basic emotions are anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.[2] Ekman explains that there are particular characteristics attached to each of these emotions, allowing them to be expressed in varying degrees in a non-verbal manner.[3][4] Each emotion acts as a discrete category rather than an individual emotional state.[5]

Simplicity debate

[edit]

Humans' subjective experience is that emotions are clearly recognizable in ourselves and others. This apparent ease of recognition has led to the identification of a number of emotions that are said to be basic, and universal among all people. However, a debate among experts has questioned this understanding of what emotions are. There has been recent discussion of the progression on the different views of emotion over the years.[6]

On "basic emotion" accounts, activation of an emotion, such as anger, sadness, or fear, is "triggered" by the brain's appraisal of a stimulus or event with respect to the perceiver's goals or survival. In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from observing the biological signatures.[5]

On "constructionist" accounts, the emotion a person feels in response to a stimulus or event is "constructed" from more elemental biological and psychological ingredients. Two hypothesized ingredients are "core affect" (characterized by, e.g., hedonic valence and physiological arousal) and conceptual knowledge (such as the semantic meaning of the emotion labels themselves, e.g., the word "anger"). A theme common to many constructionist theories is that different emotions do not have specific locations in the nervous system or distinct physiological signatures, and that context is central to the emotion a person feels because of the accessibility of different concepts afforded by different contexts.[7]

Dimensional models of emotion

[edit]

For both theoretical and practical reasons, researchers define emotions according to one or more dimensions. In his philosophical treatise, The Passions of the Soul, Descartes defines and investigates the six primary passions (Wonder, love, hate, desire, joy, and sadness). In 1897, Wilhelm Max Wundt, the father of modern psychology, proposed that emotions can be described by three dimensions: "pleasurable versus unpleasurable", "arousing or subduing", and "strain or relaxation".[8] In 1954, Harold Schlosberg named three dimensions of emotion: "pleasantness–unpleasantness", "attention–rejection" and "level of activation".[9]

Dimensional models of emotion attempt to conceptualize human emotions by defining where they lie in two or three dimensions. Most dimensional models incorporate valence and arousal or intensity dimensions. Dimensional models of emotion suggest that a common and interconnected neurophysiological system is responsible for all affective states.[10] These models contrast theories of basic emotion, which propose that different emotions arise from separate neural systems.[10] Several dimensional models of emotion have been developed, though there are just a few that remain as the dominant models currently accepted by most.[11] The two-dimensional models that are most prominent are the circumplex model, the vector model, and the Positive Activation – Negative Activation (PANA) model.[11]

Circumplex model

[edit]
Circumplex model of emotion has two axes: Valence and Arousal

The circumplex model of emotion was developed by James Russell.[12] This model suggests that emotions are distributed in a two-dimensional circular space, containing arousal and valence dimensions. Arousal represents the vertical axis and valence represents the horizontal axis, while the center of the circle represents a neutral valence and a medium level of arousal.[11] In this model, emotional states can be represented at any level of valence and arousal, or at a neutral level of one or both of these factors. Circumplex models have been used most commonly to test stimuli of emotion words, emotional facial expressions, and affective states.[13]

Russell and Lisa Feldman Barrett describe their modified circumplex model as representative of core affect, or the most elementary feelings that are not necessarily directed toward anything. Different prototypical emotional episodes, or clear emotions that are evoked or directed by specific objects, can be plotted on the circumplex, according to their levels of arousal and pleasure.[14]

Vector model

[edit]
The vector model of emotion suggests that emotions are structured in terms of arousal and valence. A positive valence represents appetitive motivation and negative valence represents defensive motivation.[15]

The vector model of emotion appeared in 1992.[16] This two-dimensional model consists of vectors that point in two directions, representing a "boomerang" shape. The model assumes that there is always an underlying arousal dimension, and that valence determines the direction in which a particular emotion lies. For example, a positive valence would shift the emotion up the top vector and a negative valence would shift the emotion down the bottom vector.[11] In this model, high arousal states are differentiated by their valence, whereas low arousal states are more neutral and are represented near the meeting point of the vectors. Vector models have been most widely used in the testing of word and picture stimuli.[13]

Positive activation – negative activation (P.A.N.A.) model

[edit]

The positive activation – negative activation (P.A.N.A.) or "consensual" model of emotion, originally created by Watson and Tellegen in 1985,[17] suggests that positive affect and negative affect are two separate systems. Similar to the vector model, states of higher arousal tend to be defined by their valence, and states of lower arousal tend to be more neutral in terms of valence.[11] In the P.A.N.A. model, the vertical axis represents low to high positive affect and the horizontal axis represents low to high negative affect. The dimensions of valence and arousal lay at a 45-degree rotation over these axes.[17]

Plutchik's model

[edit]

Robert Plutchik offers a three-dimensional model that is a hybrid of both basic-complex categories and dimensional theories. It arranges emotions in concentric circles where inner circles are more basic and outer circles more complex. Notably, outer circles are also formed by blending the inner circle emotions. Plutchik's model, as Russell's, emanates from a circumplex representation, where emotional words were plotted based on similarity.[18] There are numerous emotions, which appear in several intensities and can be combined in various ways to form emotional "dyads".[19][20][21][22][23]

PAD emotional state model

[edit]
Main article: PAD emotional state model

The PAD emotional state model is a psychological model developed by Albert Mehrabian and James A. Russell to describe and measure emotional states. PAD uses three numerical dimensions to represent all emotions.[24][25] The PAD dimensions are Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance.

  • The Pleasure-Displeasure Scale measures how pleasant an emotion may be. For instance, both anger and fear are unpleasant emotions, and score high on the displeasure scale. However, joy is a pleasant emotion.[24]
  • The Arousal-Nonarousal Scale measures how energized or soporific one feels. It is not the intensity of the emotion—for grief and depression can be low arousal intense feelings. While both anger and rage are unpleasant emotions, rage has a higher intensity or a higher arousal state. However boredom, which is also an unpleasant state, has a low arousal value.[24]
  • The Dominance-Submissiveness Scale represents the controlling and dominant nature of the emotion. For instance, while both fear and anger are unpleasant emotions, anger is a dominant emotion, while fear is a submissive emotion.[24]

Criticisms

[edit]

Cultural considerations

[edit]

Ethnographic and cross-cultural studies of emotions have shown the variety of ways in which emotions differ with cultures. Because of these differences, many cross-cultural psychologists and anthropologists challenge the idea of universal classifications of emotions altogether. Cultural differences have been observed in the way in which emotions are valued, expressed, and regulated. The social norms for emotions, such as the frequency with or circumstances in which they are expressed, also vary drastically.[26][27] For example, the demonstration of anger is encouraged by Kaluli people, but condemned by Utku Inuit.[28]

The largest piece of evidence that disputes the universality of emotions is language. Differences within languages directly correlate to differences in emotion taxonomy. Languages differ in that they categorize emotions based on different components. Some may categorize by event types, whereas others categorize by action readiness. Furthermore, emotion taxonomies vary due to the differing implications emotions have in different languages.[26] That being said, not all English words have equivalents in all other languages and vice versa, indicating that there are words for emotions present in some languages but not in others.[29] Emotions such as the schadenfreude in German and saudade in Portuguese are commonly expressed in emotions in their respective languages, but lack an English equivalent.

Some languages do not differentiate between emotions that are considered to be the basic emotions in English. For instance, certain African languages have one word for both anger and sadness, and others for shame and fear. There is ethnographic evidence that even challenges the universality of the category "emotions" because certain cultures lack a specific word relating to the English word "emotions".[27]

Lists of emotions

[edit]

Emotions are categorized into various affects, which correspond to the current situation.[30] An affect is the range of feeling experienced.[31] Both positive and negative emotions are needed in our daily lives.[32] Many theories of emotion have been proposed,[33] with contrasting views.[34]

Basic emotions

[edit]

Contrasting basic emotions

[edit]

A 2009 review[44] of theories of emotion identifies and contrasts fundamental emotions according to three key criteria for mental experiences that:

  1. have a strongly motivating subjective quality like pleasure or pain;
  2. are a response to some event or object that is either real or imagined;
  3. motivate particular kinds of behavior.

The combination of these attributes distinguishes emotions from sensations, feelings and moods.

Kind of emotion Positive emotions Negative emotions
Related to object properties Interest, curiosity, enthusiasm Indifference, habituation, boredom
Attraction, desire, admiration Aversion, disgust, revulsion
Surprise, amusement Alarm, panic
Future appraisal Hope, excitement Fear, anxiety, dread
Event-related Gratitude, thankfulness Anger, rage
Joy, elation, triumph, jubilation Sorrow, grief
Patience Frustration, restlessness
Contentment Discontentment, disappointment
Self-appraisal Humility, modesty Pride, arrogance
Social Charity Avarice, greed, miserliness, envy, jealousy
Sympathy Cruelty
Cathected Love Hate

Emotion dynamics

[edit]

Researchers distinguish several emotion dynamics, most commonly how intense (mean level), variable (fluctuations), inert (temporal dependency), instable (magnitude of moment-to-moment fluctuations), or differentiated someone's emotions are (the specificity of granularity of emotions), and whether and how an emotion augments or blunts other emotions.[45] Meta-analytic reviews show systematic developmental changes in emotion dynamics throughout childhood and adolescence and substantial between-person differences.[45]

HUMAINE's proposal for EARL

[edit]

The emotion annotation and representation language (EARL) proposed by the Human-Machine Interaction Network on Emotion (HUMAINE) classifies 48 emotions.[46]

Parrott's emotions by groups

[edit]

A tree-structured list of emotions was described in Shaver et al. (1987),[47] and also featured in Parrott (2001).[48]

Primary emotion Secondary emotion Tertiary emotion
Love Affection Adoration · Fondness · Liking · Attraction · Caring · Tenderness · Compassion · Sentimentality
Lust/Sexual desire Desire · Passion · Infatuation
Longing Longing
Joy Cheerfulness Amusement · Bliss · Gaiety · Glee · Jolliness · Joviality · Joy · Delight · Enjoyment · Gladness · Happiness · Jubilation · Elation · Satisfaction · Ecstasy · Euphoria
Zest Enthusiasm · Zeal · Excitement · Thrill · Exhilaration
Contentment Pleasure
Pride Triumph
Optimism Eagerness · Hope
Enthrallment Enthrallment · Rapture
Relief Relief
Surprise Surprise Amazement · Astonishment
Anger Irritability Aggravation · Agitation · Annoyance · Grouchy · Grumpy · Crosspatch
Exasperation Frustration
Rage Anger · Outrage · Fury · Wrath · Hostility · Ferocity · Bitterness · Hatred · Scorn · Spite · Vengefulness · Dislike · Resentment
Disgust Revulsion · Contempt · Loathing
Envy Jealousy
Torment Torment
Sadness Suffering Agony · Anguish · Hurt
Sadness Depression · Despair · Gloom · Glumness · Unhappiness · Grief · Sorrow · Woe · Misery · Melancholy
Disappointment Dismay · Displeasure
Shame Guilt · Regret · Remorse
Neglect Alienation · Defeatism · Dejection · Embarrassment · Homesickness · Humiliation · Insecurity · Insult · Isolation · Loneliness · Rejection
Sympathy Pity · Mono no aware · Sympathy
Fear Horror Alarm · Shock · Fear · Fright · Horror · Terror · Panic · Hysteria · Mortification
Nervousness Anxiety · Suspense · Uneasiness · Apprehension (fear) · Worry · Distress · Dread

Plutchik's wheel of emotions

[edit]
Plutchik's original emotion wheel
A diagram depicting the primary, secondary, and tertiary dyads

In 1980, Robert Plutchik diagrammed a wheel of eight emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and anticipation, inspired by his Ten Postulates.[49][50] Plutchik also theorized twenty-four "Primary", "Secondary", and "Tertiary" dyads (feelings composed of two emotions).[51][52][53][54][55][56][57] The wheel emotions can be paired in four groups:

Primary dyad = one petal apart = Love = Joy + Trust
Secondary dyad = two petals apart = Envy = Sadness + Anger
Tertiary dyad = three petals apart = Shame = Fear + Disgust
Opposite emotions = four petals apart = Anticipation ∉ Surprise

There are also triads, emotions formed from 3 primary emotions, though Plutchik never describes in any detail what the triads might be.[58] This leads to a combination of 24 dyads and 32 triads, making 56 emotions at 1 intensity level.[59] Emotions can be mild or intense;[60] for example, distraction is a mild form of surprise, and rage is an intense form of anger. The kinds of relation between each pair of emotions are:

Emotions and opposites
Mild emotion Mild opposite Basic emotion Basic opposite Intense emotion Intense opposite
Serenity Pensiveness, Gloominess Joy, Cheerfulness Sadness, Dejection Ecstasy, Elation Grief, Sorrow
Acceptance, Tolerance Boredom, Dislike Trust Disgust, Aversion Admiration, Adoration Loathing, Revulsion
Apprehension, Dismay Annoyance, Irritation Fear, Fright Anger, Hostility Terror, Panic Rage, Fury
Distraction, Uncertainty Interest, Attentiveness Surprise Anticipation, Expectancy Amazement, Astonishment Vigilance
Dyads (Combinations)
Human feelings Emotions Opposite feelings Emotions
Optimism, Courage Anticipation + Joy Disapproval, Disappointment Surprise + Sadness
Hope, Fatalism Anticipation + Trust Unbelief, Shock Surprise + Disgust
Anxiety, Dread Anticipation + Fear Outrage, Hate Surprise + Anger
Love, Friendliness Joy + Trust Remorse, Misery Sadness + Disgust
Guilt, Excitement Joy + Fear Envy, Sullenness Sadness + Anger
Delight, Doom Joy + Surprise Pessimism Sadness + Anticipation
Submission, Modesty Trust + Fear Contempt, Scorn Disgust + Anger
Curiosity Trust + Surprise Cynicism Disgust + Anticipation
Sentimentality, Resignation Trust + Sadness Morbidness, Derisiveness Disgust + Joy
Awe, Alarm Fear + Surprise Aggressiveness, Vengeance Anger + Anticipation
Despair Fear + Sadness Pride, Victory Anger + Joy
Shame, Prudishness Fear + Disgust Dominance Anger + Trust
Opposite combinations[54]
Human feelings Emotions
Bittersweetness Joy + Sadness
Ambivalence Trust + Disgust
Frozenness Fear + Anger
Confusion Surprise + Anticipation

Similar emotions in the wheel are adjacent to each other.[61] Anger, Anticipation, Joy, and Trust are positive in valence, while Fear, Surprise, Sadness, and Disgust are negative in valence. Anger is classified as a "positive" emotion because it involves "moving toward" a goal,[62] while surprise is negative because it is a violation of someone's territory.[63] The emotion dyads each have half-opposites and exact opposites:[64]

Anticipation, Joy, Surprise, Sadness
+ Sadness Joy
Anticipation Pessimism Optimism
Surprise Disapproval Delight
Joy, Trust, Sadness, Disgust
+ Disgust Trust
Joy Morbidness Love
Sadness Remorse Sentimentality
Trust, Fear, Disgust, Anger
+ Fear Anger
Trust Submission Dominance
Disgust Shame Contempt
Fear, Surprise, Anger, Anticipation
+ Surprise Anticipation
Anger Outrage Aggressiveness
Fear Awe Anxiety
Trust, Surprise, Disgust, Anticipation
+ Surprise Anticipation
Trust Curiosity Hope
Disgust Unbelief Cynicism
Joy, Fear, Sadness, Anger
+ Fear Anger
Joy Guilt Pride
Sadness Despair Envy

Six emotion axes

[edit]

MIT researchers [65] published a paper titled "An Affective Model of Interplay Between Emotions and Learning: Reengineering Educational Pedagogy—Building a Learning Companion" that lists six axes of emotions with different opposite emotions, and different emotions coming from ranges.[65]

Emotional flow
Axis -1.0 -0.5 0 0 +0.5 +1.0
Anxiety – Confidence Anxiety Worry Discomfort Comfort Hopeful Confident
Boredom – Fascination Ennui Boredom Indifference Interest Curiosity Intrigue
Frustration – Euphoria Frustration Puzzlement Confusion Insight Enlightenment Epiphany
Dispirited – Encouraged Dispirited Disappointed Dissatisfied Satisfied Thrilled Enthusiastic
Terror – Enchantment Terror Dread Apprehension Calm Anticipatory Excited
Humiliation – Pride Humiliated Embarrassed Self-conscious Pleased Satisfied Proud

They also made a model labeling phases of learning emotions.[65]

Negative Affect Positive Affect
Constructive Learning Disappointment, Puzzlement, Confusion Awe, Satisfaction, Curiosity
Un-learning Frustration, Discard,

Misconceptions

Hopefulness, Fresh research

The Book of Human Emotions

[edit]

Tiffany Watt Smith listed 154 different worldwide emotions and feelings.[66]

Mapping facial expressions

[edit]

Scientists map twenty-one different facial emotions[68][69] expanded from Paul Ekman's six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise:

Fearful Angry Surprised Disgusted
Happy Happily Surprised Happily Disgusted
Sad Sadly Fearful Sadly Angry Sadly Surprised Sadly Disgusted
Appalled Fearfully Angry Fearfully Surprised Fearfully Disgusted
Awed Angrily Surprised Angrily Disgusted
Hatred Disgustedly Surprised

See also

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Ekman, P. (1972). Universals and cultural differences in facial expression of emotion. In J. Cole (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press: pp. 207–283.
  • Ekman, P. (1992). "An argument for basic emotions". Cognition and Emotion. 6 (3): 169–200. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.1984. doi:10.1080/02699939208411068.
  • Ekman, P. (1999). Basic Emotions. In T. Dalgleish and T. Power (Eds.) The Handbook of Cognition and Emotion Pp. 45–60. Sussex, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
  • Fontaine, J.; Scherer, KR; Roesch, EB; Ellsworth, PC (2007). "The world of emotions is not two-dimensional". Psychological Science. 18 (12): 1050–1057. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1031.3706. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02024.x. PMID 18031411. S2CID 1779061.
  • Koelsch, S.; Jacobs, AM.; Menninghaus, W.; Liebal, K.; Klann-Delius, G.; von Scheve, C.; Gebauer, G. (2015). "The quartet theory of human emotions: An integrative and neurofunctional model". Phys Life Rev. 13: 1–27. Bibcode:2015PhLRv..13....1K. doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2015.03.001. PMID 25891321.

Notes and references

[edit]
  1. ^ Colombetti, Giovanna (August 2009). "From affect programs to dynamical discrete emotions". Philosophical Psychology. 22 (4): 407–425. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.728.9666. doi:10.1080/09515080903153600. S2CID 40157414.
  2. ^ Ekman, Paul (January 1992). "Facial Expressions of Emotion: New Findings, New Questions". Psychological Science. 3 (1): 34–38. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1992.tb00253.x. S2CID 9274447.
  3. ^ Bąk, Halszka (2023-12-01). "Issues in the translation equivalence of basic emotion terms". Ampersand. 11: 100128. doi:10.1016/j.amper.2023.100128. ISSN 2215-0390.
  4. ^ Elfenbein, Hillary Anger; Ambady, Nalini (2003-10-01). "Universals and Cultural Differences in Recognizing Emotions". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 12 (5): 159–164. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01252. ISSN 0963-7214. S2CID 262438746.
  5. ^ a b Ekman, Paul (1992). "An Argument for Basic Emotions". Cognition and Emotion. 6 (3/4): 169–200. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.454.1984. doi:10.1080/02699939208411068.
  6. ^ Gendron, Maria; Barrett, Lisa Feldman (October 2009). "Reconstructing the Past: A Century of Ideas About Emotion in Psychology". Emotion Review. 1 (4): 316–339. doi:10.1177/1754073909338877. PMC 2835158. PMID 20221412.
  7. ^ Barrett, Lisa Feldman (2006). "Solving the Emotion Paradox: Categorization and the Experience of Emotion". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 10 (1): 20–46. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr1001_2. PMID 16430327. S2CID 7750265.
  8. ^ W.M. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology. (1897). In: Classics in the history of psychology. http://psychclassics.asu.edu/index.htm Archived 2001-02-24 at the Wayback Machine, York University 2010, Toronto.
  9. ^ Schlosberg, H. (1954). "Three dimensions of emotion". Psychological Review. 61 (2): 81–8. doi:10.1037/h0054570. PMID 13155714. S2CID 27914497.
  10. ^ a b Posner, Jonathan; Russell, J.A.; Peterson, B. S. (2005). "The circumplex model of affect: An integrative approach to affective neuroscience, cognitive development, and psychopathology". Development and Psychopathology. 17 (3): 715–734. doi:10.1017/s0954579405050340. PMC 2367156. PMID 16262989.
  11. ^ a b c d e Rubin, D. C.; Talerico, J.M. (2009). "A comparison of dimensional models of emotion". Memory. 17 (8): 802–808. doi:10.1080/09658210903130764. PMC 2784275. PMID 19691001.
  12. ^ Russell, James (1980). "A circumplex model of affect". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 39 (6): 1161–1178. doi:10.1037/h0077714. hdl:10983/22919.
  13. ^ a b Remington, N. A.; Fabrigar, L. R.; Visser, P. S. (2000). "Re-examining the circumplex model of affect". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 79 (2): 286–300. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.2.286. PMID 10948981.
  14. ^ Russell, James; Feldman Barrett, Lisa (1999). "Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: dissecting the elephant". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 76 (5): 805–819. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.805. PMID 10353204.
  15. ^ Wilson, Graham; Dobrev, Dobromir; Brewster, Stephen A. (2016-05-07). "Hot Under the Collar: Mapping Thermal Feedback to Dimensional Models of Emotion" (PDF). Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. pp. 4838–4849. doi:10.1145/2858036.2858205. ISBN 9781450333627. S2CID 13051231.
  16. ^ Bradley, M. M.; Greenwald, M. K.; Petry, M.C.; Lang, P. J. (1992). "Remembering pictures: Pleasure and arousal in memory". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 18 (2): 379–390. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.18.2.379. PMID 1532823.
  17. ^ a b Watson, D.; Tellegen, A. (1985). "Toward a consensual structure of mood". Psychological Bulletin. 98 (2): 219–235. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219. PMID 3901060.
  18. ^ Plutchik, R. "The Nature of Emotions". American Scientist. Archived from the original on July 16, 2001. Retrieved 14 April 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  19. ^ Plutchik, Robert (16 September 1991). The Emotions. University Press of America. p. 110. ISBN 9780819182869. Retrieved 16 September 2017 – via Google Books.
  20. ^ Plutchik, R. "The Nature of Emotions". American Scientist. Archived from the original on July 16, 2001. Retrieved 14 April 2011.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  21. ^ "Robert Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary Theory of Basic Emotions" (PDF). Adliterate.com. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
  22. ^ Jonathan Turner (1 June 2000). On the Origins of Human Emotions: A Sociological Inquiry Into the Evolution of Human Affect. Stanford University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8047-6436-0.
  23. ^ Atifa Athar; M. Saleem Khan; Khalil Ahmed; Aiesha Ahmed; Nida Anwar (June 2011). "A Fuzzy Inference System for Synergy Estimation of Simultaneous Emotion Dynamics in Agents". International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research. 2 (6).
  24. ^ a b c d Mehrabian, Albert (1980). Basic dimensions for a general psychological theory. Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain. pp. 39–53. ISBN 978-0-89946-004-8.
  25. ^ Bales, Robert Freed (2001). Social interaction systems: theory and measurement. Transaction Publishers. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0-7658-0872-1.
  26. ^ a b Mesquita, Batja; Nico Frijda (September 1992). "Cultural variations in emotions: a review". Psychological Bulletin. 112 (2): 179–204. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.179. PMID 1454891.
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