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==Early life== |
==Early life== |
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Born in the town of [[Hampden, Maine]], she grew up in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] among her parents' relatives. She was the first child of three born to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow, who had deep ancestral roots in [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]].<ref>{{cite periodical |url=http://www.edmund-rice.org/newsletters/vol_73_4_1999_fall.pdf |title=Notable Kin of Edmund Rice |author=Gary Boyd Roberts |page=5 |magazine=ERA Newsletter |date=Fall 1999 |publisher=Edmund Rice (1638) Association | access-date = 2013-06-23}}</ref> Her mother suffered from poor health, thus she wasn't able to provide consistent support to her children.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Dorothea Dix|last=Stevenson|first=Keira|date=August 2017|via=EBSCOhost}}<!-- May be referring to: Stevenson, Keira. Dorothea Dix. Ipswich, MA: Great Neck Publishing, 2005. --></ref> Her father was an itinerant bookseller and Methodist preacher.<ref name="Tiffany 1890">{{citation |year=1890 |author=Tiffany, Francis |title=The Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix |place=Boston & New York |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin & Co |page=1 |url=https://archive.org/stream/lifedorothealyn00tiffgoog#page/n12/mode/2up |access-date= 2010-11-12}}. This sequence of events is described over several chapters, commencing page 180 (n206 in electronic page field).</ref>{{efn|1=Internet Archive currently lists [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28Life%20of%20Dorothea%20Lynde%20Dix%29 seven copies] of Francis Tiffany's book, of varying replication quality. The book was reprinted a number of times, and publishers may vary. However, the text is identical. Unfortunately, two of the easier to read versions uploaded to Internet Archive, namely [https://archive.org/stream/lifeofdorothealy00tiffuoft#page/n5/mode/2up this] and [https://archive.org/stream/lifeofdorothelyn00tiffrich#page/n3/mode/2up this] (the two bottom listings), are missing the title page, so were not utilised for the citation in this article. The information provided in the Internet Archive listings should never be used for citation, as they can contain inaccuracies (as can Google book listings). The uploaded, visible text itself should always be relied upon. }} At the age of twelve, she and her two brothers were sent to their wealthy grandmother,<ref name=":0" /> Dorothea Lynde (married to Dr. Elijah Dix){{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to get away from her [[alcoholic]] parents and abusive father. She began to teach in a school all for girls in Worcester, Massachusetts at fourteen years old and had developed her own curriculum for her class, in which she emphasized ethical living and the natural sciences.<ref name=":0" /> In about 1821 Dix opened a school in Boston, which was patronized by well-to-do families. Soon afterward she also began teaching poor and neglected children out of the barn of her grandmother's house, but she suffered poor health.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holland |first=Mary G. |title=Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War |location=Roseville |publisher=Edinborough Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-889020-04-4 |page=76}}</ref> It has been suggested that Dorothea suffered from major depressive episodes, which contributed to her poor health.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gollaher |first=D. |title=Voice for the Mad |url=https://archive.org/details/voiceformadl00goll |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=The Free Press |date=1995 |page=[https://archive.org/details/voiceformadl00goll/page/93 93]|isbn=9780029123997 }}</ref> From 1824 to 1830, she wrote mainly devotional books and stories for children. Her ''Conversations on Common Things'' (1824) reached its sixtieth edition by 1869,<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Dix, Dorothea Lynde|volume=8|page=346}}</ref> and was reprinted 60 times and written in the style of a conversation between mother and daughter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parry|first=Manson|title=Dorothea Dix|journal=American Journal of Public Health|year=2006|volume=96|issue=4|pages=624–625|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2005.079152|pmc=1470530}}</ref> Her book ''The Garland of Flora'' (1829) was, along with [[Elizabeth Wirt]]'s ''Flora's Dictionary'', one of the first two [[language of flowers|dictionaries of flowers]] published in the United States. Other books of Dix's include ''Private Hours, Alice and Ruth,'' and ''Prisons and Prison Discipline.''<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Holland |first=Mary G. |title=Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War |location=Roseville |publisher=Edinborough Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-889020-04-4 |page=77}}</ref> |
Born in the town of [[Hampden, Maine]], she grew up in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]], among her parents' relatives. She was the first child of three born to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow, who had deep ancestral roots in [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]].<ref>{{cite periodical |url=http://www.edmund-rice.org/newsletters/vol_73_4_1999_fall.pdf |title=Notable Kin of Edmund Rice |author=Gary Boyd Roberts |page=5 |magazine=ERA Newsletter |date=Fall 1999 |publisher=Edmund Rice (1638) Association | access-date = 2013-06-23}}</ref> Her mother suffered from poor health, thus she wasn't able to provide consistent support to her children.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Dorothea Dix|last=Stevenson|first=Keira|date=August 2017|via=EBSCOhost}}<!-- May be referring to: Stevenson, Keira. Dorothea Dix. Ipswich, MA: Great Neck Publishing, 2005. --></ref> Her father was an itinerant bookseller and [[Methodist Episcopal Church|Methodist]] preacher.<ref name="Tiffany 1890">{{citation |year=1890 |author=Tiffany, Francis |title=The Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix |place=Boston & New York |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin & Co |page=1 |url=https://archive.org/stream/lifedorothealyn00tiffgoog#page/n12/mode/2up |access-date= 2010-11-12}}. This sequence of events is described over several chapters, commencing page 180 (n206 in electronic page field).</ref>{{efn|1=Internet Archive currently lists [https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28Life%20of%20Dorothea%20Lynde%20Dix%29 seven copies] of Francis Tiffany's book, of varying replication quality. The book was reprinted a number of times, and publishers may vary. However, the text is identical. Unfortunately, two of the easier to read versions uploaded to Internet Archive, namely [https://archive.org/stream/lifeofdorothealy00tiffuoft#page/n5/mode/2up this] and [https://archive.org/stream/lifeofdorothelyn00tiffrich#page/n3/mode/2up this] (the two bottom listings), are missing the title page, so were not utilised for the citation in this article. The information provided in the Internet Archive listings should never be used for citation, as they can contain inaccuracies (as can Google book listings). The uploaded, visible text itself should always be relied upon. }} At the age of twelve, she and her two brothers were sent to their wealthy grandmother,<ref name=":0" /> Dorothea Lynde (married to Dr. Elijah Dix){{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to get away from her [[alcoholic]] parents and abusive father. She began to teach in a school all for girls in Worcester, Massachusetts at fourteen years old and had developed her own curriculum for her class, in which she emphasized ethical living and the natural sciences.<ref name=":0" /> In about 1821 Dix opened a school in Boston, which was patronized by well-to-do families. Soon afterward she also began teaching poor and neglected children out of the barn of her grandmother's house, but she suffered poor health.<ref>{{cite book|last=Holland |first=Mary G. |title=Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War |location=Roseville |publisher=Edinborough Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-889020-04-4 |page=76}}</ref> It has been suggested that Dorothea suffered from major depressive episodes, which contributed to her poor health.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gollaher |first=D. |title=Voice for the Mad |url=https://archive.org/details/voiceformadl00goll |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=The Free Press |date=1995 |page=[https://archive.org/details/voiceformadl00goll/page/93 93]|isbn=9780029123997 }}</ref> From 1824 to 1830, she wrote mainly [[Devotional book|devotional books]] and stories for children. Her ''Conversations on Common Things'' (1824) reached its sixtieth edition by 1869,<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Dix, Dorothea Lynde|volume=8|page=346}}</ref> and was reprinted 60 times and written in the style of a conversation between mother and daughter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parry|first=Manson|title=Dorothea Dix|journal=American Journal of Public Health|year=2006|volume=96|issue=4|pages=624–625|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2005.079152|pmc=1470530}}</ref> Her book ''The Garland of Flora'' (1829) was, along with [[Elizabeth Wirt]]'s ''Flora's Dictionary'', one of the first two [[language of flowers|dictionaries of flowers]] published in the United States. Other books of Dix's include ''Private Hours, Alice and Ruth,'' and ''Prisons and Prison Discipline.''<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=Holland |first=Mary G. |title=Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War |location=Roseville |publisher=Edinborough Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-889020-04-4 |page=77}}</ref> |
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Although raised Catholic and later directed to Congregationalism, Dix became a Unitarian.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.teachushistory.org/second-great-awakening-age-reform/approaches/dorothea-dix-unitarian-reform |title=Dorothea Dix: Unitarian Reform |access-date=2021-10-31}}</ref> |
Although raised Catholic and later directed to [[Congregationalism in the United States|Congregationalism]], Dix became a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.teachushistory.org/second-great-awakening-age-reform/approaches/dorothea-dix-unitarian-reform |title=Dorothea Dix: Unitarian Reform |access-date=2021-10-31}}</ref> |
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After Dix's health forced her to relinquish her school, she began working as a governess on Beacon Hill for the family of [[William Ellery Channing]], a leading Unitarian intellectual. It was while working with his family that Dix traveled to St. Croix, where she first witnessed slavery at first hand, though her experience did not dispose her sympathies toward abolitionism.<ref name="auto"/> In 1831, she established a model school for girls in Boston, operating it until 1836, when she suffered a breakdown.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Dix was encouraged to take a trip to Europe to improve her health. While she was there she met British social reformers who inspired her. These reformers included [[Elizabeth Fry]], [[Samuel Tuke (reformer)|Samuel Tuke]] and William Rathbone with whom she lived during the duration of her trip in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parry|first=Manon S.|date= 2016-11-29|title=Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=96|issue=4|pages=624–625|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2005.079152|issn=0090-0036|pmc=1470530}}</ref> In hopes of a cure, in 1836 she traveled to England, where she met the [[Rathbone family]]. During her trip in Europe and her stay with the Rathbone family, Dorothea's grandmother died and left her a "sizable estate, along with her royalties" which allowed her to live comfortably for the remainder of her life.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Norbury|first=Frank|year=1999|title=Dorothea Dix and the Founding of Illinois' First Mental Hospital|journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society|volume=92|pages=13–29|via=JSTOR}}</ref> It was also during this trip that she came across an institution in Turkey, which she used as a model institution despite its conditions being just like other facilities.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Brickell|first=Herschel|url=https://fultonhistory.com/Fulton.html|title=Dorothea's Dix's Achievements as Friend of Society's Outcasts Described in a Good Biography|date= 1937-05-11|work=New York Post}}</ref> They invited her as a guest to Greenbank, their ancestral mansion in [[Liverpool]] |
After Dix's health forced her to relinquish her school, she began working as a [[governess]] on [[Beacon Hill, Boston|Beacon Hill]] for the family of [[William Ellery Channing]], a leading Unitarian intellectual. It was while working with his family that Dix traveled to [[Saint Croix|St. Croix]], where she first witnessed slavery at first hand, though her experience did not dispose her sympathies toward abolitionism.<ref name="auto"/> In 1831, she established a model school for girls in Boston, operating it until 1836, when she suffered a breakdown.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Dix was encouraged to take a trip to Europe to improve her health. While she was there she met British social reformers who inspired her. These reformers included [[Elizabeth Fry]], [[Samuel Tuke (reformer)|Samuel Tuke]] and [[William Rathbone V|William Rathbone]] with whom she lived during the duration of her trip in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Parry|first=Manon S.|date= 2016-11-29|title=Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)|journal=American Journal of Public Health|volume=96|issue=4|pages=624–625|doi=10.2105/AJPH.2005.079152|issn=0090-0036|pmc=1470530}}</ref> In hopes of a cure, in 1836 she traveled to England, where she met the [[Rathbone family]]. During her trip in Europe and her stay with the Rathbone family, Dorothea's grandmother died and left her a "sizable estate, along with her royalties" which allowed her to live comfortably for the remainder of her life.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Norbury|first=Frank|year=1999|title=Dorothea Dix and the Founding of Illinois' First Mental Hospital|journal=Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society|volume=92|pages=13–29|via=JSTOR}}</ref> It was also during this trip that she came across an institution in Turkey, which she used as a model institution despite its conditions being just like other facilities.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Brickell|first=Herschel|url=https://fultonhistory.com/Fulton.html|title=Dorothea's Dix's Achievements as Friend of Society's Outcasts Described in a Good Biography|date= 1937-05-11|work=New York Post}}</ref> The Rathbones were [[Quaker]]s and prominent social reformers. They invited her as a guest to Greenbank, their ancestral mansion in [[Liverpool]]. At Greenbank, Dix met their circle of men and women who believed that government should play a direct, active role in social welfare. She was also introduced to Great Britain's reform movement for care of the mentally ill, known as lunacy reform. Its members were making deep investigations of madhouses and asylums, publishing their studies in reports to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]].{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} |
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==Antebellum career== |
==Antebellum career== |
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[[File:Dorothea Dix 1802–1887.jpg|thumb|left|Half-plate daguerreotype of Dorothea Dix, c. 1849]] |
[[File:Dorothea Dix 1802–1887.jpg|thumb|left|Half-plate daguerreotype of Dorothea Dix, c. 1849]] |
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Reform movements for treatment of the mentally ill were related in this period to other progressive causes: abolitionism, temperance, and voter reforms. After returning to America, in |
Reform movements for treatment of the mentally ill were related in this period to other progressive causes: [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]], [[Temperance movement in the United States|temperance]], and voter reforms. After returning to America, in 1840–41 Dix conducted a statewide investigation of care for the mentally ill poor in Massachusetts. Dorothea's interest for helping out the mentally ill of society started while she was teaching classes to female prisoners in [[East Cambridge, Cambridge, Massachusetts|East Cambridge]].<ref name=":2" /> She saw how these individuals were locked up and whose medical needs weren't being satisfied since only private hospitals would have such provisions.<ref name=":2" /> It was during her time at the East Cambridge prison, that she visited the basement where she encountered four mentally ill individuals, whose cells were "dark and bare and the air was stagnant and foul".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://fultonhistory.com/Fulton.html|title=Hall of Fame to induct Dorothea Dix|date= 1979-10-23|work=Finger Lakes Time}}</ref> She also saw how such individuals were labeled as "looney paupers" and were being locked up along with violently deranged criminals and received treatment that was inhumane.<ref>{{Cite news|last=The Christophers|url=https://fultonhistory.com/Fulton.html|title=What One Person Can Do: Dorothea Dix, Advocate for the Mentally Ill|date= 1977-11-16|work=The Hamburg Sun}}</ref> |
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In most cases, towns contracted with local individuals to care for mentally ill people who could not care for themselves and lacked family/friends to do so. Unregulated and underfunded, this system resulted in widespread abuse. Dix published the results in a fiery report, a ''Memorial'', to the [[Massachusetts General Court|state legislature]]. "I proceed, Gentlemen, briefly to call your attention to the present state of Insane Persons confined within this [[Commonwealth of Massachusetts|Commonwealth]], in cages, stalls, pens! Chained, naked, beaten with rods, and lashed into obedience."<ref name="Dix1843">{{citation |year=1843 |author=Dix, Dorothea L |title=Memorial to the Legislature of Massachusetts 1843 |page=2 |url=https://archive.org/stream/memorialtolegisl00dixd#page/n4/mode/1up |access-date= 2010-11-12}}</ref> Her lobbying resulted in a bill to expand the state's mental hospital in |
In most cases, towns contracted with local individuals to care for mentally ill people who could not care for themselves and lacked family/friends to do so. Unregulated and underfunded, this system resulted in widespread abuse. Dix published the results in a fiery report, a ''Memorial'', to the [[Massachusetts General Court|state legislature]]. "I proceed, Gentlemen, briefly to call your attention to the present state of Insane Persons confined within this [[Commonwealth of Massachusetts|Commonwealth]], in cages, stalls, pens! Chained, naked, beaten with rods, and lashed into obedience."<ref name="Dix1843">{{citation |year=1843 |author=Dix, Dorothea L |title=Memorial to the Legislature of Massachusetts 1843 |page=2 |url=https://archive.org/stream/memorialtolegisl00dixd#page/n4/mode/1up |access-date= 2010-11-12}}</ref> Her lobbying resulted in a bill to expand the state's [[Worcester State Hospital|mental hospital in Worcester]].{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} |
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During the year 1844 Dix visited all the counties, jails and [[almshouses]] in [[New Jersey]] in a similar investigation. She prepared a memorial for the [[New Jersey Legislature]], giving a detailed account of her observations and facts. Dix urgently appealed to the legislature to act and appropriate funds to construct a facility for the care and treatment of the mentally ill. She cited a number of cases to emphasize the importance of the state taking responsibility for this class of unfortunates. Dix's plea was to provide moral treatment for the mentally ill, which consisted of three values: modesty, chastity, and delicacy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Michel|first=Sonya|year=1994|title=Dorothea Dix; or, the Voice of the Maniac|journal=Discourse|volume=17|issue=2|pages=48–66|issn=1522-5321}}</ref> |
During the year 1844 Dix visited all the counties, jails and [[almshouses]] in [[New Jersey]] in a similar investigation. She prepared a memorial for the [[New Jersey Legislature]], giving a detailed account of her observations and facts. Dix urgently appealed to the legislature to act and appropriate funds to construct a facility for the care and treatment of the mentally ill. She cited a number of cases to emphasize the importance of the state taking responsibility for this class of unfortunates. Dix's plea was to provide moral treatment for the mentally ill, which consisted of three values: modesty, chastity, and delicacy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Michel|first=Sonya|year=1994|title=Dorothea Dix; or, the Voice of the Maniac|journal=Discourse|volume=17|issue=2|pages=48–66|issn=1522-5321}}</ref> |
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She gave as an example a man formerly respected as a legislator and jurist, who, suffering from mental decline, fell into hard times in old age. Dix discovered him lying on a small bed in a basement room of the county almshouse, bereft of even necessary comforts. She wrote: "This feeble and depressed old man, a pauper, helpless, lonely, and yet conscious of surrounding circumstances, and not now wholly oblivious of the past—this feeble old man, who was he?" Many members of the legislature knew her pauper jurist. Joseph S. Dodd introduced her report to the Senate on January 23, 1845.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tiffany|first=Francis|year=1891|title=Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin |url=https://archive.org/details/lifedorothealyn03tiffgoog |quote=It was first on January 23, 1845, that her Memorial to the legislature of New Jersey was presented to the Senate by Miss Dix's stanch supporter, Hon. Joseph S. Dodd. |page=[https://archive.org/details/lifedorothealyn03tiffgoog/page/n132 110] |doi=10.1037/12972-000}}</ref> |
She gave as an example a man formerly respected as a legislator and [[jurist]], who, suffering from mental decline, fell into hard times in old age. Dix discovered him lying on a small bed in a basement room of the county almshouse, bereft of even necessary comforts. She wrote: "This feeble and depressed old man, a pauper, helpless, lonely, and yet conscious of surrounding circumstances, and not now wholly oblivious of the past—this feeble old man, who was he?" Many members of the legislature knew her pauper jurist. Joseph S. Dodd introduced her report to the Senate on January 23, 1845.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tiffany|first=Francis|year=1891|title=Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin |url=https://archive.org/details/lifedorothealyn03tiffgoog |quote=It was first on January 23, 1845, that her Memorial to the legislature of New Jersey was presented to the Senate by Miss Dix's stanch supporter, Hon. Joseph S. Dodd. |page=[https://archive.org/details/lifedorothealyn03tiffgoog/page/n132 110] |doi=10.1037/12972-000}}</ref> |
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Dodd's resolution to authorize an asylum passed the following day. The first committee made their report February 25, appealing to the New Jersey legislature to act at once. Some politicians secretly opposed it due to taxes needed to support it. Dix continued to lobby for a facility, writing letters and editorials to build support. During the session, she met with legislators and held group meetings in the evening at home. The act of authorization was taken up March 14, 1845, and read for the last time. On March 25, 1845, the bill was passed for the establishment of a state facility.<ref>{{citation |title=The Institutional Care of the Insane in the United States and Canada |year=1916 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asylumprojects.org/index.php?title=Trenton_State_Hospital |title=Trenton State Hospital |website=Asylum Projects}}</ref> |
Dodd's resolution to authorize an asylum passed the following day. The first committee made their report February 25, appealing to the New Jersey legislature to act at once. Some politicians secretly opposed it due to taxes needed to support it. Dix continued to lobby for a facility, writing letters and editorials to build support. During the session, she met with legislators and held group meetings in the evening at home. The act of authorization was taken up March 14, 1845, and read for the last time. On March 25, 1845, the bill was passed for the establishment of a state facility.<ref>{{citation |title=The Institutional Care of the Insane in the United States and Canada |year=1916 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asylumprojects.org/index.php?title=Trenton_State_Hospital |title=Trenton State Hospital |website=Asylum Projects}}</ref> |
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In 1848, Dix visited [[North Carolina]], where she again called for reform in the care of mentally ill patients. Her first attempt to bring reform to North Carolina was denied. However, after a board member's wife requested, as a dying wish, that Dix's plea be reconsidered, the bill for reform was approved.<ref name="blogs_2006-01-01">[http://blogs.lib.unc.edu/ncm/index.php/2006/01/01/this_month_jan_1849/ January 1849: Dorothea Dix Hospital].</ref> In 1849, when the (North Carolina) State Medical Society was formed, the legislature authorized construction of an institution in the capital, [[Raleigh, North Carolina|Raleigh]], for the care of mentally ill patients. Dix Hill Asylum, named in honor of Dorothea Dix's father, was eventually opened in 1856.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130508101220/http://ncmuseumofhistory.org/nchh/nineteenth.html Nineteenth-Century North Carolina].</ref> One hundred years later, the Dix Hill Asylum was renamed the [[Dorothea Dix Hospital]], in honor of her legacy.<ref name="blogs_2006-01-01"/> A second state hospital for the mentally ill was authorized in 1875, Broughton State Hospital in [[Morganton, North Carolina]]; and ultimately, the Goldsboro Hospital for the Negro Insane was also built in eastern part of the state. Dix had a biased view that mental illness was related to conditions of educated [[White people|whites]], not [[Minority group|minorities]] (Dix, 1847).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patdeegan.com/sites/default/files/files/separate_and_unequal.pdf|first=Vanessa|last=Jackson|title=Separate and Unequal: The Legacy of Racially Segregated Psychiatric Hospitals|year=2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617161826/https://www.patdeegan.com/sites/default/files/files/separate_and_unequal.pdf|archive-date= 2011-06-17|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
In 1848, Dix visited [[North Carolina]], where she again called for reform in the care of mentally ill patients. Her first attempt to bring reform to North Carolina was denied. However, after a board member's wife requested, as a dying wish, that Dix's plea be reconsidered, the bill for reform was approved.<ref name="blogs_2006-01-01">[http://blogs.lib.unc.edu/ncm/index.php/2006/01/01/this_month_jan_1849/ January 1849: Dorothea Dix Hospital].</ref> In 1849, when the (North Carolina) State Medical Society was formed, the legislature authorized construction of an institution in the capital, [[Raleigh, North Carolina|Raleigh]], for the care of mentally ill patients. Dix Hill Asylum, named in honor of Dorothea Dix's father, was eventually opened in 1856.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130508101220/http://ncmuseumofhistory.org/nchh/nineteenth.html Nineteenth-Century North Carolina].</ref> One hundred years later, the Dix Hill Asylum was renamed the [[Dorothea Dix Hospital]], in honor of her legacy.<ref name="blogs_2006-01-01"/> A second state hospital for the mentally ill was authorized in 1875, Broughton State Hospital in [[Morganton, North Carolina]]; and ultimately, the Goldsboro Hospital for the Negro Insane was also built in eastern part of the state. Dix had a biased view that mental illness was related to conditions of educated [[White people|whites]], not [[Minority group|minorities]] (Dix, 1847).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patdeegan.com/sites/default/files/files/separate_and_unequal.pdf|first=Vanessa|last=Jackson|title=Separate and Unequal: The Legacy of Racially Segregated Psychiatric Hospitals|year=2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617161826/https://www.patdeegan.com/sites/default/files/files/separate_and_unequal.pdf|archive-date= 2011-06-17|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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[[File:Dorothea Lynde Dix c1850-55.png|thumb|left|upright|Dix |
[[File:Dorothea Lynde Dix c1850-55.png|thumb|left|upright|Dix c. 1850–55]] |
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She was instrumental in the founding of the first public mental hospital in [[Pennsylvania]], the [[Harrisburg State Hospital]]. In 1853, she established its library and reading room.<ref>[http://www.rootsweb.com/~asylums/harrisburg_pa/index.html "Harrisburg State Hospital"], Historic Asylums, article hosted at Rootsweb. It was named in her honor and today serves also as a museum to the history of care for the mentally ill.</ref> |
She was instrumental in the founding of the first public mental hospital in [[Pennsylvania]], the [[Harrisburg State Hospital]]. In 1853, she established its library and reading room.<ref>[http://www.rootsweb.com/~asylums/harrisburg_pa/index.html "Harrisburg State Hospital"], Historic Asylums, article hosted at Rootsweb. It was named in her honor and today serves also as a museum to the history of care for the mentally ill.</ref> |
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Dix set guidelines for nurse candidates. Volunteers were to be aged 35 to 50 and plain-looking. They were required to wear unhooped black or brown dresses, with no jewelry or cosmetics.<ref>Hardy, Susan and Corones, Anthony, "The Nurse’s Uniform as Ethopoietic Fashion", ''Fashion Theory'', Vol.21, No.5. (2015), pp. 523-552. [https://doi.org/10.1080/1362704X.2016.1203090 doi=10.1080/1362704X.2016.1203090]</ref> Dix wanted to avoid sending vulnerable, attractive young women into the hospitals, where she feared they would be exploited by the men (doctors as well as patients). Dix often fired volunteer nurses she hadn't personally trained or hired (earning the ire of supporting groups like the [[United States Sanitary Commission]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/27/ms-dix-comes-to-washington/|title=Ms. Dix Comes to Washington|last=Giesberg|first=Judith|date=2011-04-27|website=Opinionator|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-04}}</ref> |
Dix set guidelines for nurse candidates. Volunteers were to be aged 35 to 50 and plain-looking. They were required to wear unhooped black or brown dresses, with no jewelry or cosmetics.<ref>Hardy, Susan and Corones, Anthony, "The Nurse’s Uniform as Ethopoietic Fashion", ''Fashion Theory'', Vol.21, No.5. (2015), pp. 523-552. [https://doi.org/10.1080/1362704X.2016.1203090 doi=10.1080/1362704X.2016.1203090]</ref> Dix wanted to avoid sending vulnerable, attractive young women into the hospitals, where she feared they would be exploited by the men (doctors as well as patients). Dix often fired volunteer nurses she hadn't personally trained or hired (earning the ire of supporting groups like the [[United States Sanitary Commission]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/04/27/ms-dix-comes-to-washington/|title=Ms. Dix Comes to Washington|last=Giesberg|first=Judith|date=2011-04-27|website=Opinionator|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-04}}</ref> |
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At odds with Army doctors, Dix feuded with them over control of medical facilities and the hiring and firing of nurses. Many doctors and surgeons did not want any female nurses in their hospitals. To solve the impasse, the War Department introduced Order No. 351 in October 1863.<ref name="bookrags.com">{{cite book|url=http://www.bookrags.com/research/dix-dorothea-aaw-02/ | |
At odds with Army doctors, Dix feuded with them over control of medical facilities and the hiring and firing of nurses. Many doctors and surgeons did not want any female nurses in their hospitals. To solve the impasse, the War Department introduced Order No. 351 in October 1863.<ref name="bookrags.com">{{cite book|url=http://www.bookrags.com/research/dix-dorothea-aaw-02/ |via=www.bookrags.com|title= Dorothea Dix}}</ref> It granted both the Surgeon General ([[Joseph K. Barnes]]) and the Superintendent of Army Nurses (Dix) the power to appoint female nurses. However, it gave doctors the power of assigning employees and volunteers to hospitals. This relieved Dix of direct operational responsibility. As superintendent, Dix implemented the Federal army nursing program, in which over 3,000 women would eventually serve.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tsui|first=Bonnie|title=She Went to the Field: Women Soldiers of the Civil War|location=Guilford|publisher=TwoDot|year=2006|isbn=0762743840|page=123}}</ref> Meanwhile, her influence was being eclipsed by other prominent women such as [[Mary Edwards Walker|Dr. Mary Edwards Walker]] and [[Clara Barton]]. She resigned in August 1865<ref name="bookrags.com"/> and later considered this "episode" in her career a failure. Although hundreds of Catholic nuns successfully served as nurses, Dix distrusted them; her anti-Catholicism undermined her ability to work with Catholic nurses, lay or religious.<ref>Barbra Mann Wall, "Called to a Mission of Charity: The Sisters of St. Joseph in the Civil War, ''Nursing History Review'' (1998) Vol. 6, p85-113</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SCUKF0rdKhwC&dq=Dorothea+Dix+++Catholic+nursing+sisters&pg=PA128 Maher, Mary Denis. ''To Bind Up the Wounds'', LSU Press, 1999, p. 128]{{ISBN|9780807124390}}</ref> |
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Her even-handed caring for [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] wounded alike assured her memory in the [[Southern United States|South]]. Her nurses provided what was often the only care available in the field to |
Her even-handed caring for [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] and [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] wounded alike assured her memory in the [[Southern United States|South]]. Her nurses provided what was often the only care available in the field to Confederate wounded. [[Georgeanna Woolsey]], a Dix nurse, said, "The surgeon in charge of our camp ... looked after all their wounds, which were often in a most shocking state, particularly among the rebels. Every evening and morning they were dressed." Another Dix nurse, Julia Susan Wheelock, said, "Many of these were Rebels. I could not pass them by neglected. Though enemies, they were nevertheless helpless, suffering human beings."{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} |
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When |
When Confederate forces retreated from [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], they left behind 5,000 wounded soldiers. These were treated by many of Dix's nurses. Union nurse [[Cornelia Hancock]] wrote about the experience: "There are no words in the English language to express the suffering I witnessed today ...".<ref>Hancock, Cornelia (1937) ''South After Gettysburg: Letters of Cornelia Hancock from the Army of the Potomac, 1863–1865'', University of Pennsylvania Press, Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized October 27, 2006.</ref> |
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She was well respected for her work throughout the war because of her dedication. This stemmed from her putting aside her previous work to focus completely on the war at hand. With the conclusion of the war her service was recognized formally. She was awarded with two national flags, these flags being for "the Care, Succor, and Relief of the Sick and wounded Soldiers of the United States on the Battle-Field, in Camps and Hospitals during the recent war."<ref name="anb.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/15/15-00181.html?a=1&rr=1&n=Dorothea%20Dix&d=10&ss=0&q=1|title=American National Biography Online: Dix, Dorothea Lynde|website=www.anb.org|access-date= 2016-11-29}}</ref> Dix ultimately founded thirty-two hospitals, and influenced the creation of two others in Japan.<ref name="auto1"/> |
She was well respected for her work throughout the war because of her dedication. This stemmed from her putting aside her previous work to focus completely on the war at hand. With the conclusion of the war her service was recognized formally. She was awarded with two national flags, these flags being for "the Care, Succor, and Relief of the Sick and wounded Soldiers of the United States on the Battle-Field, in Camps and Hospitals during the recent war."<ref name="anb.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.anb.org/articles/15/15-00181.html?a=1&rr=1&n=Dorothea%20Dix&d=10&ss=0&q=1|title=American National Biography Online: Dix, Dorothea Lynde|website=www.anb.org|access-date= 2016-11-29}}</ref> Dix ultimately founded thirty-two hospitals, and influenced the creation of two others in Japan.<ref name="auto1"/> |
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At the end of the war, Dix helped raise funds for the national monument to deceased soldiers at [[Fortress Monroe]].<ref name="auto1"/> Following the war, she resumed her crusade to improve the care of prisoners, the disabled, and the mentally ill. Her first step was to review the asylums and prisons in the [[Southern United States|South]] to evaluate the war damage to their facilities. In addition to pursuing prisons reforms after the civil war, she also worked on improving life-saving services in Nova Scotia, establishing a war memorial at Hampton Roads in Virginia and a fountain for thirsty horses at the Boston Custom Square.<ref name=":1" /> |
At the end of the war, Dix helped raise funds for the national monument to deceased soldiers at [[Fortress Monroe]].<ref name="auto1"/> Following the war, she resumed her crusade to improve the care of prisoners, the disabled, and the mentally ill. Her first step was to review the asylums and prisons in the [[Southern United States|South]] to evaluate the war damage to their facilities. In addition to pursuing prisons reforms after the civil war, she also worked on improving life-saving services in Nova Scotia, establishing a war memorial at Hampton Roads in Virginia and a fountain for thirsty horses at the Boston Custom Square.<ref name=":1" /> |
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In 1881, Dix moved into the New Jersey State Hospital, formerly known as Trenton State Hospital, that she built years prior.<ref>[http://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/dorothea-lynde-dix Dorothea Lynde Dix].</ref> The state legislature had designated a suite for her private use as long as she lived. Although in poor health, she carried on correspondence with people from England, Japan, and elsewhere. Dix died on July 17, 1887. She was buried in [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Dorothea Dix | website=National Women's History Museum | date=April 18, 2017 | url=https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/dorothea-dix | access-date=September 30, 2021}}</ref> |
In 1881, Dix moved into the [[New Jersey State Hospital at Trenton|New Jersey State Hospital]], formerly known as Trenton State Hospital, that she built years prior.<ref>[http://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/dorothea-lynde-dix Dorothea Lynde Dix].</ref> The state legislature had designated a suite for her private use as long as she lived. Although in poor health, she carried on correspondence with people from England, Japan, and elsewhere. Dix died on July 17, 1887. She was buried in [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Dorothea Dix | website=National Women's History Museum | date=April 18, 2017 | url=https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/dorothea-dix | access-date=September 30, 2021}}</ref> |
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==Honors== |
==Honors== |
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*In 1999 a series of six tall marble panels with a bronze bust in each was added to the [[Massachusetts State House]]; the busts are of Dix, [[Florence Luscomb]], [[Mary Kenney O'Sullivan]], [[Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin]], [[Sarah Parker Remond]], and [[Lucy Stone]].<ref name="masshumanities1">{{cite web|url=http://masshumanities.org/programs/shwlp/shwlp-tour/ |title=HEAR US Virtual Tour |publisher=Mass Humanities |access-date= 2018-02-09}}</ref> As well, two quotations from each of those women (including Dix) are etched on their own marble panel, and the wall behind all the panels has wallpaper made of six government documents repeated over and over, with each document being related to a cause of one or more of the women.<ref name="masshumanities1"/> |
*In 1999 a series of six tall marble panels with a bronze bust in each was added to the [[Massachusetts State House]]; the busts are of Dix, [[Florence Luscomb]], [[Mary Kenney O'Sullivan]], [[Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin]], [[Sarah Parker Remond]], and [[Lucy Stone]].<ref name="masshumanities1">{{cite web|url=http://masshumanities.org/programs/shwlp/shwlp-tour/ |title=HEAR US Virtual Tour |publisher=Mass Humanities |access-date= 2018-02-09}}</ref> As well, two quotations from each of those women (including Dix) are etched on their own marble panel, and the wall behind all the panels has wallpaper made of six government documents repeated over and over, with each document being related to a cause of one or more of the women.<ref name="masshumanities1"/> |
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*A [[United States Navy]] [[transport ship]] serving in [[World War II]] was named for Dix, the [[USS Dorothea L. Dix (AP-67)|USS ''Dorothea L. Dix'']]. |
*A [[United States Navy]] [[transport ship]] serving in [[World War II]] was named for Dix, the [[USS Dorothea L. Dix (AP-67)|USS ''Dorothea L. Dix'']]. |
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*The [[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]] Mental Health Institute was renamed in August 2006 to the [[Dorothea Dix Psychiatric Center]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maine.gov/dhhs/DDPC/history.shtml |title=History of Dorothea Dix Psychiatric Center |work=DHHS Maine |access-date= |
*The [[Bangor, Maine|Bangor]] Mental Health Institute was renamed in August 2006 to the [[Dorothea Dix Psychiatric Center]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maine.gov/dhhs/DDPC/history.shtml |title=History of Dorothea Dix Psychiatric Center |work=DHHS Maine |access-date=2013-04-10 |archive-date=March 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322052221/http://www.maine.gov/dhhs/DDPC/history.shtml |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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*A [[List of craters on Venus|crater on Venus]] was named Dix in her honor.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dix|url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/1551|website=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature}}</ref> |
*A [[List of craters on Venus|crater on Venus]] was named Dix in her honor.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dix|url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/1551|website=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature}}</ref> |
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*She is remembered on the [[Boston Women's Heritage Trail]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Downtown|url=http://bwht.org/downtown/#5|website=Boston Women's Heritage Trail}}</ref> |
*She is remembered on the [[Boston Women's Heritage Trail]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Downtown|url=http://bwht.org/downtown/#5|website=Boston Women's Heritage Trail}}</ref> |
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Numerous locations commemorate Dix, including the Dix Ward in [[McLean Asylum]] at Somerville, Dixmont Hospital in Pennsylvania, the Dorothea L. Dix House,<ref name="auto1"/> and the [[Dorothea Dix Park]] located in Raleigh, North Carolina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wral.com/negotiations-begin-in-earnest-for-dorothea-dix-property/13466944/|title=Negotiations begin in earnest for Dorothea Dix property|date=March 10, 2014|website=WRAL.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dorotheadixpark.org/about|title=About | Dorothea Dix Park|website=dorotheadixpark.org}}</ref> |
Numerous locations commemorate Dix, including the Dix Ward in [[McLean Asylum]] at Somerville, Dixmont Hospital in Pennsylvania, the Dorothea L. Dix House,<ref name="auto1"/> and the [[Dorothea Dix Hospital|Dorothea Dix Park]] located in Raleigh, North Carolina.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wral.com/negotiations-begin-in-earnest-for-dorothea-dix-property/13466944/|title=Negotiations begin in earnest for Dorothea Dix property|date=March 10, 2014|website=WRAL.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dorotheadixpark.org/about|title=About | Dorothea Dix Park|website=dorotheadixpark.org}}</ref> |
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==Works== |
==Works== |
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** [[Mary Ann Bickerdyke]] |
** [[Mary Ann Bickerdyke]] |
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** [[Louisa Hawkins Canby]] |
** [[Louisa Hawkins Canby]] |
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** [[Lois Dunbar]] |
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** [[Helen L. Gilson]] |
** [[Helen L. Gilson]] |
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** [[Mary Phinney von Olnhausen]] |
** [[Mary Phinney von Olnhausen]] |
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*Norman, Gertrude. Dorothea Lynde Dix. Lives to remember. New York: Putnam, 1959. |
*Norman, Gertrude. Dorothea Lynde Dix. Lives to remember. New York: Putnam, 1959. |
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*{{citation |year=2003 |editor1=Rothman, David J |editor1-link=David Rothman (medical historian) |editor2=Marcus, Steven |editor-link2=Steven Marcus |editor3=Kiceluk, Stephanie A |chapter=Dorothea L. Dix (1802-1887): On Behalf of the Insane Poor |pages=352–359 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=leFb693EivwC&pg=PA352 |title=Medicine and Western Civilization |place=New Brunswick, New Jersey |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|isbn=9780813521909 }} |
*{{citation |year=2003 |editor1=Rothman, David J |editor1-link=David Rothman (medical historian) |editor2=Marcus, Steven |editor-link2=Steven Marcus |editor3=Kiceluk, Stephanie A |chapter=Dorothea L. Dix (1802-1887): On Behalf of the Insane Poor |pages=352–359 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=leFb693EivwC&pg=PA352 |title=Medicine and Western Civilization |place=New Brunswick, New Jersey |publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]]|isbn=9780813521909 }} |
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*Schlaifer, Charles, and Lucy Freeman. Heart's Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix. New York: Paragon House, 1991. |
*Schlaifer, Charles, and [[Lucy Freeman]]. Heart's Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix. New York: Paragon House, 1991. |
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*Wilson, Dorothy Clarke. Stranger and Traveler: The Story of Dorothea Dix, American Reformer. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975. |
*Wilson, Dorothy Clarke. Stranger and Traveler: The Story of Dorothea Dix, American Reformer. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975. |
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* {{Cite Appletons'|wstitle=Dix, Dorothea Lynde|year=1900}} |
* {{Cite Appletons'|wstitle=Dix, Dorothea Lynde|year=1900}} |
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{{commonscat|Dorothea Lynde Dix}} |
{{commonscat|Dorothea Lynde Dix}} |
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{{wikisource|Woman of the Century/Dorothea L. Dix}} |
{{wikisource|Woman of the Century/Dorothea L. Dix}} |
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{{Wikiquote}} |
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* [http://www.kansasmemory.org/item/223255 Dorothea Dix Correspondence] from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society |
* [http://www.kansasmemory.org/item/223255 Dorothea Dix Correspondence] from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society |
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* Robin Pape, Burkhart Brückner: [https://biapsy.de/index.php/en/9-biographien-a-z/77-dix-dorothea-lynde-e Biography of Dorothea Lynde Dix] in: [http://biapsy.de/index.php/en/ Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY)], 2015. |
* Robin Pape, Burkhart Brückner: [https://biapsy.de/index.php/en/9-biographien-a-z/77-dix-dorothea-lynde-e Biography of Dorothea Lynde Dix] in: [http://biapsy.de/index.php/en/ Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY)], 2015. |
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[[Category:American Civil War nurses]] |
[[Category:American Civil War nurses]] |
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[[Category:American women nurses]] |
[[Category:American women nurses]] |
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[[Category: |
[[Category:American prison reformers]] |
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[[Category:Antitrinitarians]] |
[[Category:Antitrinitarians]] |
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[[Category:National Association of Army Nurses of the Civil War]] |
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[[Category:American Nurses Association Hall of Fame inductees]] |
Latest revision as of 19:05, 5 December 2024
Dorothea Dix | |
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Born | Dorothea Lynde Dix April 4, 1802 Hampden, Maine, US |
Died | July 17, 1887 | (aged 85)
Occupation | Social reformer |
Parent(s) | Joseph Dix Mary Bigelow |
Signature | |
Dorothea Lynde Dix (April 4, 1802 – July 17, 1887) was an American advocate on behalf of the indigent mentally ill who, through a vigorous and sustained program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States Congress, created the first generation of American mental asylums. During the Civil War, she served as a Superintendent of Army Nurses.
Early life
[edit]Born in the town of Hampden, Maine, she grew up in Worcester, Massachusetts, among her parents' relatives. She was the first child of three born to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow, who had deep ancestral roots in Massachusetts Bay Colony.[1] Her mother suffered from poor health, thus she wasn't able to provide consistent support to her children.[2] Her father was an itinerant bookseller and Methodist preacher.[3][a] At the age of twelve, she and her two brothers were sent to their wealthy grandmother,[2] Dorothea Lynde (married to Dr. Elijah Dix)[4] in Boston to get away from her alcoholic parents and abusive father. She began to teach in a school all for girls in Worcester, Massachusetts at fourteen years old and had developed her own curriculum for her class, in which she emphasized ethical living and the natural sciences.[2] In about 1821 Dix opened a school in Boston, which was patronized by well-to-do families. Soon afterward she also began teaching poor and neglected children out of the barn of her grandmother's house, but she suffered poor health.[5] It has been suggested that Dorothea suffered from major depressive episodes, which contributed to her poor health.[6] From 1824 to 1830, she wrote mainly devotional books and stories for children. Her Conversations on Common Things (1824) reached its sixtieth edition by 1869,[7] and was reprinted 60 times and written in the style of a conversation between mother and daughter.[8] Her book The Garland of Flora (1829) was, along with Elizabeth Wirt's Flora's Dictionary, one of the first two dictionaries of flowers published in the United States. Other books of Dix's include Private Hours, Alice and Ruth, and Prisons and Prison Discipline.[9]
Although raised Catholic and later directed to Congregationalism, Dix became a Unitarian.[10] After Dix's health forced her to relinquish her school, she began working as a governess on Beacon Hill for the family of William Ellery Channing, a leading Unitarian intellectual. It was while working with his family that Dix traveled to St. Croix, where she first witnessed slavery at first hand, though her experience did not dispose her sympathies toward abolitionism.[9] In 1831, she established a model school for girls in Boston, operating it until 1836, when she suffered a breakdown.[4] Dix was encouraged to take a trip to Europe to improve her health. While she was there she met British social reformers who inspired her. These reformers included Elizabeth Fry, Samuel Tuke and William Rathbone with whom she lived during the duration of her trip in Europe.[11] In hopes of a cure, in 1836 she traveled to England, where she met the Rathbone family. During her trip in Europe and her stay with the Rathbone family, Dorothea's grandmother died and left her a "sizable estate, along with her royalties" which allowed her to live comfortably for the remainder of her life.[12] It was also during this trip that she came across an institution in Turkey, which she used as a model institution despite its conditions being just like other facilities.[13] The Rathbones were Quakers and prominent social reformers. They invited her as a guest to Greenbank, their ancestral mansion in Liverpool. At Greenbank, Dix met their circle of men and women who believed that government should play a direct, active role in social welfare. She was also introduced to Great Britain's reform movement for care of the mentally ill, known as lunacy reform. Its members were making deep investigations of madhouses and asylums, publishing their studies in reports to the House of Commons.[citation needed]
Antebellum career
[edit]Reform movements for treatment of the mentally ill were related in this period to other progressive causes: abolitionism, temperance, and voter reforms. After returning to America, in 1840–41 Dix conducted a statewide investigation of care for the mentally ill poor in Massachusetts. Dorothea's interest for helping out the mentally ill of society started while she was teaching classes to female prisoners in East Cambridge.[13] She saw how these individuals were locked up and whose medical needs weren't being satisfied since only private hospitals would have such provisions.[13] It was during her time at the East Cambridge prison, that she visited the basement where she encountered four mentally ill individuals, whose cells were "dark and bare and the air was stagnant and foul".[14] She also saw how such individuals were labeled as "looney paupers" and were being locked up along with violently deranged criminals and received treatment that was inhumane.[15]
In most cases, towns contracted with local individuals to care for mentally ill people who could not care for themselves and lacked family/friends to do so. Unregulated and underfunded, this system resulted in widespread abuse. Dix published the results in a fiery report, a Memorial, to the state legislature. "I proceed, Gentlemen, briefly to call your attention to the present state of Insane Persons confined within this Commonwealth, in cages, stalls, pens! Chained, naked, beaten with rods, and lashed into obedience."[16] Her lobbying resulted in a bill to expand the state's mental hospital in Worcester.[citation needed]
During the year 1844 Dix visited all the counties, jails and almshouses in New Jersey in a similar investigation. She prepared a memorial for the New Jersey Legislature, giving a detailed account of her observations and facts. Dix urgently appealed to the legislature to act and appropriate funds to construct a facility for the care and treatment of the mentally ill. She cited a number of cases to emphasize the importance of the state taking responsibility for this class of unfortunates. Dix's plea was to provide moral treatment for the mentally ill, which consisted of three values: modesty, chastity, and delicacy.[17]
She gave as an example a man formerly respected as a legislator and jurist, who, suffering from mental decline, fell into hard times in old age. Dix discovered him lying on a small bed in a basement room of the county almshouse, bereft of even necessary comforts. She wrote: "This feeble and depressed old man, a pauper, helpless, lonely, and yet conscious of surrounding circumstances, and not now wholly oblivious of the past—this feeble old man, who was he?" Many members of the legislature knew her pauper jurist. Joseph S. Dodd introduced her report to the Senate on January 23, 1845.[18]
Dodd's resolution to authorize an asylum passed the following day. The first committee made their report February 25, appealing to the New Jersey legislature to act at once. Some politicians secretly opposed it due to taxes needed to support it. Dix continued to lobby for a facility, writing letters and editorials to build support. During the session, she met with legislators and held group meetings in the evening at home. The act of authorization was taken up March 14, 1845, and read for the last time. On March 25, 1845, the bill was passed for the establishment of a state facility.[19][20]
Dix traveled from New Hampshire to Louisiana, documenting the condition of the poor mentally ill, making reports to state legislatures, and working with committees to draft the enabling legislation and appropriations bills needed. In 1846, Dix traveled to Illinois to study mental illness. While there, she fell ill and spent the winter in Springfield recovering. She submitted a report to the January 1847 legislative session, which adopted legislation to establish Illinois' first state mental hospital.[21]
In 1848, Dix visited North Carolina, where she again called for reform in the care of mentally ill patients. Her first attempt to bring reform to North Carolina was denied. However, after a board member's wife requested, as a dying wish, that Dix's plea be reconsidered, the bill for reform was approved.[22] In 1849, when the (North Carolina) State Medical Society was formed, the legislature authorized construction of an institution in the capital, Raleigh, for the care of mentally ill patients. Dix Hill Asylum, named in honor of Dorothea Dix's father, was eventually opened in 1856.[23] One hundred years later, the Dix Hill Asylum was renamed the Dorothea Dix Hospital, in honor of her legacy.[22] A second state hospital for the mentally ill was authorized in 1875, Broughton State Hospital in Morganton, North Carolina; and ultimately, the Goldsboro Hospital for the Negro Insane was also built in eastern part of the state. Dix had a biased view that mental illness was related to conditions of educated whites, not minorities (Dix, 1847).[24]
She was instrumental in the founding of the first public mental hospital in Pennsylvania, the Harrisburg State Hospital. In 1853, she established its library and reading room.[25]
The high point of her work in Washington was the Bill for the Benefit of the Indigent Insane, legislation to set aside 12,225,000 acres (49,473 km2) of Federal land 10,000,000 acres (40,000 km2) to be used for the benefit of the mentally ill and the remainder for the "blind, deaf, and dumb". Proceeds from its sale would be distributed to the states to build and maintain asylums. Dix's land bill passed both houses of the United States Congress; but in 1854, President Franklin Pierce vetoed it, arguing that social welfare was the responsibility of the states. Stung by the defeat of her land bill, in 1854 and 1855 Dix traveled to England and Europe. She reconnected with the Rathbone family and, encouraged by British politicians who wished to increase Whitehall's reach into Scotland, conducted investigations of Scotland's madhouses. This work resulted in the formation of the Scottish Lunacy Commission to oversee reforms.[26]
Dix visited the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1853 to study its care of the mentally ill. During her visit, she traveled to Sable Island to investigate reports of mentally ill patients being abandoned there. Such reports were largely unfounded. While on Sable Island, Dix assisted in a shipwreck rescue. Upon her return to Boston, she led a successful campaign to send upgraded life-saving equipment to the island.[27] The day after supplies arrived, a ship was wrecked on the island. Thankfully, because of Dix's work, 180 people were saved.[28]
In 1854, Dix investigated the conditions of mental hospitals in Scotland, and found them to be in similarly poor conditions. In 1857, after years of work and opposition, reform laws were finally passed.[28] Dix took up a similar project in the Channel Islands, finally managing the building of an asylum after thirteen years of agitation.[28] Extending her work throughout Europe, Dix continued on to Rome. Once again finding disrepair and maltreatment, Dix sought an audience with Pope Pius IX. The pope was receptive to Dix's findings and visited the asylums himself, shocked at their conditions. He thanked Dix for her work, saying in a second audience with her that "a woman and a Protestant, had crossed the seas to call his attention to these cruelly ill-treated members of his flock."[28]
The Civil War
[edit]During the American Civil War, Dix, on June 10, 1861, was appointed Superintendent of Army Nurses by the Union Army, beating out Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell.[29]
Dix set guidelines for nurse candidates. Volunteers were to be aged 35 to 50 and plain-looking. They were required to wear unhooped black or brown dresses, with no jewelry or cosmetics.[30] Dix wanted to avoid sending vulnerable, attractive young women into the hospitals, where she feared they would be exploited by the men (doctors as well as patients). Dix often fired volunteer nurses she hadn't personally trained or hired (earning the ire of supporting groups like the United States Sanitary Commission).[31]
At odds with Army doctors, Dix feuded with them over control of medical facilities and the hiring and firing of nurses. Many doctors and surgeons did not want any female nurses in their hospitals. To solve the impasse, the War Department introduced Order No. 351 in October 1863.[32] It granted both the Surgeon General (Joseph K. Barnes) and the Superintendent of Army Nurses (Dix) the power to appoint female nurses. However, it gave doctors the power of assigning employees and volunteers to hospitals. This relieved Dix of direct operational responsibility. As superintendent, Dix implemented the Federal army nursing program, in which over 3,000 women would eventually serve.[33] Meanwhile, her influence was being eclipsed by other prominent women such as Dr. Mary Edwards Walker and Clara Barton. She resigned in August 1865[32] and later considered this "episode" in her career a failure. Although hundreds of Catholic nuns successfully served as nurses, Dix distrusted them; her anti-Catholicism undermined her ability to work with Catholic nurses, lay or religious.[34][35]
Her even-handed caring for Union and Confederate wounded alike assured her memory in the South. Her nurses provided what was often the only care available in the field to Confederate wounded. Georgeanna Woolsey, a Dix nurse, said, "The surgeon in charge of our camp ... looked after all their wounds, which were often in a most shocking state, particularly among the rebels. Every evening and morning they were dressed." Another Dix nurse, Julia Susan Wheelock, said, "Many of these were Rebels. I could not pass them by neglected. Though enemies, they were nevertheless helpless, suffering human beings."[citation needed]
When Confederate forces retreated from Gettysburg, they left behind 5,000 wounded soldiers. These were treated by many of Dix's nurses. Union nurse Cornelia Hancock wrote about the experience: "There are no words in the English language to express the suffering I witnessed today ...".[36]
She was well respected for her work throughout the war because of her dedication. This stemmed from her putting aside her previous work to focus completely on the war at hand. With the conclusion of the war her service was recognized formally. She was awarded with two national flags, these flags being for "the Care, Succor, and Relief of the Sick and wounded Soldiers of the United States on the Battle-Field, in Camps and Hospitals during the recent war."[37] Dix ultimately founded thirty-two hospitals, and influenced the creation of two others in Japan.[28]
Postwar life
[edit]At the end of the war, Dix helped raise funds for the national monument to deceased soldiers at Fortress Monroe.[28] Following the war, she resumed her crusade to improve the care of prisoners, the disabled, and the mentally ill. Her first step was to review the asylums and prisons in the South to evaluate the war damage to their facilities. In addition to pursuing prisons reforms after the civil war, she also worked on improving life-saving services in Nova Scotia, establishing a war memorial at Hampton Roads in Virginia and a fountain for thirsty horses at the Boston Custom Square.[12]
In 1881, Dix moved into the New Jersey State Hospital, formerly known as Trenton State Hospital, that she built years prior.[38] The state legislature had designated a suite for her private use as long as she lived. Although in poor health, she carried on correspondence with people from England, Japan, and elsewhere. Dix died on July 17, 1887. She was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.[39]
Honors
[edit]- Dix was elected "President for Life" of the Army Nurses Association (a social club for Civil War Volunteer Nurses), but she had little to do with the organization. She opposed its efforts to get military pensions for its members.[32]
- In December 1866 she was awarded two national flags for her service during the Civil War. This award was awarded for "the Care, Succor, and Relief of the Sick and wounded Soldiers of the United States on the Battle-Field, in Camps and Hospitals during the recent War."[37]
- In 1979 she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame.[40]
- In 1983[41] the United States Postal Service honored her life of charity and service by issuing a 1¢ Dorothea Dix Great Americans series postage stamp.
- In 1999 a series of six tall marble panels with a bronze bust in each was added to the Massachusetts State House; the busts are of Dix, Florence Luscomb, Mary Kenney O'Sullivan, Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, Sarah Parker Remond, and Lucy Stone.[42] As well, two quotations from each of those women (including Dix) are etched on their own marble panel, and the wall behind all the panels has wallpaper made of six government documents repeated over and over, with each document being related to a cause of one or more of the women.[42]
- A United States Navy transport ship serving in World War II was named for Dix, the USS Dorothea L. Dix.
- The Bangor Mental Health Institute was renamed in August 2006 to the Dorothea Dix Psychiatric Center.[43]
- A crater on Venus was named Dix in her honor.[44]
- She is remembered on the Boston Women's Heritage Trail.[45]
Numerous locations commemorate Dix, including the Dix Ward in McLean Asylum at Somerville, Dixmont Hospital in Pennsylvania, the Dorothea L. Dix House,[28] and the Dorothea Dix Park located in Raleigh, North Carolina.[46][47]
Works
[edit]- The Garland of Flora, Boston: S.G. Goodrich & Co., and Carter & Hendee, 1829, retrieved November 12, 2010. Published anonymously.
- Remarks on Prisons and Prison Discipline in the United States, 2nd edition, from the 1st Boston edition, Philadelphia: Joseph Kite & Co, 1845, retrieved November 12, 2010
- Memorial of Miss D. L. Dix in Relation to the Illinois Penitentiary, February 1847, retrieved November 12, 2010
- Memorial of Miss D. L. Dix to the Hon. The General Assembly in Behalf of the Insane of Maryland, House of Delegates?, March 5, 1852, retrieved November 12, 2010
She wrote a variety of other tracts on prisoners. She is also the author of many memorials to legislative bodies on the subject of lunatic asylums and reports on philanthropic subjects.
For young readers
[edit]- Conversations on Common Things, or, Guide to Knowledge, with Questions (3rd ed.), Boston: Monroe & Francis, 1828 [1824], retrieved November 12, 2010
- "Conversations on common things". Munroe and Francis – via Internet Archive.
- Note: other replications of this book are also available via Google Books.
- Alice and Ruth
- Evening Hours
and other books.
See also
[edit]- Kirkbride Plan
- Dorothea Dix Hospital
- Other nurses of the American Civil War
- Virginia Gonzalez Torres - often referred to as Dorothea Dix of Mexico
Notes
[edit]- ^ Internet Archive currently lists seven copies of Francis Tiffany's book, of varying replication quality. The book was reprinted a number of times, and publishers may vary. However, the text is identical. Unfortunately, two of the easier to read versions uploaded to Internet Archive, namely this and this (the two bottom listings), are missing the title page, so were not utilised for the citation in this article. The information provided in the Internet Archive listings should never be used for citation, as they can contain inaccuracies (as can Google book listings). The uploaded, visible text itself should always be relied upon.
References
[edit]- ^ Gary Boyd Roberts (Fall 1999). "Notable Kin of Edmund Rice" (PDF). ERA Newsletter. Edmund Rice (1638) Association. p. 5. Retrieved June 23, 2013.
- ^ a b c Stevenson, Keira (August 2017), Dorothea Dix – via EBSCOhost
- ^ Tiffany, Francis (1890), The Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix, Boston & New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co, p. 1, retrieved November 12, 2010. This sequence of events is described over several chapters, commencing page 180 (n206 in electronic page field).
- ^ a b Chisholm 1911.
- ^ Holland, Mary G. (2002). Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War. Roseville: Edinborough Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-889020-04-4.
- ^ Gollaher, D. (1995). Voice for the Mad. New York: The Free Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780029123997.
- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Dix, Dorothea Lynde". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 346. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ Parry, Manson (2006). "Dorothea Dix". American Journal of Public Health. 96 (4): 624–625. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.079152. PMC 1470530.
- ^ a b Holland, Mary G. (2002). Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War. Roseville: Edinborough Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-889020-04-4.
- ^ "Dorothea Dix: Unitarian Reform". Retrieved October 31, 2021.
- ^ Parry, Manon S. (November 29, 2016). "Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)". American Journal of Public Health. 96 (4): 624–625. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.079152. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1470530.
- ^ a b Norbury, Frank (1999). "Dorothea Dix and the Founding of Illinois' First Mental Hospital". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 92: 13–29 – via JSTOR.
- ^ a b c Brickell, Herschel (May 11, 1937). "Dorothea's Dix's Achievements as Friend of Society's Outcasts Described in a Good Biography". New York Post.
- ^ "Hall of Fame to induct Dorothea Dix". Finger Lakes Time. October 23, 1979.
- ^ The Christophers (November 16, 1977). "What One Person Can Do: Dorothea Dix, Advocate for the Mentally Ill". The Hamburg Sun.
- ^ Dix, Dorothea L (1843), Memorial to the Legislature of Massachusetts 1843, p. 2, retrieved November 12, 2010
- ^ Michel, Sonya (1994). "Dorothea Dix; or, the Voice of the Maniac". Discourse. 17 (2): 48–66. ISSN 1522-5321.
- ^ Tiffany, Francis (1891). Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix. Houghton, Mifflin. p. 110. doi:10.1037/12972-000.
It was first on January 23, 1845, that her Memorial to the legislature of New Jersey was presented to the Senate by Miss Dix's stanch supporter, Hon. Joseph S. Dodd.
- ^ The Institutional Care of the Insane in the United States and Canada, 1916
- ^ "Trenton State Hospital". Asylum Projects.
- ^ Briska, William (1997). The History of Elgin Mental Health Center: Evolution of a State Hospital. Crossroads Communications. p. 12. ISBN 0-916445-45-3.
- ^ a b January 1849: Dorothea Dix Hospital.
- ^ Nineteenth-Century North Carolina.
- ^ Jackson, Vanessa (2007). "Separate and Unequal: The Legacy of Racially Segregated Psychiatric Hospitals" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2011.
- ^ "Harrisburg State Hospital", Historic Asylums, article hosted at Rootsweb. It was named in her honor and today serves also as a museum to the history of care for the mentally ill.
- ^ Tiffany, Francis (1890). This sequence of events is described in several chapters, commencing page 180 (n206 in electronic page field)
- ^ "Thomas E. Appleton, "Dorothea Dix", USQUE AD MARE A History of the Canadian Coast Guard and Marine Services".
- ^ a b c d e f g Holland, Mary G. (2002). Our Army Nurses: Stories from Women in the Civil War. Roseville: Edinborough Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-889020-04-4.
- ^ "Military Hosipitals, Dorthea Dix, and U.S. Sanitary Commission (1861) | Civil War Medicine". Retrieved June 29, 2022.
- ^ Hardy, Susan and Corones, Anthony, "The Nurse’s Uniform as Ethopoietic Fashion", Fashion Theory, Vol.21, No.5. (2015), pp. 523-552. doi=10.1080/1362704X.2016.1203090
- ^ Giesberg, Judith (April 27, 2011). "Ms. Dix Comes to Washington". Opinionator. Retrieved January 4, 2019.
- ^ a b c Dorothea Dix – via www.bookrags.com.
- ^ Tsui, Bonnie (2006). She Went to the Field: Women Soldiers of the Civil War. Guilford: TwoDot. p. 123. ISBN 0762743840.
- ^ Barbra Mann Wall, "Called to a Mission of Charity: The Sisters of St. Joseph in the Civil War, Nursing History Review (1998) Vol. 6, p85-113
- ^ Maher, Mary Denis. To Bind Up the Wounds, LSU Press, 1999, p. 128ISBN 9780807124390
- ^ Hancock, Cornelia (1937) South After Gettysburg: Letters of Cornelia Hancock from the Army of the Potomac, 1863–1865, University of Pennsylvania Press, Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized October 27, 2006.
- ^ a b "American National Biography Online: Dix, Dorothea Lynde". www.anb.org. Retrieved November 29, 2016.
- ^ Dorothea Lynde Dix.
- ^ "Dorothea Dix". National Women's History Museum. April 18, 2017. Retrieved September 30, 2021.
- ^ "Dix, Dorothea". National Women’s Hall of Fame.
- ^ "Women Who Left Their "Stamps" on History". www.infoplease.com.
- ^ a b "HEAR US Virtual Tour". Mass Humanities. Retrieved February 9, 2018.
- ^ "History of Dorothea Dix Psychiatric Center". DHHS Maine. Archived from the original on March 22, 2015. Retrieved April 10, 2013.
- ^ "Dix". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature.
- ^ "Downtown". Boston Women's Heritage Trail.
- ^ "Negotiations begin in earnest for Dorothea Dix property". WRAL.com. March 10, 2014.
- ^ "About | Dorothea Dix Park". dorotheadixpark.org.
Further reading
[edit]- Baker, Rachel. Angel of Mercy: The Story of Dorothea Lynde Dix. New York: Messner, 1955.
- Brown, Thomas J. Dorothea Dix: New England Reformer. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998.
- Dix, Dorothea Lynde, and David L. Lightner. Asylum, Prison, and Poorhouse: The Writings and Reform Work of Dorothea Dix in Illinois. Carbondale, Ill: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999.
- Lowe, Corinne. The Gentle Warrior: A Story of Dorothea Lynde Dix. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948.
- Marshall, Helen E. Dorothea Dix: Forgotten Samaritan. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina press, 1937.
- Norman, Gertrude. Dorothea Lynde Dix. Lives to remember. New York: Putnam, 1959.
- Rothman, David J; Marcus, Steven; Kiceluk, Stephanie A, eds. (2003), "Dorothea L. Dix (1802-1887): On Behalf of the Insane Poor", Medicine and Western Civilization, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, pp. 352–359, ISBN 9780813521909
- Schlaifer, Charles, and Lucy Freeman. Heart's Work: Civil War Heroine and Champion of the Mentally Ill, Dorothea Lynde Dix. New York: Paragon House, 1991.
- Wilson, Dorothy Clarke. Stranger and Traveler: The Story of Dorothea Dix, American Reformer. Boston: Little, Brown, 1975.
- Wilson, J. G.; Fiske, J., eds. (1900). . Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
For young readers
[edit]- Colman, Penny. Breaking the Chains: The Crusade of Dorothea Lynde Dix. White Hall, Va: Shoe Tree Press, 1992.
- Herstek, Amy Paulson. Dorothea Dix: Crusader for the Mentally Ill. Historical American biographies. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 2001.
- Malone, Mary, and Katharine Sampson. Dorothea L. Dix: Hospital Founder. A Discovery biography. New York: Chelsea Juniors, 1991.
- Muckenhoupt, Margaret. Dorothea Dix: Advocate for Mental Health Care. Oxford portraits. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
- Schleichert, Elizabeth, and Antonio Castro. The Life of Dorothea Dix. Pioneers in health and medicine. Frederick, Md: Twenty-First Century Books, 1992.
- Witteman, Barbara. Dorothea Dix: Social Reformer. Let freedom ring. Mankato, Minn: Bridgestone Books, 2003.
External links
[edit]- Dorothea Dix Correspondence from the Historic Psychiatry Collection, Menninger Archives, Kansas Historical Society
- Robin Pape, Burkhart Brückner: Biography of Dorothea Lynde Dix in: Biographical Archive of Psychiatry (BIAPSY), 2015.
- 1802 births
- 1887 deaths
- American activists
- American nursing administrators
- People from Boston
- People from Worcester, Massachusetts
- People of Massachusetts in the American Civil War
- People from Hampden, Maine
- United States Sanitary Commission people
- Mental health activists
- Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
- Psychiatric nurses
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- American women nurses
- American prison reformers
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