Palladium: Difference between revisions

Palladium
Hazards
	GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word	Warning
Hazard statements	H317
Precautionary statements	P261, P273, P280, P302+P352, P321, P333+P313, P363, P501
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	0 0 0

Palladium, ₄₆Pd
Palladium
Pronunciation	/pəˈleɪdiəm/ (pə-LAY-dee-əm)
Appearance	silvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Pd)
	106.42±0.01; 106.42±0.01 (abridged);
Palladium in the periodic table
	rhodium ← palladium → silver
Atomic number (Z)	46
Group	group 10
Period	period 5
Block	d-block
Electron configuration	[Kr] 4d10
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 18
Physical properties
Phase at STP	solid
Melting point	1828.05 K (1554.9 °C, 2830.82 °F)
Boiling point	3236 K (2963 °C, 5365 °F)
Density (at 20° C)	12.007 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)	10.38 g/cm3
Heat of fusion	16.74 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	358 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	25.98 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Oxidation states	common: 0, +2, +4; +1, +3, +5
Electronegativity	Pauling scale: 2.20
Ionization energies	1st: 804.4 kJ/mol ; 2nd: 1870 kJ/mol ; 3rd: 3177 kJ/mol ; ;
Atomic radius	empirical: 137 pm
Covalent radius	139±6 pm
Van der Waals radius	163 pm
	Spectral lines of palladium
Other properties
Natural occurrence	primordial
Crystal structure	face-centered cubic (fcc) (cF4)
Lattice constant	a = 389.02 pm (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion	11.77×10−6/K (at 20 °C)
Thermal conductivity	71.8 W/(m⋅K)
Electrical resistivity	105.4 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering	paramagnetic
Molar magnetic susceptibility	+567.4×10−6 cm3/mol (288 K)
Young's modulus	121 GPa
Shear modulus	44 GPa
Bulk modulus	180 GPa
Speed of sound thin rod	3070 m/s (at 20 °C)
Poisson ratio	0.39
Mohs hardness	4.75
Vickers hardness	400–600 MPa
Brinell hardness	320–610 MPa
CAS Number	7440-05-3
History
Naming	after asteroid Pallas, itself named after Pallas Athena
Discovery and first isolation	William Hyde Wollaston (1802)
Isotopes of palladium v; e;
γ	–
	Category: Palladium; view; talk; edit; \| references

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Palladium is a chemical element; it has symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1802 by the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid Pallas (formally 2 Pallas), which was itself named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her when she slew Pallas. Palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group of elements referred to as the platinum group metals (PGMs). They have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.

More than half the supply of palladium and its congener platinum is used in catalytic converters, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into nontoxic substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, in which hydrogen and oxygen react to produce electricity, heat, and water.

Ore deposits of palladium and other PGMs are rare. The most extensive deposits have been found in the norite belt of the Bushveld Igneous Complex covering the Transvaal Basin in South Africa; the Stillwater Complex in Montana, United States; the Sudbury Basin and Thunder Bay District of Ontario, Canada; and the Norilsk Complex in Russia. Recycling is also a source, mostly from scrapped catalytic converters. The numerous applications and limited supply sources result in considerable investment interest.

Characteristics

Palladium belongs to group 10 in the periodic table, but the configuration in the outermost electrons is in accordance with Hund's rule. Electrons that by the Madelung rule would be expected to occupy the 5s instead fill the 4d orbitals, as it is more energetically favorable to have a completely filled 4d¹⁰ shell instead of the 5s² 4d⁸ configuration.^{[clarification needed]}

Z	Element	No. of electrons/shell
28	nickel	2, 8, 16, 2 (or 2, 8, 17, 1)
46	palladium	2, 8, 18, 18, 0
78	platinum	2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
110	darmstadtium	2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 (predicted)^[10]

This 5s⁰ configuration, unique in period 5, makes palladium the heaviest element having only one incomplete electron shell, with all shells above it empty.

Palladium has the appearance of a soft silver-white metal that resembles platinum. It is the least dense and has the lowest melting point of the platinum group metals. It is soft and ductile when annealed and is greatly increased in strength and hardness when cold-worked. Palladium dissolves slowly in concentrated nitric acid, in hot, concentrated sulfuric acid, and when finely ground, in hydrochloric acid.^[11] It dissolves readily at room temperature in aqua regia.

Palladium does not react with oxygen at standard temperature (and thus does not tarnish in air). Palladium heated to 800 °C will produce a layer of palladium(II) oxide (PdO). It may slowly develop a slight brownish coloration over time, likely due to the formation of a surface layer of its monoxide.

Palladium films with defects produced by alpha particle bombardment at low temperature exhibit superconductivity having T_c = 3.2 K.^[12]

Isotopes

Naturally occurring palladium is composed of seven isotopes, six of which are stable. The most stable radioisotopes are ¹⁰⁷Pd with a half-life of 6.5 million years (found in nature), ¹⁰³Pd with 17 days, and ¹⁰⁰Pd with 3.63 days. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 90.94948(64) u (⁹¹Pd) to 122.93426(64) u (¹²³Pd).^[13] These have half-lives of less than thirty minutes, except ¹⁰¹Pd (half-life: 8.47 hours), ¹⁰⁹Pd (half-life: 13.7 hours), and ¹¹²Pd (half-life: 21 hours).^[14]

For isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope, ¹⁰⁶Pd, the primary decay mode is electron capture with the primary decay product being rhodium. The primary mode of decay for those isotopes of Pd with atomic mass greater than 106 is beta decay with the primary product of this decay being silver.^[14]

Radiogenic ¹⁰⁷Ag is a decay product of ¹⁰⁷Pd and was first discovered in 1978^[15] in the Santa Clara^[16] meteorite of 1976. The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. ¹⁰⁷Pd versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have been melted since accretion of the Solar System, must reflect the presence of short-lived nuclides in the early Solar System.^[17] ¹⁰⁷
Pd is also produced as a fission product in spontaneous or induced fission of ²³⁵
U. As it is not very mobile in the environment and has a relatively low decay energy, ¹⁰⁷
Pd is usually considered to be among the less concerning of the long-lived fission products.

Compounds

Palladium compounds exist primarily in the 0 and +2 oxidation state. Other less common states are also recognized. Generally the compounds of palladium are more similar to those of platinum than those of any other element.

Structure of α-PdCl₂
Structure of β-PdCl₂

Palladium(II)

Palladium(II) chloride is the principal starting material for other palladium compounds. It arises by the reaction of palladium with chlorine. It is used to prepare heterogeneous palladium catalysts such as palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on carbon, and palladium chloride on carbon.^[18] Solutions of PdCl₂ in nitric acid react with acetic acid to give palladium(II) acetate, also a versatile reagent. PdCl₂ reacts with ligands (L) to give square planar complexes of the type PdCl₂L₂. One example of such complexes is the benzonitrile derivative PdCl₂(PhCN)₂.^[19]^[20]

PdCl₂ + 2 L → PdCl₂L₂ (L = PhCN, PPh₃, NH₃, etc.)

The complex bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride is a useful catalyst.^[21]

Palladium(0)

Palladium forms a range of zerovalent complexes with the formula PdL₄, PdL₃ and PdL₂. For example, reduction of a mixture of PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ and PPh₃ gives tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0):^[22]

2 PdCl₂(PPh₃)₂ + 4 PPh₃ + 5 N₂H₄ → 2 Pd(PPh₃)₄ + N₂ + 4 N₂H₅⁺Cl⁻

Another major palladium(0) complex, tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd₂(dba)₃), is prepared by reducing sodium tetrachloropalladate in the presence of dibenzylideneacetone.^[23]

Palladium(0), as well as palladium(II), are catalysts in coupling reactions, as has been recognized by the 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi, and Akira Suzuki. Such reactions are widely practiced for the synthesis of fine chemicals. Prominent coupling reactions include the Heck, Suzuki, Sonogashira coupling, Stille reactions, and the Kumada coupling. Palladium(II) acetate, tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) (Pd(PPh₃)₄), and tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0) (Pd₂(dba)₃) serve either as catalysts or precatalysts.^[24]

Other oxidation states

Although Pd(IV) compounds are comparatively rare, one example is sodium hexachloropalladate(IV), Na₂[PdCl₆]. A few compounds of palladium(III) are also known.^[25] Palladium(VI) was claimed in 2002,^[26]^[27] but subsequently disproven.^[28]^[29]

Mixed valence palladium complexes exist, e.g. Pd₄(CO)₄(OAc)₄Pd(acac)₂ forms an infinite Pd chain structure, with alternatively interconnected Pd₄(CO)₄(OAc)₄ and Pd(acac)₂ units.^[30]

When alloyed with a more electropositive element, palladium can acquire a negative charge. Such compounds are known as palladides, such as gallium palladide.^[31] Palladides with the stoichiometry RPd₃ exist where R is scandium, yttrium, or any of the lanthanides.^[32]

Occurrence

As overall mine production of palladium reached 210,000 kilograms in 2022, Russia was the top producer with 88,000 kilograms, followed by South Africa, Canada, the U.S., and Zimbabwe.^[33] Russia's company Norilsk Nickel ranks first among the largest palladium producers globally, accounting for 39% of the world's production.^[34]

Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum-group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, North and South America. For the production of palladium, these deposits play only a minor role. The most important commercial sources are nickel-copper deposits found in the Sudbury Basin, Ontario, and the Norilsk–Talnakh deposits in Siberia. The other large deposit is the Merensky Reef platinum group metals deposit within the Bushveld Igneous Complex South Africa. The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone ore body of the Lac des Îles igneous complex of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States.^[35]^[36] Palladium is found in the rare minerals cooperite^[37] and polarite.^[38] Many more Pd minerals are known, but all of them are very rare.^[39]

Palladium is also produced in nuclear fission reactors and can be extracted from spent nuclear fuel (see synthesis of precious metals), though this source for palladium is not used. None of the existing nuclear reprocessing facilities are equipped to extract palladium from the high-level radioactive waste.^[40] A complication for the recovery of palladium in spent fuel is the presence of ¹⁰⁷
Pd, a slightly radioactive long-lived fission product. Depending on end use, the radioactivity contributed by the ¹⁰⁷
Pd might make the recovered palladium unusable without a costly step of isotope separation.

Applications

The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters.^[41] Palladium is also used in jewelry, dentistry,^[41]^[42] watch making, blood sugar test strips, aircraft spark plugs, surgical instruments, and electrical contacts.^[43] Palladium is also used to make some professional transverse (concert or classical) flutes.^[44] As a commodity, palladium bullion has ISO currency codes of XPD and 964. Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes, the others being gold, silver and platinum.^[45] Because it adsorbs hydrogen, palladium was a key component of the controversial cold fusion experiments of the late 1980s.^[46]

Catalysis

When it is finely divided, as with palladium on carbon, palladium forms a versatile catalyst; it speeds heterogeneous catalytic processes like hydrogenation, dehydrogenation, and petroleum cracking. Palladium is also essential to the Lindlar catalyst, also called Lindlar's Palladium.^[47] A large number of carbon–carbon bonding reactions in organic chemistry are facilitated by palladium compound catalysts. For example:

When dispersed on conductive materials, palladium is an excellent electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary alcohols in alkaline media.^[48] Palladium is also a versatile metal for homogeneous catalysis, used in combination with a broad variety of ligands for highly selective chemical transformations.

In 2010 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded "for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis" to Richard F. Heck, Ei-ichi Negishi and Akira Suzuki. A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for carbon–fluorine bonds.^[49]

Palladium catalysis is primarily employed in organic chemistry and industrial applications, although its use is growing as a tool for synthetic biology; in 2017, effective in vivo catalytic activity of palladium nanoparticles was demonstrated in mammals to treat disease.^[50]

Electronics

The primary application of palladium in electronics is in multi-layer ceramic capacitors^[51] in which palladium (and palladium-silver alloy) is used for electrodes.^[41] Palladium (sometimes alloyed with nickel) is or can be used for component and connector plating in consumer electronics^[52]^[53] and in soldering materials. The electronic sector consumed 33 tonnes (1.07 million troy ounces) of palladium in 2006, according to a Johnson Matthey report.^[54]

Technology

Hydrogen easily diffuses through heated palladium,^[11] and membrane reactors with Pd membranes are used in the production of high purity hydrogen.^[55] Palladium is used in palladium-hydrogen electrodes in electrochemical studies. Palladium(II) chloride readily catalyzes carbon monoxide gas to carbon dioxide and is useful in carbon monoxide detectors.^[56]

Hydrogen storage

Palladium readily adsorbs hydrogen at room temperatures, forming palladium hydride PdH_x with x less than 1.^[57] While this property is common to many transition metals, palladium has a uniquely high absorption capacity and does not lose its ductility until x approaches 1.^[58] This property has been investigated in designing an efficient and safe hydrogen fuel storage medium, though palladium itself is currently prohibitively expensive for this purpose.^[59] The content of hydrogen in palladium can be linked to magnetic susceptibility, which decreases with the increase of hydrogen and becomes zero for PdH_0.62. At any higher ratio, the solid solution becomes diamagnetic.^[60]

Palladium is used for purification of hydrogen on a laboratory^[61]^{: 183–217} but not industrial scale.^[62]

Dentistry

Palladium is used in small amounts (about 0.5%) in some alloys of dental amalgam to decrease corrosion and increase the metallic lustre of the final restoration.^[63]^[64]

Jewelry

Palladium has been used as a precious metal in jewelry since 1939 as an alternative to platinum in the alloys called "white gold", where the naturally white color of palladium does not require rhodium plating. Palladium, being much less dense than platinum, is similar to gold in that it can be beaten into leaf as thin as 100 nm (1⁄250,000 in).^[11] Unlike platinum, palladium may discolor at temperatures above 400 °C (752 °F)^[65] due to oxidation, making it more brittle and thus less suitable for use in jewelry; to prevent this, palladium intended for jewelry is heated under controlled conditions.^[66]

Prior to 2004, the principal use of palladium in jewelry was the manufacture of white gold. Palladium is one of the three most popular alloying metals in white gold (nickel and silver can also be used).^[41] Palladium-gold is more expensive than nickel-gold, but seldom causes allergic reactions (though certain cross-allergies with nickel may occur).^[67]

When platinum became a strategic resource during World War II, many jewelry bands were made out of palladium. Palladium was little used in jewelry because of the technical difficulty of casting. With the casting problem resolved^[68] the use of palladium in jewelry increased, originally because platinum increased in price while the price of palladium decreased.^[69] In early 2004, when gold and platinum prices rose steeply, China began fabricating volumes of palladium jewelry, consuming 37 tonnes in 2005. Subsequent changes in the relative price of platinum lowered demand for palladium to 17.4 tonnes in 2009.^[70]^[71] Demand for palladium as a catalyst has increased the price of palladium to about 50% higher than that of platinum in January 2019.^[72]

In January 2010, hallmarks for palladium were introduced by assay offices in the United Kingdom, and hallmarking became mandatory for all jewelry advertising pure or alloyed palladium. Articles can be marked as 500, 950, or 999 parts of palladium per thousand of the alloy.

Fountain pen nibs made from gold are sometimes plated with palladium when a silver (rather than gold) appearance is desired. Sheaffer has used palladium plating for decades, either as an accent on otherwise gold nibs or covering the gold completely.

Palladium is also used by the luxury brand Hermès as one of the metals plating the hardware on their handbags, most famous of which being Birkin.

Photography

In the platinotype printing process, photographers make fine-art black-and-white prints using platinum or palladium salts. Often used with platinum, palladium provides an alternative to silver.^[73]

Effects on health

Toxicity

Palladium is a metal with low toxicity as conventionally measured (e.g. LD₅₀). Recent research on the mechanism of palladium toxicity suggests high toxicity if measured on a longer timeframe and at the cellular level in the liver and kidney.^[75] Mitochondria appear to have a key role in palladium toxicity via mitochondrial membrane potential collapse and depletion of the cellular glutathione (GSH) level. Until that recent work, it had been thought that palladium was poorly absorbed by the human body when ingested. Plants such as the water hyacinth are killed by low levels of palladium salts, but most other plants tolerate it, although tests show that, at levels above 0.0003%, growth is affected. High doses of palladium could be poisonous; tests on rodents suggest it may be carcinogenic, though until the recent research cited above, no clear evidence indicated that the element harms humans.^[76]

Precautions

Like other platinum-group metals, bulk Pd is quite inert. Although contact dermatitis has been reported, data on the effects are limited. It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel, making it advisable to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic.^[77]^[78]^[79]^[80]^[81]

Some palladium is emitted with the exhaust gases of cars with catalytic converters. Between 4 and 108 ng/km of palladium particulate is released by such cars, while the total uptake from food is estimated to be less than 2 μg per person a day. The second possible source of palladium is dental restoration, from which the uptake of palladium is estimated to be less than 15 μg per person per day. People working with palladium or its compounds might have a considerably greater uptake. For soluble compounds such as palladium chloride, 99% is eliminated from the body within three days.^[77]

The median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of soluble palladium compounds in mice is 200 mg/kg for oral and 5 mg/kg for intravenous administration.^[77]

History

William Hyde Wollaston noted the discovery of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab book and named it palladium in August of the same year. He named the element after the asteroid 2 Pallas, which had been discovered two months earlier (and which was previously considered a planet).^[11] Wollaston purified a quantity of the material and offered it, without naming the discoverer, in a small shop in Soho in April 1803. After harsh criticism from Richard Chenevix, who claimed that palladium was an alloy of platinum and mercury, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of £20 for 20 grains of synthetic palladium alloy.^[82] Chenevix received the Copley Medal in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston published the discovery of rhodium in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium.^[83]^[84] He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805.^[82]^[85]

Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from South America by dissolving the ore in aqua regia, neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide, and precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate with ammonium chloride. He added mercuric cyanide to form the compound palladium(II) cyanide, which was heated to extract palladium metal.^[83]

Palladium chloride was at one time prescribed as a tuberculosis treatment at the rate of 0.065 g per day (approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight). This treatment had many negative side-effects, and was later replaced by more effective drugs.^[86]

Most palladium is used for catalytic converters in the automobile industry.^[77] Catalytic converters are targets for thieves because they contain palladium and other rare metals. In the run up to year 2000, the Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted; for political reasons, the export quota was not granted on time.^[87] The ensuing market panic drove the price to an all-time high of $1,340 per troy ounce ($43/g) in January 2001.^[88] Around that time, the Ford Motor Company, fearing that automobile production would be disrupted by a palladium shortage, stockpiled the metal. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly US$1 billion.^[89]

World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222 tonnes in 2006 according to the United States Geological Survey.^[35] Many were concerned about a steady supply of palladium in the wake of Russia's annexation of Crimea, partly as sanctions could hamper Russian palladium exports; any restrictions on Russian palladium exports could have exacerbated what was already expected to be a large palladium deficit in 2014.^[90] Those concerns pushed palladium prices to their highest level since 2001.^[91] In September 2014 they soared above the $900 per ounce mark. In 2016 however palladium cost around $614 per ounce as Russia managed to maintain stable supplies.^[92] In January 2019 palladium futures climbed past $1,344 per ounce for the first time on record, mainly due to the strong demand from the automotive industry.^[93] Palladium reached $2,024.64 per troy ounce ($65.094/g) on 6 January 2020, passing $2,000 per troy ounce the first time.^[94] The price rose above $3,000 per troy ounce in May 2021 and March 2022.^[95]

Palladium as investment

Palladium prices – US dollars per troy ounce

Global palladium sales were 8.84 million troy ounces (275 t) in 2017,^[96] of which 86% was used in the manufacturing of automotive catalytic converters, followed by industrial, jewelry, and investment usages.^[97] More than 75% of global platinum and 40% of palladium are mined in South Africa. Russia's mining company, Norilsk Nickel, produces another 44% of palladium, with US and Canada-based mines producing most of the rest.

The price for palladium reached an all-time high of $2,981.40 per ounce on May 3, 2021,^[98]^[99] driven mainly on speculation of the catalytic converter demand from the automobile industry. Palladium is traded in the spot market with the code "XPD". When settled in USD, the code is "XPDUSD". A later surplus of the metal was caused by the Russian government selling stockpiles from the Soviet era, at a rate of about 1.6 to 2 million troy ounces (50 to 62 t) a year. The amount and status of this stockpile are a state secret.

During the Russo-Ukrainian War in March 2022, prices for palladium increased 13%, since the first of March. Russia is the primary supplier to Europe and the country supplies 37% of the global production.^[100]

Palladium producers

Exchange-traded products

WisdomTree Physical Palladium (LSE: PHPD) is backed by allocated palladium bullion and was the world's first palladium ETF. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange as PHPD,^[101] Xetra Trading System, Euronext and Milan. ETFS Physical Palladium Shares (NYSE: PALL) is an ETF traded on the New York Stock Exchange.

Bullion coins and bars

A traditional way of investing in palladium is buying bullion coins and bars made of palladium. Available palladium coins include the Canadian Palladium Maple Leaf, the Chinese Panda, and the American Palladium Eagle. The liquidity of direct palladium bullion investment is poorer than that of gold and silver because there is low circulation of palladium coins.^[102]

References

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^ ^a ^b ^c Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.
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^ Palladium(V) has been identified in complexes with organosilicon compounds containing pentacoordinate palladium; see Shimada, Shigeru; Li, Yong-Hua; Choe, Yoong-Kee; Tanaka, Masato; Bao, Ming; Uchimaru, Tadafumi (2007). "Multinuclear palladium compounds containing palladium centers ligated by five silicon atoms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (19): 7758–7763. doi:10.1073/pnas.0700450104. PMC 1876520. PMID 17470819.
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^ "Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for Palladium (NIST)". NIST. 23 August 2009. Retrieved 12 November 2009.
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^ Kelly, W. R.; Gounelle, G. J.; Hutchison, R. (1978). "Evidence for the existence of ¹⁰⁷Pd in the early solar system". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A. 359 (1787): 1079–1082. Bibcode:2001RSPTA.359.1991R. doi:10.1098/rsta.2001.0893. S2CID 120355895.
^ "Mexico's Meteorites" (PDF). mexicogemstones.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2006.
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External links

Palladium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Current and Historical Palladium Price
"Palladium" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 636–637.

[1] "Standard Atomic Weights: Palladium". CIAAW. 1979.

[CIAAW2021-2] Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (4 May 2022). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.

[Arblaster_2018-3] Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. ISBN 978-1-62708-155-9.

[4] Pd(I) is known in [Pd₂]²⁺ compounds; see Christoph Fricke; Theresa Sperger; Marvin Mendel; Franziska Schoenebeck (2020). "Catalysis with Palladium(I) Dimers". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 60 (7). doi:10.1002/anie.202011825.

[5] Pd(III) has been observed; see Powers, D. C.; Ritter, T. (2011). "Palladium(III) in Synthesis and Catalysis" (PDF). Higher Oxidation State Organopalladium and Platinum Chemistry. Topics in Organometallic Chemistry. Vol. 35. pp. 129–156. Bibcode:2011hoso.book..129P. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17429-2_6. ISBN 978-3-642-17428-5. PMC 3066514. PMID 21461129. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 June 2013.

[6] Palladium(V) has been identified in complexes with organosilicon compounds containing pentacoordinate palladium; see Shimada, Shigeru; Li, Yong-Hua; Choe, Yoong-Kee; Tanaka, Masato; Bao, Ming; Uchimaru, Tadafumi (2007). "Multinuclear palladium compounds containing palladium centers ligated by five silicon atoms". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (19): 7758–7763. doi:10.1073/pnas.0700450104. PMC 1876520. PMID 17470819.

[7] Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (PDF) (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.

[8] Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.

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[10] Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 1722. ISBN 1-4020-3555-1.

[CRC-11] Hammond, C. R. (2004). "The Elements". Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.

[12] B. Strizker, Phys. Rev. Lett., 42, 1769 (1979).

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[15] Kelly, W. R.; Gounelle, G. J.; Hutchison, R. (1978). "Evidence for the existence of ¹⁰⁷Pd in the early solar system". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A. 359 (1787): 1079–1082. Bibcode:2001RSPTA.359.1991R. doi:10.1098/rsta.2001.0893. S2CID 120355895.

[16] "Mexico's Meteorites" (PDF). mexicogemstones.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 May 2006.

[17] Chen, J. H.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1990). "The isotopic composition of Ag in meteorites and the presence of ¹⁰⁷Pd in protoplanets". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 54 (6): 1729–1743. Bibcode:1990GeCoA..54.1729C. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(90)90404-9.

[18] Mozingo, Ralph (1955). "Palladium Catalysts". Organic Syntheses; Collected Volumes, vol. 3, p. 685.

[19] Anderson, Gordon K.; Lin, Minren; Sen, Ayusman; Gretz, Efi (1990). "Bis(Benzonitrile)Dichloro Complexes of Palladium and Platinum". Inorganic Syntheses. Vol. 28. pp. 60–63. doi:10.1002/9780470132593.ch13. ISBN 978-0-470-13259-3.

[20] Zalevskaya, O. A; Vorob'eva, E. G; Dvornikova, I. A; Kuchin, A. V (2008). "Palladium complexes based on optically active terpene derivatives of ethylenediamine". Russian Journal of Coordination Chemistry. 34 (11): 855–857. doi:10.1134/S1070328408110110. S2CID 95529734.

[21] Miyaura, Norio & Suzuki, Akira (1993). "Palladium-catalyzed reaction of 1-alkenylboronates with vinylic halides: (1Z,3E)-1-Phenyl-1,3-octadiene". Organic Syntheses; Collected Volumes, vol. 8, p. 532.

[22] Coulson, D. R.; Satek, L. C.; Grim, S. O. (1972). Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0). Inorganic Syntheses. Vol. 13. pp. 121–124. doi:10.1002/9780470132449.ch23. ISBN 978-0-470-13244-9.

[23] Takahashi, Y; Ito, Ts; Sakai, S; Ishii, Y (1970). "A novel palladium(0) complex; bis(dibenzylideneacetone)palladium(0)". Journal of the Chemical Society D: Chemical Communications (17): 1065. doi:10.1039/C29700001065.

[24] Crabtree, Robert H. (2009). "Application to Organic Synthesis". The Organometallic Chemistry of the Transition Metals. John Wiley and Sons. p. 392. ISBN 978-0-470-25762-3.

[25] Powers, David C; Ritter, Tobias (2011). "Palladium(III) in Synthesis and Catalysis". Higher Oxidation State Organopalladium and Platinum Chemistry. Topics in Organometallic Chemistry. Vol. 35. pp. 129–156. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17429-2_6. ISBN 978-3-642-17428-5. PMC 3066514. PMID 21461129.

[pmid11786638-26] Chen, W; Shimada, S; Tanaka, M (2002). "Synthesis and Structure of Formally Hexavalent Palladium Complexes". Science. 295 (5553): 308–310. Bibcode:2002Sci...295..308C. doi:10.1126/science.1067027. PMID 11786638. S2CID 45249108.

[pmid11786632-27] Crabtree, R. H (2002). "CHEMISTRY: A New Oxidation State for Pd?". Science. 295 (5553): 288–289. doi:10.1126/science.1067921. PMID 11786632. S2CID 94579227.

[28] Aullón, G; Lledós, A; Alvarez, S (2002). "Hexakis(silyl)palladium(VI) or palladium(II with eta2-disilane ligands?". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 41 (11): 1956–9. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20020603)41:11<1956::AID-ANIE1956>3.0.CO;2-#. PMID 19750645.

[29] Sherer, E. C; Kinsinger, C. R; Kormos, B. L; Thompson, J. D; Cramer, C. J (2002). "Electronic structure and bonding in hexacoordinate silyl-palladium complexes". Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 41 (11): 1953–6. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20020603)41:11<1953::AID-ANIE1953>3.0.CO;2-H. PMID 19750644.

[pmid25319757-30] Yin, Xi; Warren, Steven A; Pan, Yung-Tin; Tsao, Kai-Chieh; Gray, Danielle L; Bertke, Jeffery; Yang, Hong (2014). "A Motif for Infinite Metal Atom Wires". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 53 (51): 14087–14091. doi:10.1002/anie.201408461. PMID 25319757.

[31] Armbrüster, Marc (31 January 2020). "Intermetallic compounds in catalysis – a versatile class of materials meets interesting challenges". Science and Technology of Advanced Materials. 21 (1). Informa UK Limited: 303–322. Bibcode:2020STAdM..21..303A. doi:10.1080/14686996.2020.1758544. ISSN 1468-6996. PMC 7889166. PMID 33628119.

[32] Wang, Qiaoming; Collins, Gary S. (2013). "Nuclear quadrupole interactions of 111In/Cd solute atoms in a series of rare-earth palladium alloys". Hyperfine Interactions. 221 (1–3): 85–98. arXiv:1209.3822. Bibcode:2013HyInt.221...85W. doi:10.1007/s10751-012-0686-4. ISSN 0304-3843. S2CID 98580013.

[33] U. S. Geological Survey (2023). Mineral commodity summaries 2023 (Report). p. 210. doi:10.3133/mcs2023.

[34] ""Norilsk Nickel" Group announces preliminary consolidated production results for 4 th quarter and full 2016, and production outl". Nornickel. Archived from the original on 29 June 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2018.

[USGS07CS-35] "Platinum-Group Metals" (PDF). Mineral Commodity Summaries. United States Geological Survey. January 2007.

[USGS07YB-36] "Platinum-Group Metals" (PDF). Mineral Yearbook 2007. United States Geological Survey. January 2007.

[37] Verryn, Sabine M. C.; Merkle, Roland K. W. (1994). "Compositional variation of cooperite, braggite, and vysotskite from the Bushveld Complex". Mineralogical Magazine. 58 (2): 223–234. Bibcode:1994MinM...58..223V. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.610.640. doi:10.1180/minmag.1994.058.391.05. S2CID 53128786.

[38] Genkin, A. D.; Evstigneeva, T. L. (1986). "Associations of platinum- group minerals of the Norilsk copper-nickel sulfide ores". Economic Geology. 81 (5): 1203–1212. Bibcode:1986EcGeo..81.1203G. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.81.5.1203.

[39] "Mindat.org - Mines, Minerals and More". www.mindat.org.

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@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
 {{Infobox palladium}}
-'''Palladium''' is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Pd''' and [[atomic number]] 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1802 by the English chemist [[William Hyde Wollaston]]. He named it after the [[2 Pallas|asteroid Pallas]], which was itself named after the [[epithet]] of the Greek goddess [[Athena]], acquired by her when she slew [[Pallas (daughter of Triton)|Pallas]]. Palladium, [[platinum]], [[rhodium]], [[ruthenium]], [[iridium]] and [[osmium]] form a group of elements referred to as the [[platinum group]] metals (PGMs). They have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.
+'''Palladium''' is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Pd''' and [[atomic number]] 46. It is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal discovered in 1802 by the English chemist [[William Hyde Wollaston]]. He named it after the [[2 Pallas|asteroid Pallas]] (formally 2 Pallas), which was itself named after the [[epithet]] of the Greek goddess [[Athena]], acquired by her when she slew [[Pallas (daughter of Triton)|Pallas]]. Palladium, [[platinum]], [[rhodium]], [[ruthenium]], [[iridium]] and [[osmium]] form a group of elements referred to as the [[platinum group]] metals (PGMs). They have similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.
 More than half the supply of palladium and its [[Congener (chemistry)|congener]] platinum is used in [[catalytic converter]]s, which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust ([[hydrocarbon]]s, [[carbon monoxide]], and [[nitrogen dioxide]]) into nontoxic substances ([[nitrogen]], [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water vapor]]). Palladium is also used in electronics, [[dentistry]], [[medicine]], [[hydrogen purification]], chemical applications, [[Groundwater remediation|groundwater treatment]], and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of [[fuel cell]]s, in which hydrogen and oxygen react to produce electricity, heat, and water.
@@ Line 22: / Line 22: @@
 | 78 || [[platinum]] || 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
 |-
+| 110 || [[darmstadtium]] || 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 (predicted)<ref>{{cite book| title = The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements| editor1-last = Morss|editor2-first = Norman M.| editor2-last = Edelstein| editor3-last = Fuger|editor3-first = Jean| last1 = Hoffman|first1 = Darleane C.|last2=Lee |first2=Diana M. |last3=Pershina |first3=Valeria |chapter = Transactinides and the future elements| publisher = [[Springer Science+Business Media]]| year = 2006| isbn = 1-4020-3555-1| location = Dordrecht, The Netherlands| edition = 3rd| page=1722}}</ref>
-| 110 || [[darmstadtium]] || 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2 (predicted)
 |}
 This 5s<sup>0</sup> configuration, unique in [[period 5 element|period&nbsp;5]], makes palladium the heaviest element having only ''one'' incomplete [[electron shell]], with all shells above it empty.
@@ Line 41: / Line 41: @@
 ==Compounds==
-{{Category see also|Palladium compounds}}
+{{Main|Palladium compounds}}
 Palladium compounds exist primarily in the 0 and +2 oxidation state. Other less common states are also recognized. Generally the compounds of palladium are more similar to those of platinum than those of any other element.
 <gallery mode="packed">
@@ Line 50: / Line 50: @@
 ===Palladium(II)===
 [[Palladium(II) chloride]] is the principal starting material for other palladium compounds. It arises by the reaction of palladium with chlorine. It is used to prepare heterogeneous palladium catalysts such as palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on carbon, and palladium chloride on carbon.<ref>{{OrgSynth|title = Palladium Catalysts|author = Mozingo, Ralph |collvol = 3|collvolpages = 685|year = 1955|prep = cv3p0685}}</ref> Solutions of PdCl<sub>2</sub> in nitric acid react with [[acetic acid]] to give [[palladium(II) acetate]], also a versatile reagent. PdCl<sub>2</sub> reacts with ligands (L) to give square planar complexes of the type PdCl<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub>. One example of such complexes is the [[benzonitrile]] derivative [[Bis(benzonitrile)palladium dichloride|PdCl<sub>2</sub>(PhCN)<sub>2</sub>]].<ref>{{cite book|pages =60–63|volume= 28|doi =10.1002/9780470132593.ch13|date=1990|first1=Gordon K.|last1=Anderson|first2=Minren|last2=Lin|last3=Sen|first3= Ayusman|last4 =Gretz|first4=Efi|title =Inorganic Syntheses|chapter =Bis(Benzonitrile)Dichloro Complexes of Palladium and Platinum|isbn =978-0-470-13259-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1134/S1070328408110110 |title=Palladium complexes based on optically active terpene derivatives of ethylenediamine |journal=Russian Journal of Coordination Chemistry |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=855–857 |year=2008 |last1=Zalevskaya |first1=O. A |last2=Vorob'eva |first2=E. G |last3=Dvornikova |first3=I. A |last4=Kuchin |first4=A. V |s2cid=95529734 }}</ref>
-: PdCl<sub>2</sub> + 2 L → PdCl<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub> (L = [[Phenyl cyanide|PhCN]], [[Triphenylphosphine|PPh<sub>3</sub>]], [[Ammonia|NH<sub>3</sub>]], etc)
+{{block indent|1= PdCl<sub>2</sub> + 2 L → PdCl<sub>2</sub>L<sub>2</sub> (L = [[Phenyl cyanide|PhCN]], [[Triphenylphosphine|PPh<sub>3</sub>]], [[Ammonia|NH<sub>3</sub>]], etc.)}}
 The complex [[bis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(II) dichloride]] is a useful catalyst.<ref>{{OrgSynth|title = Palladium-catalyzed reaction of 1-alkenylboronates with vinylic halides: (1Z,3E)-1-Phenyl-1,3-octadiene|collvol = 8|collvolpages = 532|author1-link=Norio Miyaura|author1= Miyaura, Norio|author2 = Suzuki, Akira|name-list-style=amp|year = 1993|prep = cv8p0532}}</ref>
 [[File:Pd(OAc)2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Palladium(II) acetate]]]]
-[[File:Platinum-palladium ore, Stillwater mine MT.JPG|thumb|Platinum-palladium ore from the Stillwater mine in the Beartooth Mountains, Montana, USA]]
+[[File:Platinum-palladium ore, Stillwater mine MT.JPG|thumb|Platinum-palladium ore from the Stillwater mine in the Beartooth Mountains, Montana, US]]
 [[File:Sulfidic serpentintite (platinum-palladium ore) Johns-Manville Reef, Stillwater Complex.jpg|thumb|Sulfidic serpentintite (platinum-palladium ore) from the Stillwater mine in Montana]]
 ===Palladium(0)===
-Palladium forms a range of zerovalent complexes with the formula PdL<sub>4</sub>, PdL<sub>3</sub> and PdL<sub>2</sub>. For example, reduction of a mixture of PdCl<sub>2</sub>(PPh<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> and PPh<sub>3</sub> gives [[tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)]]:<ref>{{cite book|journal = [[Inorg. Synth.]]|volume = 13|pages = 121–124|first1 = D. R.|last1 = Coulson|doi = 10.1002/9780470132449.ch23|date = 1972|last2 = Satek|first2 = L. C.|last3 = Grim|first3 = S. O.| title=Inorganic Syntheses | chapter=Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) |isbn = 978-0-470-13244-9}}</ref>
+Palladium forms a range of zerovalent complexes with the formula PdL<sub>4</sub>, PdL<sub>3</sub> and PdL<sub>2</sub>. For example, reduction of a mixture of PdCl<sub>2</sub>(PPh<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> and PPh<sub>3</sub> gives [[tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0)]]:<ref>{{cite book |volume = 13|pages = 121–124|first1 = D. R.|last1 = Coulson|doi = 10.1002/9780470132449.ch23|date = 1972|last2 = Satek|first2 = L. C.|last3 = Grim|first3 = S. O.| series=[[Inorganic Syntheses]] | title=Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) |isbn = 978-0-470-13244-9}}</ref>
-:2 PdCl<sub>2</sub>(PPh<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 4 PPh<sub>3</sub> + 5 [[Hydrazine|N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>]] → 2 Pd(PPh<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub> + N<sub>2</sub> + 4 N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub><sup>+</sup>Cl<sup>−</sup>
+{{block indent|2 PdCl<sub>2</sub>(PPh<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub> + 4 PPh<sub>3</sub> + 5 [[Hydrazine|N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>]] → 2 Pd(PPh<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub> + N<sub>2</sub> + 4 N<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub><sup>+</sup>Cl<sup>−</sup>}}
 Another major palladium(0) complex, [[tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0)]] (Pd<sub>2</sub>(dba)<sub>3</sub>), is prepared by reducing [[sodium tetrachloropalladate]] in the presence of [[dibenzylideneacetone]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1039/C29700001065 |title=A novel palladium(0) complex; bis(dibenzylideneacetone)palladium(0) |journal=Journal of the Chemical Society D: Chemical Communications |issue=17 |pages=1065 |year=1970 |last1=Takahashi |first1=Y |last2=Ito |first2=Ts |last3=Sakai |first3=S |last4=Ishii |first4=Y }}</ref>
@@ Line 76: / Line 79: @@
 As overall mine production of palladium reached 210,000 kilograms in 2022, [[Russia]] was the top producer with 88,000 kilograms, followed by South Africa, Canada, the U.S., and Zimbabwe.<ref>{{Cite report |author=U. S. Geological Survey |date=2023 |title=Mineral commodity summaries 2023 |page=210 |url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2023 |language=en |doi=10.3133/mcs2023|doi-access=free }}</ref> Russia's company [[Norilsk Nickel]] ranks first among the largest palladium producers globally, accounting for 39% of the world's production.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nornickel.com/news-and-media/press-releases-and-news/norilsk-nickel-group-announces-preliminary-consolidated-production-results-for-4-th-quarter-and-full-2016-and-production-outlook-for-2017/?sphrase_id=316142|title="Norilsk Nickel" Group announces preliminary consolidated production results for 4 th quarter and full 2016, and production outl|website=Nornickel|language=en-US|access-date=2018-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629183059/https://www.nornickel.com/news-and-media/press-releases-and-news/norilsk-nickel-group-announces-preliminary-consolidated-production-results-for-4-th-quarter-and-full-2016-and-production-outlook-for-2017/?sphrase_id=316142|archive-date=29 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> <!--In 2005, Russia was the top producer of palladium, with at least 50% world share, followed by South Africa, Canada and the U.S., reports the [[British Geological Survey]].<ref name="BGS">{{cite book|first1=L. E.|last1=Hetherington|first2=T. J.|last2=Brown|first3=A. J.|last3=Benham|first4= T.|last4 = Bide|first5=P. A. J.|last5=Lusty|first6=V. L.|last6=Hards|first7=S. D.|last7=Hannis|first8=N. E.|last8=Idoine|title= World mineral statistics British Geological Survey|url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1388|place=Keyworth, Nottingham|page=88}}</ref>-->
-Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum-group metals in [[placer mining|placer]] deposits of the [[Ural Mountains]], [[Australia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]. For the production of palladium, these deposits play only a minor role. The most important commercial sources are [[nickel]]-[[copper]] deposits found in the [[Sudbury Basin]], [[Ontario]], and the [[Norilsk|Norilsk–Talnakh]] deposits in [[Siberia]]. The other large deposit is the [[Merensky Reef]] [[platinum group]] metals deposit within the [[Bushveld Igneous Complex]] [[South Africa]]. The [[Stillwater igneous complex]] of [[Montana]] and the Roby zone ore body of the [[Lac des Îles igneous complex]] of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States.<ref name="USGS07CS" /><ref name="USGS07YB">{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/myb1-2007-plati.pdf|title=Platinum-Group Metals|date=January 2007|work=Mineral Yearbook 2007|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Palladium is found in the rare minerals [[cooperite (mineral)|cooperite]]<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Mineralogical Magazine|date=1994|volume=58|issue= 2|pages=223–234|title=Compositional variation of cooperite, braggite, and vysotskite from the Bushveld Complex|first1=Sabine M. C.| last1 =Verryn|first2=Roland K. W.|last2=Merkle|doi=10.1180/minmag.1994.058.391.05|bibcode=1994MinM...58..223V|citeseerx=10.1.1.610.640|s2cid=53128786 }}</ref> and [[polarite]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Genkin|first1 = A. D.|last2 = Evstigneeva|first2 = T. L.|date = 1986|title = Associations of platinum- group minerals of the Norilsk copper-nickel sulfide ores|journal = Economic Geology|volume = 81|pages = 1203–1212|doi = 10.2113/gsecongeo.81.5.1203|issue = 5| bibcode=1986EcGeo..81.1203G }}</ref> Many more Pd minerals are known, but all of them are very rare.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/|title=Mindat.org - Mines, Minerals and More|website=www.mindat.org}}</ref>
+Palladium can be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other [[Platinum group|platinum-group]] metals in [[placer mining|placer]] deposits of the [[Ural Mountains]], [[Australia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]. For the production of palladium, these deposits play only a minor role. The most important commercial sources are [[nickel]]-[[copper]] deposits found in the [[Sudbury Basin]], [[Ontario]], and the [[Norilsk|Norilsk–Talnakh]] deposits in [[Siberia]]. The other large deposit is the [[Merensky Reef]] platinum group metals deposit within the [[Bushveld Igneous Complex]] [[South Africa]]. The [[Stillwater igneous complex]] of [[Montana]] and the Roby zone ore body of the [[Lac des Îles igneous complex]] of Ontario are the two other sources of palladium in Canada and the United States.<ref name="USGS07CS" /><ref name="USGS07YB">{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/myb1-2007-plati.pdf|title=Platinum-Group Metals|date=January 2007|work=Mineral Yearbook 2007|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Palladium is found in the rare minerals [[cooperite (mineral)|cooperite]]<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Mineralogical Magazine|date=1994|volume=58|issue= 2|pages=223–234|title=Compositional variation of cooperite, braggite, and vysotskite from the Bushveld Complex|first1=Sabine M. C.| last1 =Verryn|first2=Roland K. W.|last2=Merkle|doi=10.1180/minmag.1994.058.391.05|bibcode=1994MinM...58..223V|citeseerx=10.1.1.610.640|s2cid=53128786 }}</ref> and [[polarite]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Genkin|first1 = A. D.|last2 = Evstigneeva|first2 = T. L.|date = 1986|title = Associations of platinum- group minerals of the Norilsk copper-nickel sulfide ores|journal = Economic Geology|volume = 81|pages = 1203–1212|doi = 10.2113/gsecongeo.81.5.1203|issue = 5| bibcode=1986EcGeo..81.1203G }}</ref> Many more Pd minerals are known, but all of them are very rare.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mindat.org/|title=Mindat.org - Mines, Minerals and More|website=www.mindat.org}}</ref>
-Palladium is also produced in [[nuclear fission]] reactors and can be extracted from [[spent nuclear fuel]] (see [[synthesis of precious metals]]), though this source for palladium is not used. None of the existing [[nuclear reprocessing]] facilities are equipped to extract palladium from the [[high-level radioactive waste]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Recovery of Value Fission Platinoids from Spent Nuclear Fuel. Part I PART I: General Considerations and Basic Chemistry|url =http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/pmr-v47-i2-074-087.pdf| first1 =Zdenek|last1 =Kolarik|first2 =Edouard V.|last2 =Renard| journal = Platinum Metals Review|volume = 47|issue = 2|date = 2003|pages = 74–87}}</ref> A complication for the recovery of palladium in spent fuel is the presence of {{chem|107|Pd}}, a slightly radioactive [[long-lived fission product]]. Depending on end use, the radioactivity contributed by the {{chem|107|Pd}} might make the recovered palladium unusable without a costly step of [[isotope separation]].
+Palladium is also produced in [[nuclear fission]] reactors and can be extracted from [[spent nuclear fuel]] (see [[synthesis of precious metals]]), though this source for palladium is not used. None of the existing [[nuclear reprocessing]] facilities are equipped to extract palladium from the [[high-level radioactive waste]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Recovery of Value Fission Platinoids from Spent Nuclear Fuel. Part I PART I: General Considerations and Basic Chemistry|url =http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/pmr-v47-i2-074-087.pdf| first1 =Zdenek|last1 =Kolarik|first2 =Edouard V.|last2 =Renard| journal = Platinum Metals Review|volume = 47|issue = 2|date = 2003|pages = 74–87|doi =10.1595/003214003X4727487}}</ref> A complication for the recovery of palladium in spent fuel is the presence of {{chem|107|Pd}}, a slightly radioactive [[long-lived fission product]]. Depending on end use, the radioactivity contributed by the {{chem|107|Pd}} might make the recovered palladium unusable without a costly step of [[isotope separation]].
 ==Applications==
 [[File:Aufgeschnittener Metall Katalysator für ein Auto.jpg|thumb|Cross section of a [[Catalytic converter|metal-core catalytic converter]]]]
 [[File:25 rubles palladium 1989 Ivan III.jpg|thumb|The Soviet 25-rouble commemorative [[palladium coin]] is a rare example of the monetary usage of palladium.]]
-The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters.<ref name="unctad" /> Palladium is also used in jewelry, [[dentistry]],<ref name="unctad" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal = Platinum Metals Review|title = Palladium in Restorative Dentistry: Superior Physical Properties make Palladium an Ideal Dental Metal|first = Roy|last = Rushforth|volume = 48|issue = 1|date = 2004|url = http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/article/48/1/30-31/|access-date = 24 November 2013|archive-date = 24 September 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924074122/http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/article/48/1/30-31/|url-status = dead}}</ref> [[watch]] making, blood sugar test strips, aircraft [[spark plug]]s, [[surgical instrument]]s, and [[electrical contact]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title = Jewelry-making through history: an encyclopedia|first = Rayner W.|last = Hesse|publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group|date = 2007|page = 146|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DIWEi5Hg93gC&pg=PA146|chapter = palladium|isbn = 978-0-313-33507-5}}</ref> Palladium is also used to make some professional [[transverse flute|transverse (concert or classical) flutes]].<ref>{{cite book|title = The flute book: a complete guide for students and performers|first = Nancy|last = Toff|publisher = Oxford University Press|date = 1996|page =20 |isbn = 978-0-19-510502-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pCSanDD4CtsC&pg=PA20}}</ref> As a commodity, palladium [[bullion]] has [[ISO currency code]]s of XPD and 964. Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes, the others being [[gold]], [[silver]] and platinum.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2neeMTPKtEMC&pg=PA34|chapter = Precious Metals|page =34|title = Foreign exchange: a practical guide to the FX markets|isbn = 978-0-471-73203-7|author = Weithers, Timothy Martin|date = 2006| publisher=Wiley }}</ref> Because it [[Adsorption|adsorbs]] hydrogen, palladium was a key component of the controversial [[cold fusion]] experiments of the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Fleischmann | first = M |author2=Pons S |author3=Hawkins M | author-link = Martin Fleischmann | title = Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium | journal = [[J. Electroanal. Chem.]] | year = 1989 | volume = 261 | pages = 301 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0728(89)80006-3 | issue = 2}}</ref>
+The largest use of palladium today is in catalytic converters.<ref name="unctad" /> Palladium is also used in jewelry, [[dentistry]],<ref name="unctad" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal = Platinum Metals Review|title = Palladium in Restorative Dentistry: Superior Physical Properties make Palladium an Ideal Dental Metal|first = Roy|last = Rushforth|volume = 48|issue = 1|date = 2004| doi=10.1595/003214004X4813031 |doi-access = free}}</ref> [[watch]] making, blood sugar test strips, aircraft [[spark plug]]s, [[surgical instrument]]s, and [[electrical contact]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title = Jewelry-making through history: an encyclopedia|first = Rayner W.|last = Hesse|publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group|date = 2007|page = 146|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=DIWEi5Hg93gC&pg=PA146|chapter = palladium|isbn = 978-0-313-33507-5}}</ref> Palladium is also used to make some professional [[transverse flute|transverse (concert or classical) flutes]].<ref>{{cite book|title = The flute book: a complete guide for students and performers|first = Nancy|last = Toff|publisher = Oxford University Press|date = 1996|page =20 |isbn = 978-0-19-510502-5 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pCSanDD4CtsC&pg=PA20}}</ref> As a commodity, palladium [[bullion]] has [[ISO currency code]]s of XPD and 964. Palladium is one of only four metals to have such codes, the others being [[gold]], [[silver]] and platinum.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2neeMTPKtEMC&pg=PA34|chapter = Precious Metals|page =34|title = Foreign exchange: a practical guide to the FX markets|isbn = 978-0-471-73203-7|author = Weithers, Timothy Martin|date = 2006| publisher=Wiley }}</ref> Because it [[Adsorption|adsorbs]] hydrogen, palladium was a key component of the controversial [[cold fusion]] experiments of the late 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Fleischmann | first = M |author2=Pons S |author3=Hawkins M | author-link = Martin Fleischmann | title = Electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium | journal = [[J. Electroanal. Chem.]] | year = 1989 | volume = 261 | pages = 301 | doi = 10.1016/0022-0728(89)80006-3 | issue = 2}}</ref>
 ===Catalysis===
@@ Line 98: / Line 101: @@
 When dispersed on conductive materials, palladium is an excellent electrocatalyst for oxidation of primary alcohols in alkaline media.<ref>{{cite book|page=90|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RDT0OUdlj0MC&pg=PA90| title=Palladium reagents and catalysts: new perspectives for the 21st century| first = Jiro |last = Tsuji |publisher= John Wiley and Sons|date = 2004|isbn =978-0-470-85032-9}}</ref> Palladium is also a versatile metal for [[homogeneous catalysis]], used in combination with a broad variety of [[ligand]]s for highly selective chemical transformations.
-In 2010 the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] was awarded "for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis" to [[Richard F. Heck]], [[Ei-ichi Negishi]] and [[Akira Suzuki (chemist)|Akira Suzuki]]. A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for [[carbon-fluorine bonds]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal = [[Chemical & Engineering News]]|volume = 86|issue = 35|date = 2008|title = Palladium's Hidden Talent|pages = 53–56|first =Carmen|last = Drahl|doi =10.1021/cen-v086n035.p053}}</ref>
+In 2010 the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] was awarded "for palladium-catalyzed cross couplings in organic synthesis" to [[Richard F. Heck]], [[Ei-ichi Negishi]] and [[Akira Suzuki (chemist)|Akira Suzuki]]. A 2008 study showed that palladium is an effective catalyst for [[Carbon–fluorine bond|carbon–fluorine bonds]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal = [[Chemical & Engineering News]]|volume = 86|issue = 35|date = 2008|title = Palladium's Hidden Talent|pages = 53–56|first =Carmen|last = Drahl|doi =10.1021/cen-v086n035.p053}}</ref>
-[[File:Kumada Catalytic Cycle.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Catalytic cycle for Kumada cross coupling reaction, which is widely used in the synthesis of fine chemicals.]]
+[[File:Kumada Catalytic Cycle.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Catalytic cycle for Kumada cross coupling reaction, which is widely used in the synthesis of fine chemicals]]
 Palladium catalysis is primarily employed in organic chemistry and industrial applications, although its use is growing as a tool for [[synthetic biology]]; in 2017, effective ''in vivo'' catalytic activity of palladium [[nanoparticles]] was demonstrated in mammals to treat disease.<ref name="pmid28699627">{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/ncomms15906 |pmid=28699627 |pmc=5510178 |title=Nano-palladium is a cellular catalyst for in vivo chemistry |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=8 |pages=15906 |year=2017 |last1=Miller |first1=Miles A |last2=Askevold |first2=Bjorn |last3=Mikula |first3=Hannes |last4=Kohler |first4=Rainer H |last5=Pirovich |first5=David |last6=Weissleder |first6=Ralph |bibcode=2017NatCo...815906M }}</ref>
 ===Electronics===
-The primary application of palladium in electronics is in [[multi-layer ceramic capacitor]]s<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.ttiinc.com/object/ME_Zogbi_20030203.html|title = Shifting Supply and Demand for Palladium in MLCCs|first = Dennis|last = Zogbi|date = 3 February 2003|publisher = TTI, Inc.}}</ref> in which palladium (and palladium-silver alloy) is used for electrodes.<ref name="unctad" /> Palladium (sometimes alloyed with nickel) is or can be used for component and connector plating in consumer electronics<ref>{{cite book|author=Mroczkowski, Robert S. |title=Electronic connector handbook: theory and applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGkw8YR-uXsC&pg=SA3-PA30|date=1998|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-041401-3|pages=3–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Harper, Charles A. |title=Passive electronic component handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtlKBAcFBQAC&pg=PA580|date=1997|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-026698-8|pages=580–}}</ref> and in soldering materials. The electronic sector consumed {{convert|1.07|e6ozt|t|abbr=off}} of palladium in 2006, according to a [[Johnson Matthey]] report.<ref name="matthey">{{cite web|date = 2007|publisher = [[Johnson Matthey]]|title = Platinum 2007|url = http://www.platinum.matthey.com/uploaded_files/2007/07_palladium.pdf |first = David|last = Jollie|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216100834/http://www.platinum.matthey.com/uploaded_files/2007/07_palladium.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-16}}</ref>
+The primary application of palladium in electronics is in [[multi-layer ceramic capacitor]]s<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.ttiinc.com/object/ME_Zogbi_20030203.html|title = Shifting Supply and Demand for Palladium in MLCCs|first = Dennis|last = Zogbi|date = 3 February 2003|publisher = TTI, Inc.}}</ref> in which palladium (and palladium-silver alloy) is used for electrodes.<ref name="unctad" /> Palladium (sometimes alloyed with nickel) is or can be used for component and connector plating in consumer electronics<ref>{{cite book|author=Mroczkowski, Robert S. |title=Electronic connector handbook: theory and applications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XGkw8YR-uXsC&pg=SA3-PA30|date=1998|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-041401-3|pages=3–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Harper, Charles A. |title=Passive electronic component handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtlKBAcFBQAC&pg=PA580|date=1997|publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional|isbn=978-0-07-026698-8|pages=580–}}</ref> and in soldering materials. The electronic sector consumed {{convert|1.07|e6ozt|t|abbr=off|order=flip}} of palladium in 2006, according to a [[Johnson Matthey]] report.<ref name="matthey">{{cite web|date = 2007|publisher = [[Johnson Matthey]]|title = Platinum 2007|url = http://www.platinum.matthey.com/uploaded_files/2007/07_palladium.pdf |first = David|last = Jollie|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216100834/http://www.platinum.matthey.com/uploaded_files/2007/07_palladium.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-16}}</ref>
 ===Technology===
@@ Line 113: / Line 116: @@
 Palladium readily [[Adsorption|adsorbs]] hydrogen at room temperatures, forming [[palladium hydride]] PdH<sub>x</sub> with x less than 1.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF02667685|title=The H-Pd (hydrogen-palladium) System|date=1994|last1=Manchester|first1=F. D.|last2=San-Martin|first2=A.|last3=Pitre|first3=J. M.|journal=Journal of Phase Equilibria|volume=15|pages=62–83|s2cid=95343702}}</ref> While this property is common to many transition metals, palladium has a uniquely high absorption capacity and does not lose its ductility until x approaches 1.<ref name="gr">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw|pages=1150–151}}</ref> This property has been investigated in designing an efficient and safe hydrogen fuel storage medium, though palladium itself is currently prohibitively expensive for this purpose.<ref name="grochala">{{cite journal |last1=Grochala |first1=Wojciech |last2=Edwards |first2=Peter P. |title=Thermal Decomposition of the Non-Interstitial Hydrides for the Storage and Production of Hydrogen |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=104 |issue=3 |pages=1283–316 |year=2004 |pmid=15008624 |doi=10.1021/cr030691s }}</ref> The content of hydrogen in palladium can be linked to [[magnetic susceptibility]], which decreases with the increase of hydrogen and becomes zero for PdH<sub>0.62</sub>. At any higher ratio, the [[solid solution]] becomes [[diamagnetic]].<ref>Mott, N. F. and Jones, H. (1958) ''The Theory of Properties of metals and alloys''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-486-60456-X}}. p. 200</ref>
-Palladium is also used for hydrogen purification via hydrogen-purification membranes.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/870962388 |title=Handbook of membrane reactors Vol. 1, Fundamental materials science, design and optimisation |date=2013 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |others=Angelo Basile |isbn=978-0-85709-414-8 |location=Cambridge, UK |oclc=870962388}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=183–217}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yuan |first1=Mengyao |last2=Lee |first2=Kyoungjin |last3=Van Campen |first3=Douglas G. |last4=Liguori |first4=Simona |last5=Toney |first5=Michael F. |last6=Wilcox |first6=Jennifer |date=2019-01-16 |title=Hydrogen Purification in Palladium-Based Membranes: An Operando X-ray Diffraction Study |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.iecr.8b05017 |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research |language=en |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=926–934 |doi=10.1021/acs.iecr.8b05017 |osti=1503641 |s2cid=104355724 |issn=0888-5885}}</ref>
+Palladium is used for purification of hydrogen on a laboratory<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/870962388 |title=Handbook of membrane reactors Vol. 1, Fundamental materials science, design and optimisation |date=2013 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |editor=Angelo Basile |isbn=978-0-85709-414-8 |location=Cambridge, UK |oclc=870962388}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=183–217}} but not industrial scale.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/14356007.o13_o04 |chapter=Hydrogen, 3. Purification |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date=2011 |last1=Häussinger |first1=Peter |last2=Lohmüller |first2=Reiner |last3=Watson |first3=Allan M. |isbn=978-3-527-30385-4 }}</ref>
 ===Dentistry===
@@ Line 119: / Line 122: @@
 ===Jewelry===
-Palladium has been used as a [[precious metal]] in jewelry since 1939 as an alternative to platinum in the alloys called "[[Colored gold#White gold|white gold]]", where the naturally white color of palladium does not require [[Plating#Rhodium plating|rhodium plating]]. Palladium, being much less dense than platinum, is similar to gold in that it can be beaten into [[Metal leaf|leaf]] as thin as 100&nbsp;nm ({{frac|1|250,000}}&nbsp;in).<ref name="CRC" /> Unlike platinum, palladium may discolor at temperatures above {{convert|400|C|F}}<ref>{{cite book|first=Dinesh C. |last=Gupta|author2=Langer, Paul H. |author3=ASTM Committee F-1 on Electronics|title=Emerging semiconductor technology: a symposium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-a9LvarW-8C&pg=PA273|date=1987|publisher=ASTM International|isbn=978-0-8031-0459-4|pages=273–}}</ref> due to oxidation, making it more brittle and thus less suitable for use in jewelry; to prevent this, palladium intended for jewelry is heated under controlled conditions.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}
+Palladium has been used as a [[precious metal]] in jewelry since 1939 as an alternative to platinum in the alloys called "[[Colored gold#White gold|white gold]]", where the naturally white color of palladium does not require [[Plating#Rhodium plating|rhodium plating]]. Palladium, being much less dense than platinum, is similar to gold in that it can be beaten into [[Metal leaf|leaf]] as thin as 100&nbsp;nm ({{frac|1|250,000}}&nbsp;in).<ref name="CRC" /> Unlike platinum, palladium may discolor at temperatures above {{convert|400|C|F}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=Dinesh C. |last1=Gupta |first2=Paul H. |last2=Langer |author3=((ASTM Committee F-1 on Electronics))|title=Emerging semiconductor technology: a symposium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-a9LvarW-8C&pg=PA273|date=1987|publisher=ASTM International|isbn=978-0-8031-0459-4|pages=273–}}</ref> due to oxidation, making it more brittle and thus less suitable for use in jewelry; to prevent this, palladium intended for jewelry is heated under controlled conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mann |first=Mark B. |date=2007 |title=950 Palladium: Manufacturing Methods |url=https://www.ganoksin.com/article/950-palladium-manufacturing-methods/ }}</ref>
 Prior to 2004, the principal use of palladium in jewelry was the manufacture of white gold. Palladium is one of the three most popular alloying metals in white gold ([[nickel]] and silver can also be used).<ref name="unctad">{{cite web|publisher = [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]]|url = http://www.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/palladium/uses.htm|title = Palladium|access-date =5 February 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061206003556/http://www.unctad.org/infocomm/anglais/palladium/uses.htm <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date = 6 December 2006}}</ref> Palladium-gold is more expensive than nickel-gold, but seldom causes allergic reactions (though certain cross-allergies with nickel may occur).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hindsen |first1=M. |last2=Spiren |first2=A. |last3=Bruze |first3=M. |title=Cross-reactivity between nickel and palladium demonstrated by systemic administration of nickel |journal=Contact Dermatitis |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=2–8 |year=2005 |pmid=15982224 |doi=10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00577.x |s2cid=20927683 }}</ref>
@@ Line 130: / Line 133: @@
 [[Fountain pen]] [[nib (pen)|nibs]] made from [[gold]] are sometimes plated with palladium when a silver (rather than gold) appearance is desired. [[Sheaffer]] has used palladium plating for decades, either as an accent on otherwise gold nibs or covering the gold completely.
-Palladium is also used by the luxury brand Hermes as one of the metals plating the hardware on their handbags, most famous of which being Birkin.
+Palladium is also used by the luxury brand [[Hermès]] as one of the metals plating the hardware on their handbags, most famous of which being Birkin.
 ===Photography===
@@ Line 174: / Line 177: @@
 ===Precautions===
-Like other [[platinum-group metal]]s, bulk Pd is quite inert. Although [[contact dermatitis]] has been reported, data on the effects are limited. It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel, making it advisable to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic.<ref name="Kiel">{{cite journal|last1 = Kielhorn|first1 = Janet|last2 = Melber|first2 = Christine|last3 = Keller|first3 = Detlef|last4 = Mangelsdorf|first4 = Inge|title = Palladium – A review of exposure and effects to human health|journal = International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health|volume = 205|issue = 6|pages = 417–32|date = 2002|pmid = 12455264|doi = 10.1078/1438-4639-00180}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|pages = 549–563|chapter = Health Risk Potential of Palladium|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OnNZqylS_Z8C&pg=PA549|title = Palladium emissions in the environment: analytical methods, environmental assessment and health effects|first1 = Fathi|last1 =Zereini|first2 = Friedrich|last2 = Alt|publisher = Springer Science & Business|date = 2006|isbn = 978-3-540-29219-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Wataha|first1 = J. C.|last2 = Hanks|first2 = C. T.|title = Biological effects of palladium and risk of using palladium in dental casting alloys|journal = Journal of Oral Rehabilitation|volume = 23|issue = 5|pages = 309–20|date = 1996|pmid = 8736443|doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2842.1996.tb00858.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Aberer|first1 = Werner|last2 = Holub|first2 = Henriette|last3 = Strohal|first3 = Robert|last4 = Slavicek|first4 = Rudolf|title = Palladium in dental alloys – the dermatologists' responsibility to warn?|journal = Contact Dermatitis|volume = 28|issue = 3|pages = 163–5|date = 1993|pmid = 8462294|doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1993.tb03379.x|s2cid = 43020912}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Wataha|first1 = John C.|last2 = Shor|first2 = Kavita|title = Palladium alloys for biomedical devices|journal = Expert Review of Medical Devices|volume = 7|issue = 4|pages = 489–501|date = 2010|pmid = 20583886|doi = 10.1586/erd.10.25|s2cid = 41325428}}</ref>
+Like other [[platinum-group metal]]s, bulk Pd is quite inert. Although [[contact dermatitis]] has been reported, data on the effects are limited. It has been shown that people with an allergic reaction to palladium also react to nickel, making it advisable to avoid the use of dental alloys containing palladium on those so allergic.<ref name="Kiel">{{cite journal|last1 = Kielhorn|first1 = Janet|last2 = Melber|first2 = Christine|last3 = Keller|first3 = Detlef|last4 = Mangelsdorf|first4 = Inge|title = Palladium – A review of exposure and effects to human health|journal = International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health|volume = 205|issue = 6|pages = 417–32|date = 2002|pmid = 12455264|doi = 10.1078/1438-4639-00180| bibcode=2002IJHEH.205..417K }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|pages = 549–563|chapter = Health Risk Potential of Palladium|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OnNZqylS_Z8C&pg=PA549|title = Palladium emissions in the environment: analytical methods, environmental assessment and health effects|first1 = Fathi|last1 =Zereini|first2 = Friedrich|last2 = Alt|publisher = Springer Science & Business|date = 2006|isbn = 978-3-540-29219-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Wataha|first1 = J. C.|last2 = Hanks|first2 = C. T.|title = Biological effects of palladium and risk of using palladium in dental casting alloys|journal = Journal of Oral Rehabilitation|volume = 23|issue = 5|pages = 309–20|date = 1996|pmid = 8736443|doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2842.1996.tb00858.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Aberer|first1 = Werner|last2 = Holub|first2 = Henriette|last3 = Strohal|first3 = Robert|last4 = Slavicek|first4 = Rudolf|title = Palladium in dental alloys – the dermatologists' responsibility to warn?|journal = Contact Dermatitis|volume = 28|issue = 3|pages = 163–5|date = 1993|pmid = 8462294|doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1993.tb03379.x|s2cid = 43020912}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Wataha|first1 = John C.|last2 = Shor|first2 = Kavita|title = Palladium alloys for biomedical devices|journal = Expert Review of Medical Devices|volume = 7|issue = 4|pages = 489–501|date = 2010|pmid = 20583886|doi = 10.1586/erd.10.25|s2cid = 41325428}}</ref>
-Some palladium is emitted with the exhaust gases of cars with [[catalytic converter]]s. Between 4 and 108&nbsp;ng/km of palladium particulate is released by such cars, while the total uptake from food is estimated to be less than 2&nbsp;µg per person a day. The second possible source of palladium is dental restoration, from which the uptake of palladium is estimated to be less than 15&nbsp;µg per person per day. People working with palladium or its compounds might have a considerably greater uptake. For soluble compounds such as [[palladium chloride]], 99% is eliminated from the body within 3 days.<ref name="Kiel" />
+Some palladium is emitted with the exhaust gases of cars with [[catalytic converter]]s. Between 4 and 108&nbsp;ng/km of palladium particulate is released by such cars, while the total uptake from food is estimated to be less than 2&nbsp;μg per person a day. The second possible source of palladium is dental restoration, from which the uptake of palladium is estimated to be less than 15&nbsp;μg per person per day. People working with palladium or its compounds might have a considerably greater uptake. For soluble compounds such as [[palladium chloride]], 99% is eliminated from the body within three days.<ref name="Kiel" />
 The [[median lethal dose]] (LD<sub>50</sub>) of soluble palladium compounds in mice is 200&nbsp;mg/kg for [[oral administration|oral]] and 5&nbsp;mg/kg for [[intravenous administration]].<ref name="Kiel" />
@@ Line 182: / Line 185: @@
 ==History==
 [[File:Wollaston William Hyde Jackson color.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[William Hyde Wollaston]]]]
+[[File:Potw1749a Pallas crop.png|thumb|192x192px|[[Very Large Telescope]] image of [[2 Pallas]], the asteroid after which Palladium was named.]]
-William Hyde Wollaston noted the [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovery]] of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab book and named it palladium in August of the same year. Wollaston purified a quantity of the material and offered it, without naming the discoverer, in a small shop in [[Soho]] in April 1803. After harsh criticism from [[Richard Chenevix (chemist)|Richard Chenevix]], who claimed that palladium was an alloy of platinum and mercury, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of £20 for 20 grains of synthetic palladium ''alloy''.<ref name="contr">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1080/00033797800200431|title = The Wollaston/Chenevix controversy over the elemental nature of palladium: A curious episode in the history of chemistry|date = 1978|last1 = Usselman|first1 = Melvyn|journal = Annals of Science|volume = 35|issue = 6|pages = 551–579}}</ref> Chenevix received the [[Copley Medal]] in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston published the discovery of [[rhodium]] in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium.<ref name="Disco">{{cite journal|journal=Platinum Metals Review|url=http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/dynamic/article/view/47-4-175-183|title=Rhodium and Palladium – Events Surrounding Its Discovery|author=Griffith, W. P.|volume=47|issue=4|date=2003|pages=175–183|access-date=24 March 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130419230209/http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/article/47/4/175-183/|archive-date=19 April 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= On a New Metal, Found in Crude Platina |first=W. H. |last=Wollaston |author-link=William Hyde Wollaston |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]] |volume=94 |date=1804 |pages=419–430 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1804.0019| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419|doi-access=free }}</ref> He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805.<ref name="contr" /><ref>{{cite journal|title = On the Discovery of Palladium; With Observations on Other Substances Found with Platina|first = W. H.|last = Wollaston|author-link = William Hyde Wollaston|journal = [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]]|volume = 95|date = 1805|pages = 316–330|doi = 10.1098/rstl.1805.0024|doi-access = free}}</ref>
+[[William Hyde Wollaston]] noted the [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovery]] of a new noble metal in July 1802 in his lab book and named it palladium in August of the same year. He named the element after the asteroid [[2 Pallas]], which had been discovered two months earlier (and which was [[List of former planets|previously considered a planet]]).<ref name="CRC" /> Wollaston purified a quantity of the material and offered it, without naming the discoverer, in a small shop in [[Soho]] in April 1803. After harsh criticism from [[Richard Chenevix (chemist)|Richard Chenevix]], who claimed that palladium was an alloy of platinum and mercury, Wollaston anonymously offered a reward of £20 for 20 grains of synthetic palladium ''alloy''.<ref name="contr">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1080/00033797800200431|title = The Wollaston/Chenevix controversy over the elemental nature of palladium: A curious episode in the history of chemistry|date = 1978|last1 = Usselman|first1 = Melvyn|journal = Annals of Science|volume = 35|issue = 6|pages = 551–579}}</ref> Chenevix received the [[Copley Medal]] in 1803 after he published his experiments on palladium. Wollaston published the discovery of [[rhodium]] in 1804 and mentions some of his work on palladium.<ref name="Disco">{{cite journal|journal=Platinum Metals Review|title=Rhodium and Palladium – Events Surrounding Its Discovery|author=Griffith, W. P.|volume=47|issue=4|date=2003|pages=175–183|doi=10.1595/003214003X474175183 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= On a New Metal, Found in Crude Platina |first=W. H. |last=Wollaston |author-link=William Hyde Wollaston |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]] |volume=94 |date=1804 |pages=419–430 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1804.0019| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA419|doi-access=free }}</ref> He disclosed that he was the discoverer of palladium in a publication in 1805.<ref name="contr" /><ref>{{cite journal|title = On the Discovery of Palladium; With Observations on Other Substances Found with Platina|first = W. H.|last = Wollaston|author-link = William Hyde Wollaston|journal = [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]]|volume = 95|date = 1805|pages = 316–330|doi = 10.1098/rstl.1805.0024|doi-access = free}}</ref>
-It was named by Wollaston in 1802 after the asteroid [[2 Pallas]], which had been discovered two months earlier.<ref name="CRC" /> Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from [[South America]] by dissolving the ore in [[aqua regia]], neutralizing the solution with [[sodium hydroxide]], and precipitating platinum as [[ammonium chloroplatinate]] with [[ammonium chloride]]. He added [[mercuric cyanide]] to form the compound [[palladium(II) cyanide]], which was heated to extract palladium metal.<ref name="Disco" />
+Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from [[South America]] by dissolving the ore in [[aqua regia]], neutralizing the solution with [[sodium hydroxide]], and precipitating platinum as [[ammonium chloroplatinate]] with [[ammonium chloride]]. He added [[mercuric cyanide]] to form the compound [[palladium(II) cyanide]], which was heated to extract palladium metal.<ref name="Disco" />
 [[Palladium chloride]] was at one time prescribed as a [[tuberculosis]] treatment at the rate of 0.065&nbsp;g per day (approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight). This treatment had many negative [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side-effects]], and was later replaced by more effective drugs.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Art of Meeting Palladium Specifications in Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients Produced by Pd-Catalyzed Reactions|first=Christine E. |last=Garrett|author2=Prasad, Kapa|journal= Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis|volume=346 |issue=8 |date=2004 |pages=889–900 |doi=10.1002/adsc.200404071|s2cid=94929244 }}</ref>
@@ Line 190: / Line 194: @@
 Most palladium is used for [[catalytic converter]]s in the automobile industry.<ref name="Kiel" /> Catalytic converters are targets for thieves because they contain palladium and other rare metals. In the run up to year 2000, the Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted; for political reasons, the export quota was not granted on time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lbma.org.uk/assets/5d_Williamson_lbmaconf2003.pdf|title=Russian PGM Stocks|last=Williamson|first=Alan|work=The LBMA Precious Metals Conference 2003|publisher=The London Bullion Market Association|access-date=2 October 2010|archive-date=21 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021171646/http://www.lbma.org.uk/assets/5d_Williamson_lbmaconf2003.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ensuing market panic drove the price to an all-time high of {{convert|1340|$/ozt|$/g|lk=on}} in January 2001.<ref name="chart-all">{{cite web |url=http://www.infomine.com/investment/metal-prices/palladium/all/ |title=Historical Palladium Prices and Price Chart |access-date=2015-01-27 |publisher=InvestmentMine}}</ref> Around that time, the [[Ford Motor Company]], fearing that automobile production would be disrupted by a palladium shortage, stockpiled the metal. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly [[United States dollar|US$]]1&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite news|date=16 January 2002|title=Ford fears first loss in a decade|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1763406.stm|access-date=19 September 2008}}</ref>
-World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300&nbsp;tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222&nbsp;[[tonne]]s in 2006 according to the [[United States Geological Survey]].<ref name="USGS07CS">{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/platimcs07.pdf|title=Platinum-Group Metals|date=January 2007|work=Mineral Commodity Summaries|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Many were concerned about a steady supply of palladium in the wake of Russia's [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation of Crimea]], partly as sanctions could hamper Russian palladium exports; any restrictions on Russian palladium exports could have exacerbated what was already expected to be a large palladium deficit in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nat Rudarakanchana |date=2014-03-27 |title=Palladium Fund Launches in South Africa, As Russian Supply Fears Warm Prices |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/palladium-fund-launches-south-africa-russian-supply-fears-warm-prices-1563708|website=International Business Times}}</ref> Those concerns pushed palladium prices to their highest level since 2001.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2014/08/20/palladium-prices-russia-conflict-pushes-price-for-commodity-higher.html|title=The other commodity that's leaping on Ukraine war|last=Rosenfeld|first=Everett|date=2014-08-20|work=CNBC|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> In September 2014 they soared above the $900 per ounce mark. In 2016 however palladium cost around $614 per ounce as Russia managed to maintain stable supplies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2017-08-30/palladium-rally-is-about-more-than-just-autos|title=Palladium Rally Is About More Than Just Autos|date=2017-08-30|work=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-01-29|language=en}}</ref> In January 2019 palladium [[Futures contract|futures]] climbed past $1,344 per ounce for the first time on record, mainly due to the strong demand from the automotive industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oilprice.com/Metals/Commodities/Dont-Expect-Palladium-Prices-to-Plunge.html|title=Don't Expect Palladium Prices To Plunge {{!}} OilPrice.com|website=OilPrice.com|language=en|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> Palladium reached {{convert|2024.64|$/ozt|$/g}} on 6 January 2020, passing $2,000 per troy ounce the first time.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-precious/gold-soars-as-middle-east-tensions-brew-perfect-storm-idUSKBN1Z50D9|title=Gold soars as Middle East tensions brew perfect storm {{!}} Reuters|newspaper=Reuters|language=en|access-date=2020-01-06|date=6 January 2020}}</ref> The price rose above $3,000 per troy ounce in May 2021 and March 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/gold-gains-after-russia-attacks-europes-largest-nuclear-plant-2022-03-04/ |title=Palladium tops $3,000/oz as supply fears grow, gold jumps over 1% |first=Brijesh |last=Patel |date=4 March 2022|website=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>
+World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300&nbsp;tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222&nbsp;[[tonne]]s in 2006 according to the [[United States Geological Survey]].<ref name="USGS07CS">{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/platinum/platimcs07.pdf|title=Platinum-Group Metals|date=January 2007|work=Mineral Commodity Summaries|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]}}</ref> Many were concerned about a steady supply of palladium in the wake of Russia's [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation of Crimea]], partly as sanctions could hamper Russian palladium exports; any restrictions on Russian palladium exports could have exacerbated what was already expected to be a large palladium deficit in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |author=Nat Rudarakanchana |date=2014-03-27 |title=Palladium Fund Launches in South Africa, As Russian Supply Fears Warm Prices |url=http://www.ibtimes.com/palladium-fund-launches-south-africa-russian-supply-fears-warm-prices-1563708|website=International Business Times}}</ref> Those concerns pushed palladium prices to their highest level since 2001.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2014/08/20/palladium-prices-russia-conflict-pushes-price-for-commodity-higher.html|title=The other commodity that's leaping on Ukraine war|last=Rosenfeld|first=Everett|date=2014-08-20|work=CNBC|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> In September 2014 they soared above the $900 per ounce mark. In 2016 however palladium cost around $614 per ounce as Russia managed to maintain stable supplies.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2017-08-30/palladium-rally-is-about-more-than-just-autos|title=Palladium Rally Is About More Than Just Autos|date=2017-08-30|work=Bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-01-29|language=en}}</ref> In January 2019 palladium [[Futures contract|futures]] climbed past $1,344 per ounce for the first time on record, mainly due to the strong demand from the automotive industry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oilprice.com/Metals/Commodities/Dont-Expect-Palladium-Prices-to-Plunge.html|title=Don't Expect Palladium Prices To Plunge {{!}} OilPrice.com|website=OilPrice.com|language=en|access-date=2018-01-29}}</ref> Palladium reached {{convert|2024.64|$/ozt|$/g}} on 6 January 2020, passing $2,000 per troy ounce the first time.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-precious/gold-soars-as-middle-east-tensions-brew-perfect-storm-idUSKBN1Z50D9|title=Gold soars as Middle East tensions brew perfect storm |newspaper=Reuters|language=en|access-date=2020-01-06|date=6 January 2020}}</ref> The price rose above $3,000 per troy ounce in May 2021 and March 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/gold-gains-after-russia-attacks-europes-largest-nuclear-plant-2022-03-04/ |title=Palladium tops $3,000/oz as supply fears grow, gold jumps over 1% |first=Brijesh |last=Patel |date=4 March 2022|website=[[Reuters]]}}</ref>
 ==Palladium as investment==
-[[File:Palladium Prices.webp|thumb|right|Palladium prices – US Dollars per [[troy ounce]]]]
+[[File:Palladium Prices.webp|thumb|right|Palladium prices – US dollars per [[troy ounce]]]]
-Global palladium sales were 8.84 million ounces (250.6 tonnes) in 2017,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/418218/global-palladium-supply/|title=Total palladium supply worldwide 2017 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2018-10-15}}</ref> of which 86% was used in the manufacturing of automotive catalytic converters, followed by industrial, jewelry, and investment usages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/254543/global-palladium-demand-by-sector/|title=Global palladium demand distribution by application 2016 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2018-10-15}}</ref> More than 75% of global platinum and 40% of palladium are mined in [[South Africa]]. Russia's mining company, [[Norilsk Nickel]], produces another 44% of palladium, with US and Canada-based mines producing most of the rest.
+Global palladium sales were {{convert|8.84|e6ozt|t}} in 2017,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/418218/global-palladium-supply/|title=Total palladium supply worldwide 2017 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2018-10-15}}</ref> of which 86% was used in the manufacturing of automotive catalytic converters, followed by industrial, jewelry, and investment usages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/254543/global-palladium-demand-by-sector/|title=Global palladium demand distribution by application 2016 {{!}} Statistic|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2018-10-15}}</ref> More than 75% of global platinum and 40% of palladium are mined in [[South Africa]]. Russia's mining company, [[Norilsk Nickel]], produces another 44% of palladium, with US and Canada-based mines producing most of the rest.
-The price for palladium reached an all-time high of $2,981.40 per ounce on May 3, 2021<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kitco.com/charts/historicalpalladium.html|title=Historical Palladium Charts and Data - London Fix}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=1100&year1=200101&year2=201807|title=CPI Inflation Calculator|website=data.bls.gov|access-date=2018-08-13}}</ref> driven mainly on speculation of the [[catalytic converter]] demand from the [[automobile industry]]. Palladium is traded in the [[spot market]] with the code "XPD". When settled in USD, the code is "XPDUSD". A later surplus of the metal was caused by the [[Russian government]] selling stockpiles from the [[Soviet Era]], at a rate of about 1.6 to 2 million ounces (45.4 to 56.7 t) a year. The amount and status of this stockpile are a [[Classified information|state secret]].
+The price for palladium reached an all-time high of $2,981.40 per ounce on May 3, 2021,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kitco.com/charts/historicalpalladium.html|title=Historical Palladium Charts and Data - London Fix}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=1100&year1=200101&year2=201807|title=CPI Inflation Calculator|website=data.bls.gov|access-date=2018-08-13}}</ref> driven mainly on speculation of the [[catalytic converter]] demand from the [[automobile industry]]. Palladium is traded in the [[spot market]] with the code "XPD". When settled in USD, the code is "XPDUSD". A later surplus of the metal was caused by the [[Russian government]] selling stockpiles from the [[Soviet Era|Soviet era]], at a rate of about {{convert|1.6|to|2|e6ozt|t}} a year. The amount and status of this stockpile are a [[Classified information|state secret]].
 During the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]] in March 2022, prices for palladium increased 13%, since the first of March. Russia is the primary supplier to Europe and the country supplies 37% of the global production.<ref>{{cite news |last=Staff |first=Writer (OilPrice.com) |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/palladium-prices-soaring-russian-sanctions-223000063.html |title=Palladium Prices Are Soaring As Russian Sanctions Sting |work=[[Yahoo! Finance]] |publisher=OilPrice.com |date=2022-03-10 |accessdate=2022-03-13 }}</ref>