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Warfare in Sumer predominantly consisted of small-scale conflicts between nearby city-states. Sumerian armies consisted of bronze-armoured soldiers armed with various weapons, including spears, swords and sickle-swords, engaging each other in phalanx-like formations. When besieging cities, battering rams and sappers would be used to breach the defences; on the open battlefield, chariots were also used. Most wars were fought because of inter-city rivalries, or for wealth, resources, and prestige. Military victories were later glorified in Mesopotamian art — a major source of historical information.

History

Weapons and Tactics

Soldiers in ancient Mesopotamia militaries were well-trained and well-equipped. Archaeological studies show that the Sumerians used war-carts and iron or bronze weapons;^[1] most soldiers used axes, daggers, and spears; units with spears would be organized into close-order formations.^[2] Armor included copper and bronze helmets, as well as bronze armor and cloaks studded in metal discs, although some depictions of light infantry show them without armor, only wearing skirts adorned with feathers. The oldest known helmet ever, the Golden Wig, was made of beaten and engraved gold with a wadded linen liner. Bronze and copper alloy helmets dating back to 2500 BCE have also been found. By 2100 BCE, bronze scale armor had developed.^[3]

To support the main army there would be light infantry equipped with javelins and bows. Sumerian soldiers used basic bows before the Akkadian Empire, but Sargon's empire spread the composite bow throughout Mesopotamia. It is likely the bow was given to the Akkadians by nomadic peoples; it became a very important Mesopotamian weapon, and many soldiers used them.^[4]^[5] The armies also contained small war wagons, which generally had a crew of two: a rider and a warrior.^[4] They were pulled by donkeys, mules, or crossbreeds; horses were not introduced before the 2nd millennium BCE and when present may have been too expensive outside of elite units.^[1]

During the Uruk Period of Sumerian history, jobs in Sumeria became more specialized. Leading to city-states forming armies. The armies of Sumer could have thousands of soldiers; some city states could field armies five thousand or six thousand men strong.^[1] In ancient Sumerian militaries, the king was the supreme commander of the army. However, smaller units were commanded by lower ranking officers.^[6] Generals were valued in the ancient Akkadian military. Sargon of Akkad appointed one of his generals to the position of Sagi-mah or chief cupbearer.^[1] Other known units include the Shub-Lugal, which served as household troops and made up the majority of Sargon's army.^[5]

Causes and conflicts

One common cause for war was rivalries between city states, often caused by previous conflicts. For example, Umma and Lagash waged several wars against each other, while the cities of Ur, Uruk, and Kish all rivalled each other.^{[citation needed]} Wars were often started as one city-state tried to secure greater power — a legendary example is Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, declining to become a vassal of Kish. Records show that some wars were started to control trade routes and their valuable resources.^[4] King Meskiaggasher fought wars in the Zagros Mountains for timber, metal, and stone, while Sumerian myths recording wars against the mythical kingdom of Aratta most likely represent real campaigns in Iran for Lapis Lazuli and tin.^[7] Elamites and Gutians would often raid the city-states' vital supply routes; many city-states formed military alliances to defend against such raiding.^[1] It is probable that over time, inhabitants of villages migrated to the cities, because the cities provided greater protection, causing the rural population to shrink. Victory in war brought prestige and wealth to the king of the victorious city.^[2]

During the Early Dynastic Period, there were an increasing amount of wars between rival Sumerian city-states. These wars were very small-scale: the cities of Umma and Lagash, who fought many wars against each other, are only 25 miles apart. Most battles took place only a few days march from each involved city-state. One war known to have taken place over a comparatively long distance, was between Kish and Elam, who were located 160 miles apart.^[7] Modern historians know very little about the tactics of Sumerian armies because records glorify victories, but rarely talk about how the battle was fought.^[4] Sumerian soldiers would besiege cities using battering rams and sappers while the defenders built towers.^[1] Although the walls of some ancient Sumerian cities may not have initially served as defensive fortifications, being originally designed to protect cities from wild animals and floods, and to demonstrate the power and wealth of a settlement, they eventually took on a defensive aspect; moats also become widely used in the 13th century B.C.^[1] Once a city was captured, its walls would be destroyed in order to humiliate the city, which was also looted. A large section of the population would often be captured and enslaved, while the victor would dedicate the spoils of war to the patron deity of their city.^[1]

Depictions

Depictions of warfare are a common theme in Mesopotamian art. Usually the art, commissioned by the victors, would celebrate and glorify a military victory. Some notable examples are the Royal Standard of Ur and the Steele of the Vultures: the Royal Standard depicts soldiers, led by the king of Ur, marching over the corpses of their enemy, while others drag prisoners of war behind them; while the Steele of Vultures depicts the king of Lagash defeating the king of Umma, soldiers marching in a phalanx-like formation, and vultures carrying the severed heads of the soldiers from Umma, who had fallen in heaps in front of the soldiers from Lagash.^[8] Epigraphy and archaeological records show other depictions of warfare.^[5]

Warfare and violence are common themes in Mesopotamian literature. Military campaigns were a frequent subject. Often, writers praised wars and battles, describing the conquests as glorious, or glorifying the wealth garnered from looting. One royal inscription from the Akkadian Empire describes the campaigns of King Manishtushu. It reads: "Manishtushu, king of the world; when he conquered Anshan and Shirihum, had ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the sea, thirty-two [in number], assembled for battle, but he was victorious [over them]. Further, he conquered their cities, struck down their rulers, and after, he roused his troops, plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded it on ships, and moored [the ships] at the quay of Agade."^[9]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h McIntosh, Jane (2005). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-965-2.
^ ^a ^b DK (2012-04-16). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-4654-0373-5.
^ Travis, Hilary & John (2014-12-15). Roman Helmets. Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4456-3847-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua; Cairns, John (2006-01-19). Warfare in the Ancient World. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-78159-263-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c Elliott, Simon (2020-05-19). Old Testament Warriors: The Clash of Cultures in the Ancient Near East. Casemate. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-61200-794-6.
^ McNab, Chris (2022-08-01). A History of War: From Ancient Warfare to the Global Conflicts of the 21st Century. Arcturus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-3988-1862-0.
^ ^a ^b Hamblin, William J. (2006-09-27). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
^ Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7481-5.
^ Fagan, Garrett G.; Fibiger, Linda; Hudson, Mark; Trundle, Matthew, eds. (2020), "Prehistoric and Ancient Warfare", The Cambridge World History of Violence: Volume 1: The Prehistoric and Ancient Worlds, The Cambridge World History of Violence, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 179–296, ISBN 978-1-316-34124-7, retrieved 2023-06-24

[:2-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h McIntosh, Jane (2005). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-965-2.

[:3-2] DK (2012-04-16). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-4654-0373-5.

[3] Travis, Hilary & John (2014-12-15). Roman Helmets. Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4456-3847-8.

[:1-4] Carey, Brian Todd; Allfree, Joshua; Cairns, John (2006-01-19). Warfare in the Ancient World. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-78159-263-2.

[:4-5] Elliott, Simon (2020-05-19). Old Testament Warriors: The Clash of Cultures in the Ancient Near East. Casemate. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-61200-794-6.

[6] McNab, Chris (2022-08-01). A History of War: From Ancient Warfare to the Global Conflicts of the 21st Century. Arcturus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-3988-1862-0.

[:0-7] Hamblin, William J. (2006-09-27). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.

[8] Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7481-5.

[9] Fagan, Garrett G.; Fibiger, Linda; Hudson, Mark; Trundle, Matthew, eds. (2020), "Prehistoric and Ancient Warfare", The Cambridge World History of Violence: Volume 1: The Prehistoric and Ancient Worlds, The Cambridge World History of Violence, vol. 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 179–296, ISBN 978-1-316-34124-7, retrieved 2023-06-24

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+{{Short description|Type of conlfict}}
-'''Warfare in Sumer''' predominatly consisted of small-scale conflicts between nearby [[List of cities of the ancient Near East|city-states]]. [[Sumer]]ian armies consisted of [[bronze]]-armoured soldiers armed with various weapons, including [[spear]]s, [[sword]]s and [[Khopesh|sickle-swords]], engaging each other in [[phalanx]]-like formations. When [[Siege|besieging]] cities, [[battering ram]]s and [[sapper]]s would be used to breach the defences; on the open battlefield, chariots were also used. Most wars were fought because of inter-city state rivalries, or for wealth, resources, and prestige. Military victories were later glorified in [[Art of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian art]] — a major source of historical information.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=DK|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpRT7qBPDAwC&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq|date=2012-04-16|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-4654-0373-5|language=en}}</ref>
+[[File:Stele of the vultures (phalanx).jpg|thumb|Phalanx on the Stele of the Vultures]]
+'''Warfare in Sumer''' predominantly consisted of small-scale conflicts between nearby [[List of cities of the ancient Near East|city-states]]. [[Sumer]]ian armies consisted of [[bronze]]-armoured soldiers armed with various weapons, including [[Spear|spears]], [[Sword|swords]] and [[Khopesh|sickle-swords]], engaging each other in [[Phalanx|phalanx]]-like formations. When [[Siege|besieging]] cities, [[Battering ram|battering rams]] and [[Sapper|sappers]] would be used to breach the defences; on the open battlefield, [[Chariot|chariots]] were also used. Most wars were fought because of inter-city rivalries, or for wealth, resources, and prestige. Military victories were later glorified in [[Art of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian art]] — a major source of historical information.
-== Military history ==
+== History ==
 [[File:Imprisoned man of Umma on the Stele of the Vultures.jpg|thumb|A prisoner of war from Umma|192x192px]]
+===Weapons and Tactics===
-During the [[Uruk period|Uruk Period]] of [[History of Sumer|Sumerian history]] [[List of cities of the ancient Near East|city-states]] that had kings capable for forming armies began forming. The increasing specialization of jobs in Sumer also created new military professions. The armies of Sumer could have thousands of soldiers, some city states could field armies five thousand or six thousand men strong.<ref name=":2" /> These large armies would consist of many military units. One, known as the ''Nu-Banda'', contained 60-100 men. Larger units would be made by combining the smaller units. Other known units include the ''Shub-Lugal,'' which served as household troops and made up the majority of [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon's]] army. Some soldiers were called ''Niksum'' — these would be given plots of land. [[Skirmisher]]s were called ''Nim'', meaning "flies".{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}.
+Soldiers in ancient Mesopotamia militaries were well-trained and well-equipped. Archaeological studies show that the Sumerians used war-carts and iron or bronze weapons;<ref name=":2" /> most soldiers used axes, daggers, and spears; units with spears would be organized into close-order formations.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=DK|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpRT7qBPDAwC&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Warfare: From Ancient Egypt to Iraq|date=2012-04-16|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-4654-0373-5|language=en}}</ref> Armor included [[copper]] and [[bronze]] [[helmet]]s, as well as bronze [[Armour|armor]] and [[cloak]]s studded in metal discs, although some depictions of [[light infantry]] show them without armor, only wearing skirts adorned with feathers. The oldest known helmet ever, the Golden Wig, was made of beaten and engraved gold with a wadded linen liner. Bronze and copper alloy helmets dating back to 2500 BCE have also been found. By 2100 BCE, bronze scale armor had developed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Travis|first=Hilary & John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVBpCAAAQBAJ&dq=Montefortino+Helmet&pg=PT12|title=Roman Helmets|date=2014-12-15|publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited|isbn=978-1-4456-3847-8|language=en}}</ref>
+[[File:Meskalamdug helmet back view.jpg|thumb|212x212px|Back view of the Meskalamdug Helmet.]]
+To support the main army there would be light infantry equipped with javelins and bows. Sumerian soldiers used basic bows before the [[Akkadian Empire]], but [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon's]] empire spread the [[composite bow]] throughout Mesopotamia. It is likely the bow was given to the Akkadians by [[Nomad|nomadic peoples]]; it became a very important Mesopotamian weapon, and many soldiers used them.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Elliott |first=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xl3JDwAAQBAJ&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria |title=Old Testament Warriors: The Clash of Cultures in the Ancient Near East |date=2020-05-19 |publisher=Casemate |isbn=978-1-61200-794-6 |pages=15 |language=en}}</ref> The armies also contained small [[War wagon|war wagons]], which generally had a crew of two: a rider and a warrior.<ref name=":1" /> They were pulled by [[donkey]]s, [[mule]]s, or [[crossbreed]]s; horses were not introduced before the 2nd millennium BCE and when present may have been too expensive outside of elite units.<ref name=":2" />
-Soldiers were well-trained and equipped; generals were also valued, with Sargon of Akkad appointing his to the position of ''Sagi-mah'' or chief cupbearer. Archaeological studies show that the Sumerians used war-carts and iron and bronze weapons;<ref name=":2" /> most soldiers used axes, daggers, and spears; units with spears would be organized into close-order formations.<ref name=":3" /> Armor included [[copper]] and [[bronze]] [[helmet]]s, as well as bronze [[Armour|armor]] and [[cloak]]s studded in metal discs, although some depictions of [[light infantry]] show them without armor, only wearing skirts adorned with feathers. The oldest known helmet ever, the Golden Wig, was made of beaten and engraved gold with a wadded linen line. Bronze and copper alloy helmets dating back to 2500 BCE have also been found. By 2100 BCE, bronze scale armor had developed.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Travis|first=Hilary & John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVBpCAAAQBAJ&dq=Montefortino+Helmet&pg=PT12|title=Roman Helmets|date=2014-12-15|publisher=Amberley Publishing Limited|isbn=978-1-4456-3847-8|language=en}}</ref>
-To support the main army there would be light infantry equipped with javelins and bows. Sumerian soldiers used basic bows before the [[Akkadian Empire]], but [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon's]] empire spread the [[composite bow]] throughout Mesopotamia. It is likely the bow was given to the Akkadians by [[Nomad|nomadic peoples]]; it became a very important Mesopotamian weapon, and many soldiers used them.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Elliott|first=Simon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xl3JDwAAQBAJ&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=Old Testament Warriors: The Clash of Cultures in the Ancient Near East|date=2020-05-19|publisher=Casemate|isbn=978-1-61200-794-6|language=en}}</ref> The armies also contained small chariots [[chariot]]s, which generally had a crew of two: a charioteer and a warrior.<ref name=":1" /> They were pulled by [[donkey]]s, [[mule]]s, or [[crossbreed]]s; horses were not used and may have been too expensive to risk in combat.<ref name=":2" />
+During the [[Uruk period|Uruk Period]] of [[History of Sumer|Sumerian history]], jobs in Sumeria became more specialized. Leading to [[City-state|city-states]] forming armies. The armies of Sumer could have thousands of soldiers; some city states could field armies five thousand or six thousand men strong.<ref name=":2" /> In ancient Sumerian militaries, the king was the supreme commander of the army. However, smaller units were commanded by lower ranking officers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McNab |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ouVfEAAAQBAJ |title=A History of War: From Ancient Warfare to the Global Conflicts of the 21st Century |date=2022-08-01 |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |isbn=978-1-3988-1862-0 |language=en}}</ref> Generals were valued in the ancient Akkadian military. Sargon of Akkad appointed one of his generals to the position of ''Sagi-mah'' or chief cupbearer.<ref name=":2" /> Other known units include the ''[[Shublugal|Shub-Lugal]],'' which served as household troops and made up the majority of [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon's]] army.<ref name=":4" />
-[[File:Stele of the vultures (phalanx).jpg|thumb|Phalanx on the Stele of the Vultures]]
+===Causes and conflicts===
-It is known that during the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic Period]] there was an increasing amount of wars between rival Sumerian city-states. These wars were very small scale. The cities of [[Umma]] and [[Lagash]], who fought many wars against each other are only 25 miles apart. The war that took place over the longest distance was a war between [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and [[Elam]]. The distance between Kish and Elam was 160 miles. Most battles took place only a few days march from the city-states each army belonged to.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Hamblin|first=William J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History|date=2006-09-27|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-52062-6|language=en}}</ref> Modern [[Historians]] know very little about the tactics of Sumerian armies because records glorify victories, but rarely talk about how the battle was fought.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Carey|first1=Brian Todd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuSfBwAAQBAJ&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=Warfare in the Ancient World|last2=Allfree|first2=Joshua|last3=Cairns|first3=John|date=2006-01-19|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-78159-263-2|language=en}}</ref> Sumerian soldiers would besiege cities using battering rams and sappers while the defenders used towers.<ref name=":2" /> Although the walls of some ancient Sumerian cities may have not served as defensive fortifications. Their main purpose may have been protecting cities from wild [[animal]]s and [[flood]]s, as well as demonstrating the power and wealth of a settlement. Eventually these cities would start to use walls as defensive formations.<ref name=":2" /> In the 13th century BCE moats become popular defensive fortifications.<ref name=":2" /> Once a city was captured its walls were destroyed in order to humiliate the city. The city was also looted and some or all of its inhabitants would be captured and often enslaved. The victor would dedicate the [[Looting|spoils of war]] to the [[Tutelary deity|patron deity]] of their city.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&dq=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria&pg=PA185|title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives|date=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-965-2|language=en}}</ref>
+One common cause for war was rivalries between city states, often caused by previous conflicts. For example, [[Umma]] and [[Lagash]] waged several wars against each other, while the cities of [[Ur]], [[Uruk]], and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] all rivalled each other.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}} Wars were often started as one city-state tried to secure greater power — a legendary example is [[Gilgamesh]], king of Uruk, declining to become a vassal of Kish. Records show that some wars were started to control [[Trade route|trade routes]] and their valuable resources.<ref name=":1" /> King [[Mesh-ki-ang-gasher|Meskiaggasher]] fought wars in the [[Zagros Mountains]] for timber, metal, and stone, while Sumerian myths recording wars against the mythical kingdom of [[Aratta]] most likely represent real campaigns in [[Iran]] for [[Lapis lazuli|Lapis Lazuli]] and [[tin]].<ref name=":0" /> [[Elam]]ites and [[Gutian people|Gutians]] would often raid the city-states' vital supply routes; many city-states formed [[Military alliance|military alliances]] to defend against such raiding.<ref name=":2" /> It is probable that over time, inhabitants of villages migrated to the cities, because the cities provided greater protection, causing the rural population to shrink. Victory in war brought [[Reputation|prestige]] and [[wealth]] to the king of the victorious city.<ref name=":3" />
+During the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic Period]], there were an increasing amount of wars between rival Sumerian city-states. These wars were very small-scale: the cities of [[Umma]] and [[Lagash]], who fought many wars against each other, are only 25 miles apart. Most battles took place only a few days march from each involved city-state. One war known to have taken place over a comparatively long distance, was between [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and [[Elam]], who were located 160 miles apart.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Hamblin|first=William J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History|date=2006-09-27|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-52062-6|language=en}}</ref> Modern historians know very little about the tactics of Sumerian armies because records glorify victories, but rarely talk about how the battle was fought.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Carey|first1=Brian Todd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuSfBwAAQBAJ&q=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria|title=Warfare in the Ancient World|last2=Allfree|first2=Joshua|last3=Cairns|first3=John|date=2006-01-19|publisher=Pen and Sword|isbn=978-1-78159-263-2|language=en}}</ref> Sumerian soldiers would besiege cities using battering rams and sappers while the defenders built towers.<ref name=":2" /> Although the walls of some ancient Sumerian cities may not have initially served as defensive fortifications, being originally designed to protect cities from wild [[animal]]s and [[flood]]s, and to demonstrate the power and wealth of a settlement, they eventually took on a defensive aspect; moats also become widely used in the 13th century B.C.<ref name=":2" /> Once a city was captured, its walls would be destroyed in order to humiliate the city, which was also looted. A large section of the population would often be captured and enslaved, while the victor would dedicate the [[Looting|spoils of war]] to the [[Tutelary deity|patron deity]] of their city.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&dq=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria&pg=PA185|title=Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives|date=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-965-2|language=en}}</ref>
-=== Causes for war ===
-[[File:Meskalamdug helmet back view.jpg|thumb|147x147px|Back view of the Meskalamdug Helmet.]]
-One common cause for war was rivalries between city states. For example, [[Umma]] and [[Lagash]] waged several wars against each other. The cities of [[Ur]], [[Uruk]], and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] were all rivals. Some wars may have started when one city tried to conquer or control another. One example is when king [[Agga of Kish]] attempted to get [[Gilgamesh]], king of [[Uruk]] to submit to Kish. In response, Gilgamesh went to war with Kish. Many cities states formed [[Military alliance|military alliances]] to defend against raiding and invasion.  Records show that some wars started for resources and [[Trade route|trade routes]].<ref name=":1" /> Trade routes important because resources such as stone and wood were needed to construct cities. King [[Mesh-ki-ang-gasher|Meskiaggasher]] fought wars in the [[Zagros Mountains]] for timber, metal, and stone. Sumerian myths wars against the mythical kingdom of [[Aratta]] most likely represent real campaigns in [[Iran]] for [[Lapis lazuli|Lapis Lazuli]] and [[tin]].<ref name=":0" /> [[Elam]]ites and [[Gutian people|Gutians]] would often raid the city-states' vital supply routes.<ref name=":2" /> Victory in war brought [[Reputation|prestige]] and [[wealth]] to the king of the victorious city.<ref name=":3" /> Over time the populations of cities grew, while the populations of villages shrank. It is possible the reason why is because inhabitants of villages migrated to the cities, possibly because the cities provided greater protection. Implying that there was increasing warfare in Sumer.
 == Depictions ==
-[[File:Standard of Ur - War.jpg|thumb|The Royal Standard of Ur]]
+[[File:Standard of Ur - War.jpg|thumb|The Royal Standard of Ur|291x291px]]
-Depictions of warfare are a common [[Theme (arts)|theme]] in [[Art of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian art]]. Oftentimes the art would celebrate and glorify a military victory. Usually it would be [[Commission (art)|commissioned]] by the victor themselves. Some notable examples of this are the [[Standard of Ur|Royal Standard of Ur]] and the [[Stele of the Vultures|Steele of the Vultures]]. The Royal Standard of Ur depicts chariots and soldiers led by the king of Ur marching over the corpses of their enemy. While cloaked soldiers drag [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] behind them. The Steele of Vultures depicts the King of [[Lagash]] winning a battle over the King of [[Umma]]. On the steele is a depiction of soldiers with high spears and interlocking spears marching. Other fragments of the steele show vultures clutching the severed heads of the soldiers from Umma. The steele also shows the soldiers from Umma falling in heaps in front of the soldiers from Lagash.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bertman|first=Stephen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3bX3HYm5YMAC&dq=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria&pg=PA271|title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|date=2003|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7481-5|language=en}}</ref> [[Epigraphy]] and [[Archaeology|archaeological]] records show other depictions of warfare.<ref name=":4" />
+Depictions of warfare are a common [[Theme (arts)|theme]] in [[Art of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian art]]. Usually the art, [[Commission (art)|commissioned]] by the victors, would celebrate and glorify a military victory. Some notable examples are the [[Standard of Ur|Royal Standard of Ur]] and the [[Stele of the Vultures|Steele of the Vultures]]: the Royal Standard depicts soldiers, led by the king of Ur, marching over the corpses of their enemy, while others drag [[prisoners of war]] behind them; while the Steele of Vultures depicts the king of [[Lagash]] defeating the king of [[Umma]], soldiers marching in a [[phalanx]]-like formation, and vultures carrying the severed heads of the soldiers from Umma, who had fallen in heaps in front of the soldiers from Lagash.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bertman |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3bX3HYm5YMAC&dq=Warfare+in+Ancient+Sumeria&pg=PA271 |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=2003 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-7481-5 |language=en}}</ref> [[Epigraphy]] and [[Archaeology|archaeological]] records show other depictions of warfare.<ref name=":4" />
+Warfare and violence are common themes in Mesopotamian literature. Military campaigns were a frequent subject. Often, writers praised wars and battles, describing the conquests as glorious, or glorifying the wealth garnered from looting. One royal inscription from the [[Akkadian Empire]] describes the campaigns of King [[Manishtushu]]. It reads: "Manishtushu, king of the world; when he conquered Anshan and Shirihum, had ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the sea, thirty-two [in number], assembled for battle, but he was victorious [over them]. Further, he conquered their cities, struck down their rulers, and after, he roused his troops, plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded it on ships, and moored [the ships] at the quay of Agade."<ref>{{Citation |title=Prehistoric and Ancient Warfare |date=2020 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-violence/prehistoric-and-ancient-warfare/FB66A4DA10DAF5CF562EB58CC73BA1A3 |work=The Cambridge World History of Violence: Volume 1: The Prehistoric and Ancient Worlds |volume=1 |pages=179–296 |editor-last=Fagan |editor-first=Garrett G. |access-date=2023-06-24 |series=The Cambridge World History of Violence |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-34124-7 |editor2-last=Fibiger |editor2-first=Linda |editor3-last=Hudson |editor3-first=Mark |editor4-last=Trundle |editor4-first=Matthew}}</ref>
 == References ==
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 [[Category:Ancient Mesopotamia]]
 [[Category:Ancient warfare]]
+{{Ancient Mesopotamia topics|state=collapsed}}