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The '''Linnean Society of London''' is the [[world]]'s premier society for the study and dissemination of [[taxonomy]]. It publishes a Zoological [[Journal]], as well as Botanical and Biological [[Journal]]s. It also issues ''The Linnean'', a review of the [[history]] of the society and of [[taxonomy]] in general.
{{Short description|Learned society for the study and dissemination of natural history and taxonomy}}
{{Redirect|Linnean Society}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = The Linnean Society of London
| image = The Linnean Society.png
| imagesize = 300px
| formation = {{Start date and age|1788}} ([[royal charter]]: 1802)
| location = [[Burlington House]], [[Piccadilly]]<br />[[London]], {{postcode|W|1}}
| type = [[Learned society]]
| remarks = '''Motto''': ''Naturae Discere Mores''<br /><small>("To Learn the Ways of Nature")</small>
| membership = 3,168 {{small|({{as of|2023|lc=y}})}}<ref>Annual Review 2023, Linnean Society, p. 10: https://ca1-tls.edcdn.com/AnnualReview_LinneanSociety_2023_Final_Web.pdf</ref>
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = [[Anjali Goswami]]
| purpose = Natural History, Evolution & Taxonomy
| website = {{URL|www.linnean.org}}
}}


The '''Linnean Society of London''' is a [[learned society]] dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning [[natural history]], [[evolution]], and [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]]. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections, and publishes [[academic journal]]s and books on plant and animal biology. The society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes.
The Linnean Society was founded in [[1788]], taking its name from the Swedish naturalist [[Carolus Linnaeus]].

The Society is based at [[Burlington House]], [[Piccadilly]], [[London]]. Membership is open to anyone who is interested in the Society's work, with no nomination procedure or academic requirements. Fellowship requires nomination by five Fellows and is subject to election.
A product of the [[Age of Enlightenment|18th-century enlightenment]], the society is the oldest extant biological society in the world and is historically important as the venue for the first public presentation of the theory of evolution by [[natural selection]] on 1 July 1858.

The former patron of the society was Queen [[Elizabeth II]]. Honorary members include: [[King Charles III]] of the United Kingdom, Emeritus Emperor [[Akihito]] of [[Japan]], King [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden]] (both of the latter have active interests in natural history), and the eminent naturalist and broadcaster Sir [[David Attenborough]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linnean.org/our-fellows/royal-patrons-and-honorary-fellows|title=Royal Patrons and Honorary Fellows|website=The Linnean Society}}</ref>

==History==
===Founding===
[[File:Burlington House (5125727595).jpg|thumb|Burlington House: the Linnean Society occupies the range to the left of, and above, the entrance arch.]]
[[File:Exterior of The Linnean Society of London.JPG|thumb|The society's premises in Burlington House seen from within the courtyard.]]
[[File:First admission of lady Fellows to the Linnean Society of London.jpg|thumb|right|The first admission of women as fellows of the society in 1905, [[Emma Louisa Turner]] is on the far left, [[Lilian J. Veley]] is shown signing the membership book, whilst Lady Crisp receives the 'hand of Fellowship' from the president, [[William Abbott Herdman]], behind Lilian J. Veley and standing is [[Constance Sladen]] – from a painting by James Sant (1820–1916)]]
[[File:Darwin-Wallace medal.jpg|thumb|right]]
[[File:The main library at the Linnean Society of London 2.jpg|thumb|right|The library of the Linnean Society, Burlington House]]
[[File:A display of Alfred Russel Wallace notebooks at the Linnean Society of London.jpg|thumb|right|A display of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] notebooks in the Linnean Society library]]
[[File:Muscicapa malachura- Thomas Davies.jpg|thumb|right| ''Muscicapa malachura'' (the [[Southern emu-wren]]), a new species from [[New South Wales]], by [[Thomas Davies (British Army officer)|Thomas Davies]], 1798, Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Volume 4, facing page 242]]
The Linnean Society was founded in 1788 by botanist Sir [[James Edward Smith (botanist)|James Edward Smith]]. The society takes its name from the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]], the 'father of taxonomy', who systematised biological classification through his [[binomial nomenclature]]. (He was known as Carl von Linné after his ennoblement, hence the spelling 'Linnean', rather than 'Linnaean'.) The society had a number of minor name variations before it gained its Royal Charter on 26 March 1802, when the name became fixed as "The Linnean Society of London". As a newly incorporated society, it comprised 228 fellows. It is the oldest extant natural history society in the world.<ref name=Gage>{{cite book|last1=Gage|first1= A.T. |last2=Stearn |first2=W.T.|date= 1988|title=A Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London|publisher=Linnean Society of London}}</ref>{{rp|2, 19}} Throughout its history the society has been a non-political and non-sectarian institution, existing solely for the furtherance of natural history.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|148}}

The inception of the society was the direct result of the purchase by Sir James Edward Smith of the specimen, book and correspondence collections of Carl Linnaeus. When the collection was offered for sale by Linnaeus's heirs, Smith was urged to acquire it by Sir [[Joseph Banks]], the eminent botanist and president of the [[Royal Society]]. Five years after this purchase Banks gave Smith his full support in founding the Linnean Society, and became one of its first Honorary Members.<ref>[[Patrick O'Brian|O'Brian, P.]] (1987) ''Joseph Banks'', Collins Harvill. p. 240</ref> <ref>Timmermann, Anke. 2020. “A Palimpsest of Naturalists: The Manuscripts of the Linnean Society of London.” ''[[The Book Collector]]'' 69 (2): 237–50.
</ref>

===Prominent members===
The society has numbered many prominent scientists amongst its fellows. One such was the botanist [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]], who was librarian, and later president (1849–1853); he named the [[cell nucleus]] and discovered [[Brownian motion]].<ref>{{cite book | author = Harris, Henry | title = The Birth of the Cell | url = https://archive.org/details/birthofcell0000harr | url-access = registration | year = 1999 | publisher = Yale University Press | pages = [https://archive.org/details/birthofcell0000harr/page/76 76]&ndash;81| isbn = 978-0-300-07384-3 }}</ref> In 1854, [[Charles Darwin]] was elected a fellow; he is undoubtedly the most illustrious scientist ever to appear on the membership rolls of the society.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|53}} Another famous fellow was biologist [[Thomas Huxley]], who would later gain the nickname "Darwin's bulldog" for his outspoken defence of Darwin and evolution. Men notable in other walks of life have also been fellows of the society, including the physician [[Edward Jenner]], pioneer of [[vaccination]], the [[Arctic]] explorers Sir [[John Franklin]] and Sir [[James Clark Ross]], colonial administrator and founder of [[Singapore]], [[Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles]] and [[Prime Minister]] of the United Kingdom, [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]].<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|50,53 197–198}}

===Biological evolution and the society===
The first public exposition of the 'Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection', arguably the greatest single leap of progress made in biology, was presented to a meeting of the Linnean Society on 1 July 1858. At this meeting a [[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|joint presentation of papers]] by Charles Darwin and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] was made, sponsored by [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] and [[Charles Lyell]], as neither author could be present.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=I.B.|date=1985|title=Revolution in Science|publisher=Harvard University Press}}</ref>{{rp|288–289}}

The society's connection with evolution remained strong into the 20th century. [[Edward Bagnall Poulton|Sir Edward Poulton]], who was president in 1912–1916, was a great defender of natural selection, and was the first biologist to recognise the importance of [[frequency-dependent selection]].<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|95}}<ref>Poulton, E. B. 1884. Notes upon, or suggested by, the colours, markings and protective attitudes of certain lepidopterous larvae and pupae, and of a phytophagous hymenopterous larva. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 1884: 27–60.</ref>

===Female fellows===
In 1904, the society elected its first female fellows, following a number of years of tireless campaigning by the botanist [[Marian Farquharson]]. Whilst the society's council was reluctant to admit women, the wider fellowship was more supportive; only 17% voted against the proposal. Among the first to benefit from this were the ornithologist and photographer [[Emma Louisa Turner]], [[Lilian J. Veley]], a [[microbiologist]], [[Annie Lorrain Smith]], a [[lichenologist]] and [[mycologist]], [[Gulielma Lister]], a mycologist, and [[Margaret Jane Benson]], a [[paleobotanist]], all formally admitted on 19 January 1905.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|88|89}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waterfield |first=Amanda |date=2004 |title=The Listers and the Myxomycete Collections at the Natural History Museum (BM), London |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3668497 |journal=Systematics and Geography of Plants |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=289–291 |jstor=3668497 |issn=1374-7886}}</ref>

Also numbered in the first cohort of women to be elected in 1904 were: the paleobotanist, and later pioneer of family planning, [[Marie Stopes]], the philanthropist [[Constance Sladen]], founder of the [[Percy Sladen Memorial Trust]] and [[Alice Laura Embleton]] (1876–1960), [[biologist]], [[zoologist]] and [[suffragist]], who had been one of the earliest women to deliver a paper to the society on 4 Jun 1903.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Linnean|date=2005|volume=21|issue=2|page=25}}</ref><ref name=History>Gage, A. T. (1938). A history of the Linnean Society of London: Printed for the Linnean Society by Taylor and Francis, p. 90.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=EDITORIAL NOTES.{{!}}1903-06-26{{!}}The Cambrian News and Merionethshire Standard – Welsh Newspapers|url=https://newspapers.library.wales/view/3407962/3407967/34|access-date=2020-08-16|website=newspapers.library.wales|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London|publisher=Linnean Society of London|url=https://archive.org/details/proceedingsoflin190206linn|access-date=2020-08-16|website=Internet Archive|language=en}}</ref> Overall, 15 out of 16 women nominated in 1904 were elected to the society. Marian Farquharson was not admitted, having been "shamefully blackballed" as the society now states, although she was finally admitted in 1908.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linnean.org/news/2020/03/27/celebrating-the-first-women-fellows|title=New Exhibition: Celebrating the Linnean Society's First Women Fellows|website=The Linnean Society}}</ref>

The painting "Admission of Lady Fellows" by [[James Sant]] R.A., which hangs on the upper staircase, shows the eleven women signing the society's Book of Admission and Obligation on 19 January 1905. The painting was altered to remove the figures of [[Thomas Roscoe Rede Stebbing|T R R Stebbing]], the Zoological Secretary, and his wife, [[Mary Anne Stebbing|Mary Anne]], from the right hand side sometime before the painting was presented to the society in 1919.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Walker|first=Margot|date=January 1984|title=Admission of Lady Fellows|journal=The Linnean|volume=1|issue=1|pages=9–11}}</ref>

The first female president of the society was [[Irene Manton]] (1973 to 1976), who pioneered the biological use of [[electron microscopy]]. Her work revealed the structure of the [[flagellum]] and [[cilia]], which are central to many systems of cellular motility.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Preston | first1 = Reginald Dawson | doi = 10.1098/rsbm.1990.0011 | title = Irene Manton. 17 April 1904 – 13 May 1988 | journal = [[Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society]] | volume = 35 | pages = 247–261 | year = 1990 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite CiteSeerX|title=Irene Manton: A Biography (1904–1988)|date=2004|author=Barry Leadbeater|citeseerx=10.1.1.693.4850 }}</ref>

===Present interests===
Recent years have seen an increased interest within the society in issues of [[biodiversity]] conservation. This was highlighted by the inception in 2015 of an annual award, the [[John Spedan Lewis]] Medal, specifically honouring persons making significant and innovative contributions to conservation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linnean.org/the-society/medals-awards-prizes-grants/the-john-spedan-lewis-medal|title=The John Spedan Lewis Medal|website=The Linnean Society}}</ref>

==Locations==
The society has had a number of different homes, initially meeting in Marlborough Coffee House (1788), before moving to Panton Square in 1795, then Gerrard Street, [[Soho]] in 1805, and Soho Square in 1821.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=March 1988|title=The Homes of the Linnean Society|journal=The Linnean|volume=4|issue=2|pages=23–32}}</ref> Since 1857 the society has been based at [[Burlington House]], [[Piccadilly]], [[London]]; an address it shares with a number of other learned societies: the [[Geological Society of London]], the [[Royal Astronomical Society]], the [[Society of Antiquaries of London]] and the [[Royal Society of Chemistry]].<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|51}}

In April 1939 the threat of war obliged the society to relocate the Linnean collections out of London to [[Woburn Abbey]] in [[Bedfordshire]], where they remained for the duration of [[World War II]]. This move was facilitated by the [[Hastings Russell, 12th Duke of Bedford|12th Duke of Bedford]], a Fellow of the Linnean Society himself. Three thousand of the most precious items from the library collections were packed up and evacuated to Oxford; the country house of librarian [[Warren Royal Dawson]] provided a refuge for the society's records.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|110}}

==Membership==
Fellowship is open to both professional scientists and to amateur naturalists who have shown active interest in natural history and allied disciplines. Having authored relevant publications is an advantage, but not a necessity, for election. Prior to November 2024, [[fellow]]ship required nomination by at least one fellow, and election by a minimum of two-thirds of those electors voting. Following election, new fellows had be formally admitted, in person at a meeting of the society, before they were able to vote in society elections. Admission took the form of signing the membership book, and thereby agreeing to an obligation to abide by the statutes of the society. Following this the new fellow was taken by the hand by the president, who recited a formula of admission to the fellowship.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|195, 198–202}}<ref name=charter>{{cite web|url=https://ca1-tls.edcdn.com/Charter-and-Byelaws-2016-Final-24May2016.pdf?mtime=20160916102354|title=Charter and Byelaws|publisher=The Linnean Society|date=24 May 2016}}</ref>

As of November of 2024, applications for fellowship will be considered by a newly instigated 'Fellowship Committee'. Existing fellows may make a formal objection to the admittance of any prospective fellow. Election to fellowship is via an application supported by named referees. The fellowship committee reports to the council of the society on the suitability of applicants. After approval at a society meeting, applicants will be deemed elected as fellows.<ref>''The Charter and Bye-Laws of The Linnean Society of London'', 2024 Supplemental Charter, p.9</ref> Fellows may employ the [[post-nominal letters]] 'FLS'.<ref>''The Charter and Bye-Laws of The Linnean Society of London'', 2024 Supplemental Charter, pp.4, 8</ref>

Other forms of membership exist: 'Associate' (or 'ALS'), for supporters of the society who do not wish to submit to the formal election process for fellowship, and 'Student Associate', for those registered as students at a place of tertiary education. Associate members may apply for election to the fellowship at any time.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|195, 198–202}}<ref name=charter/>

Finally, there are three types of membership that are prestigious and strictly limited in number: 'Fellow ''honoris causa''', 'Foreign', and lastly, 'Honorary'. These forms of membership are bestowed following election by the fellowship at the annual Anniversary Meeting in May.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|195, 198–202}}<ref name=charter/>

==Meetings==
Meetings have historically been, and continue to be, the main justification for the society's existence. Meetings are venues for people of like interests to exchange information, talk about scientific and literary concerns, exhibit specimens, and listen to lectures. Today, meetings are held in the evening and also at lunchtime. Most are open to the general public as well as to members, and the majority are offered without charge for admission.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|149–152}}

On or near 24 May, traditionally regarded as the birthday of Carl Linnaeus, the Anniversary Meeting is held. This is for fellows and guests only, it includes ballots for membership of the council of the society and the awarding of medals.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|149–152}} On 22 May 2020, for the first time in its history, the Anniversary Meeting was held online via [[videotelephony]]. This was due to restrictions on public gatherings imposed in response to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].


==Medals and prizes==
==Medals and prizes==
The Linnean Society of London aims to promote the study of all aspects of the biological sciences, with particular emphasis on evolution, taxonomy, biodiversity, and sustainability. Through awarding medals and grants, the society acknowledges and encourages excellence in all of these fields.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linnean.org/the-society/medals-awards-prizes-grants|title=Recipients of the 2019 Medals, Awards, Prizes and Grants|date=2019|publisher=The Linnean Society|website=linnean.org}}</ref><ref name=Gage/>{{rp|165–174}}

The following medals and prizes are awarded by the Linnean Society:
The following medals and prizes are awarded by the Linnean Society:
*[[Linnean Medal]], established [[1888]], awarded annually to alternately a botanist or a zoologist or (as has been common since 1958) to one of each in the same year.
*[[Linnean Medal]], established 1888, awarded annually to alternately a botanist or a zoologist or (as has been common since 1958) to one of each in the same year.
*[[Darwin-Wallace Medal]], first awarded in 1908, for major advances in evolutionary biology.
*[[H. H. Bloomer Award]], established [[1963]] from a legacy by the amateur naturalist [[Harry Howard Bloomer]], awarded "an amateur naturalist who has made an important contribution to biological knowledge".
*[[Bicentenary Award]], established [[1978]], on the 200th anniversary of the death of Linnaeus, "in recognition of work done by a person under the age of 40 years".
*[[H. H. Bloomer Award]], established 1963 from a legacy by the amateur naturalist Harry Howard Bloomer, awarded to "an amateur naturalist who has made an important contribution to biological knowledge"
*[[Trail-Crisp Award]], established in 1966 from the amalgamation of two previous awards – both dating to 1910 – awarded "in recognition of an outstanding contribution to biological microscopy that has been published in the UK".
*[[Jill Smythies Award]], established [[1986]], awarded for botanical illustrations.
*[[Bicentenary Medal of the Linnean Society|Bicentenary Medal]], established 1978, on the 200th anniversary of the death of Linnaeus, "in recognition of work done by a person under the age of 40 years".
*[[Irene Manton Prize]], established [[1990]], for the best dissertation in botany during an academic year.
*[[Jill Smythies Award]], established 1986, awarded for botanical illustrations.
*[[Linnean Gold Medal]], For services to the society – awarded in exceptional circumstances, from 1988.
*[[Irene Manton Prize]], established 1990, for the best dissertation in botany during an academic year.
* [[Linnean Tercentenary Medal]], awarded in 2007 in celebration of the three hundredth anniversary of the birth of Linnaeus.
* [[The John C Marsden Medal|John C Marsden Medal]], established 2012, for the best doctoral thesis in biology examined during a single academic year.
* John Spedan Lewis Medal, established 2015, awarded to "an individual who is making a significant and innovative contribution to conservation".
* Sir David Attenborough Award for Fieldwork, established in 2015.


==Collections==
==Collections==
{{Main|Linnaean Herbarium}}
Linnaeus' [[botanical]] and [[zoology|zoological]] collections were purchased in [[1783]] by [[Sir James Edward Smith]], the first President of the society, and are now held in London by the society. The collections include 14,000 plants, 158 fish, 1,564 shells, 3,198 insects, 1,600 books and 3,000 letters and documents. They may be viewed by appointment.
Linnaeus' [[botanical]] and [[zoology|zoological]] collections were purchased in 1783 by Sir James Edward Smith, the first president of the society, and are now held in London by the society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Paul |date=1999 |title=The purchase of knowledge: James Edward Smith and the Linnean collections |url= https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/history/students/modules/archive/hi916/week5/white_the_purchase_of_knowledge.pdf |journal=[[Endeavour (journal)|Endeavour]] |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=126–129 |access-date=7 August 2024}}</ref> The collections include 14,000 plants, 158 fish, 1,564 shells, 3,198 insects, 1,600 books and 3,000 letters and documents. They may be viewed by appointment and there is a monthly tour of the collections.<ref>[https://www.linnean.org/research-collections/linnaean-collections The Linnean Society of London: Linnean Collections]</ref>


Smith's own plant collection of 27,185 dried specimens, together with his correspondence and book collection, is also held by the society.<ref>[https://www.linnean.org/research-collections/smith-collections The Linnean Society of London: Smith Collections]</ref>
Sir JE Smith's own plant collection is also held by the Society. It has been databased by the Smith Herbarium Project at the [[National Museums Liverpool]]. 6,000 specimens have been cleaned and repaired.
Other notable holdings of the society include the notebooks and journals of [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] and the paintings of plants and animals made by [[Francis Buchanan-Hamilton]] (1762–1829) in [[Nepal]].<ref>Gage A. T. and Stearn W. T. (1988) ''A Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London'', Linnean Society of London, pp. 175–181 (specimen collections) 183–188 (manuscript, illustration and publication collections)</ref>


In December 2014, the society's specimen, library, and archive collections were granted [[designated status]] by the [[Arts Council England]], recognising collections of national and international importance (one of only 152 institutions so recognised as of 2020).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://advisor.museumsandheritage.com/news/four-collections-of-national-importance-gain-designated-status-from-arts-co/|title=Four collections of national importance gain Designated Status from Arts Council|date=December 12, 2014|website=Museums + Heritage Advisor}}</ref>
==Linnean Societies Worldwide==
Australia
* Linnean Society of New South Wales


==Publications==
Canada
The Linnean Society began its extensive series of publications on 13 August 1791, when Volume I of ''Transactions of the Linnean Society of London'' was produced. Over the following centuries the society published a number of different journals, some of which specialised in more specific subject areas, whilst earlier publications were discontinued.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|153–164}}
* Société linnéenne du Québec


Those still in publication include: the ''[[Biological Journal of the Linnean Society]]'', which covers the evolutionary biology of all organisms, ''[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]]'', which focuses on plant sciences, and ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]'' focusing on animal systematics and evolution. In 2022, the society launched the ''Evolutionary Journal of the Linnean Society'', its first fully [[open access]] scholarly publication.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Our Journals |url=https://www.linnean.org/our-publications/our-journals |access-date=2022-07-06 |website=The Linnean Society |language=en}}</ref> ''The Linnean'' is a biannual newsletter. It contains commentary on recent activities and events, articles on history and science, and occasional biographies/obituaries of people connected to the Linnean Society; it also includes book reviews, reference material and correspondence. The society also publishes books and ''Synopses of the British Fauna'', a series of field-guides.<ref name=Gage/>{{rp|153–164}}
France
* La Société Linnéenne de la Seine maritime
* Société linnéenne de Lyon
* Société linnéenne de Provence
* Société Linnéenne de Bordeaux
* Société Linnéenne de Normandie


Previously, an electronic magazine for Fellows, ''Pulse'', was produced quarterly. This ceased publication in 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.linnean.org/Our-Publications/PuLSe|title=Pulse|publisher=The Linnean Society of London}}</ref>
Sweden
* The Swedish Linnaeus Society


==Presidents==
United Kingdom
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* The Linnean Society of London
* 1788–1828: [[Sir James Edward Smith]]

* 1828–1833: [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby]]
United States
* 1833–1836: [[Edward St Maur, 11th Duke of Somerset]]
* The Linnean Society of Lake Superior, Inc.
* 1837–1849: [[Edward Stanley (bishop)|Edward Stanley]]
* Linnaean Society of New York
* 1849–1853: [[Robert Brown (Scottish botanist from Montrose)|Robert Brown]]
* 1853–1861: [[Thomas Bell (zoologist)|Thomas Bell]]
* 1861–1874: [[George Bentham]]
* 1874–1881: [[George James Allman]]
* 1881–1886: [[John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury|Sir John Lubbock, 4th Baronet]] (later 1st Baron Avebury)
* 1886–1890: [[William Carruthers (botanist)|William Carruthers]]
* 1890–1894: [[Charles Stewart (zoologist)|Charles Stewart]]
* 1894–1896: [[Charles Baron Clarke]]
* 1896–1900: [[Albert Günther|Albert Charles Lewis Gotthilf Günther]]
* 1900–1904: [[Sydney Howard Vines]]
* 1904–1908: [[William Abbott Herdman]]
* 1908–1912: [[Dukinfield Henry Scott]]
* 1912–1916: [[Sir Edward Poulton]]
* 1916–1919: [[Sir David Prain]]
* 1919–1923: [[Arthur Smith Woodward]]
* 1923–1927: [[Alfred Barton Rendle]]
* 1927–1931: [[Sidney Frederic Harmer]]
* 1931–1934: [[Frederick Ernest Weiss]]
* 1934–1937: [[William Thomas Calman]]
* 1937–1940: [[John Ramsbottom (mycologist)|John Ramsbottom]]
* 1940–1943: [[Edward Stuart Russell]]
* 1943–1946: [[Arthur Disbrowe Cotton]]
* 1946–1949: Sir [[Gavin de Beer]]
* 1949–1952: [[Felix Eugen Fritsch]]
* 1952–1955: [[Robert Beresford Seymour Sewell]]
* 1955–1958: [[Hugh Hamshaw Thomas]]
* 1958–1961: [[Carl Pantin]]
* 1961–1964: [[Thomas Maxwell Harris]]
* 1964–1967: [[Errol White]]
* 1967–1970: [[Arthur Roy Clapham]]
* 1970–1973: [[Alexander Cave|Alexander James Edward Cave]]
* 1973–1976: [[Irene Manton]]
* 1976–1979: [[Humphry Greenwood]]
* 1979–1982: [[William T. Stearn]]
* 1982–1985: [[R. J. Berry|Robert James "Sam" Berry]]
* 1985–1988: [[William Gilbert Chaloner]]
* 1988–1991: [[Michael Frederick Claridge]]
* 1991–1994: [[John G. Hawkes]]
* 1994–1997: [[Brian G. Gardiner (biologist)|Brian G. Gardiner]]
* 1997–2000: [[Ghillean Prance|Sir Ghillean Prance]]
* 2000–2003: [[David Smith (botanist)|Sir David Smith]]
* 2003–2006: [[Gordon McGregor Reid]]
* 2006–2009: [[David F. Cutler]]
* 2009–2012: [[Vaughan R. Southgate]]
* 2012–2015: [[Dianne Edwards]]
* 2015–2018: [[Paul Brakefield]]
* 2018–2022: [[Sandra Knapp]]
* 2022–2025: [[Anjali Goswami]]
}}


==Arms==
{{Infobox COA wide
|adopted = 1802
| image = Linnean_Society_of_London_Coat_of_Arms.svg
| escutcheon = Per fesse the chief per pale Gules and Vert the base Sable on a fesse Argent a hurt charged with an egg erect Proper.
| crest = On a wreath of the colours behind a mount in which vegetates the linnaea-borealis the sun rising in splendour all Proper.
| supporters = On the dexter side a lion Or gorged with a linnaea-borealis Proper therefrom a shield pendent per pale wavy Argent and Ermine charged with a rose slipped Gules and a thistle fesseways Proper and on the sinister side an eagle rising Proper gorged as the dexter therefrom a shield pendent Argent charged with a trefoil slipped Vert.
| motto = '''NATURAE DISCERE MORES'''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.heraldry-wiki.com/heraldrywiki/wiki/Linnean_Society_of_London |title=Linnean Society of London |access-date=11 September 2021 |publisher=Heraldry of the World}}</ref>}}


==Fellows==
''For the fellows of the Linnean Society of London, see: [[:Category:Fellows of the Linnean Society of London|Fellows of the Linnean Society of London]]''


==See also==
==See also==
* [[Dorothea Pertz]], one of the first women awarded full membership
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_Linnean_Society Members and Fellows of the Linnean Society]
* [[Linnaeus Link Project]]

{{Portal|Evolutionary biology}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{wikisource-inline|Transactions of the Linnean Society of London}}
{{commons category-inline}}
*[http://www.linnean.org/ Linnean Society of London]
*[http://www.linnean.org/ Linnean Society of London]
*[http://www.linnean.org/index.php?id=43 Medals and prizes of the Linnean Society]
*[https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean Home page] of the ''[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]]''
*[https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean Home page] of the ''[[Biological Journal of the Linnean Society]]''
*[https://academic.oup.com/botlinnean Home page] of the ''[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]]''
*[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/683 BHL] scans of ''[[Transactions of the Linnean Society of London]]'' 1791–1874
*[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/43835 BHL] scans of ''[[Transactions of the Linnean Society of London]]''. 2nd series, Zoology 1875–1921
*[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/682 BHL] scans of ''[[Transactions of the Linnean Society of London]]'', 2nd series: Botany 1875–1922
* {{Gutenberg author | id=37164| name=Linnean Society of London}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=("Linnean Society of London")}}

{{Carl Linnaeus}}

{{authority control}}


[[Category:Linnean Society of London| ]]
[[Category:Linnean Society of London| ]]
[[Category:1788 establishments]]
[[Category:Learned societies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Learned societies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Science and technology in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Science and technology in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Scientific societies]]
[[Category:Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Biology societies]]

[[Category:Herbaria in the United Kingdom]]
[[de:Linné-Gesellschaft]]
[[Category:1788 establishments in England]]
[[es:Sociedad linneana de Londres]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations established in 1788]]
[[fr:Société linnéenne de Londres]]
[[he:החברה הלינאית]]

Latest revision as of 08:00, 6 December 2024

"Linnean Society" redirects here. For other uses, see Linnean Society (disambiguation).

The Linnean Society of London
Formation1788; 237 years ago (1788) (royal charter: 1802)
TypeLearned society
PurposeNatural History, Evolution & Taxonomy
Location
Membership3,168 (as of 2023)[1]
President
Anjali Goswami
Websitewww.linnean.org
RemarksMotto: Naturae Discere Mores
("To Learn the Ways of Nature")

The Linnean Society of London is a learned society dedicated to the study and dissemination of information concerning natural history, evolution, and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections, and publishes academic journals and books on plant and animal biology. The society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes.

A product of the 18th-century enlightenment, the society is the oldest extant biological society in the world and is historically important as the venue for the first public presentation of the theory of evolution by natural selection on 1 July 1858.

The former patron of the society was Queen Elizabeth II. Honorary members include: King Charles III of the United Kingdom, Emeritus Emperor Akihito of Japan, King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden (both of the latter have active interests in natural history), and the eminent naturalist and broadcaster Sir David Attenborough.[2]

History

[edit]

Founding

[edit]
Burlington House: the Linnean Society occupies the range to the left of, and above, the entrance arch.
The society's premises in Burlington House seen from within the courtyard.
The first admission of women as fellows of the society in 1905, Emma Louisa Turner is on the far left, Lilian J. Veley is shown signing the membership book, whilst Lady Crisp receives the 'hand of Fellowship' from the president, William Abbott Herdman, behind Lilian J. Veley and standing is Constance Sladen – from a painting by James Sant (1820–1916)
The library of the Linnean Society, Burlington House
A display of Alfred Russel Wallace notebooks in the Linnean Society library
Muscicapa malachura (the Southern emu-wren), a new species from New South Wales, by Thomas Davies, 1798, Transactions of the Linnean Society of London, Volume 4, facing page 242

The Linnean Society was founded in 1788 by botanist Sir James Edward Smith. The society takes its name from the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, the 'father of taxonomy', who systematised biological classification through his binomial nomenclature. (He was known as Carl von Linné after his ennoblement, hence the spelling 'Linnean', rather than 'Linnaean'.) The society had a number of minor name variations before it gained its Royal Charter on 26 March 1802, when the name became fixed as "The Linnean Society of London". As a newly incorporated society, it comprised 228 fellows. It is the oldest extant natural history society in the world.[3]: 2, 19  Throughout its history the society has been a non-political and non-sectarian institution, existing solely for the furtherance of natural history.[3]: 148 

The inception of the society was the direct result of the purchase by Sir James Edward Smith of the specimen, book and correspondence collections of Carl Linnaeus. When the collection was offered for sale by Linnaeus's heirs, Smith was urged to acquire it by Sir Joseph Banks, the eminent botanist and president of the Royal Society. Five years after this purchase Banks gave Smith his full support in founding the Linnean Society, and became one of its first Honorary Members.[4] [5]

Prominent members

[edit]

The society has numbered many prominent scientists amongst its fellows. One such was the botanist Robert Brown, who was librarian, and later president (1849–1853); he named the cell nucleus and discovered Brownian motion.[6] In 1854, Charles Darwin was elected a fellow; he is undoubtedly the most illustrious scientist ever to appear on the membership rolls of the society.[3]: 53  Another famous fellow was biologist Thomas Huxley, who would later gain the nickname "Darwin's bulldog" for his outspoken defence of Darwin and evolution. Men notable in other walks of life have also been fellows of the society, including the physician Edward Jenner, pioneer of vaccination, the Arctic explorers Sir John Franklin and Sir James Clark Ross, colonial administrator and founder of Singapore, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Lord Aberdeen.[3]: 50, 53 197–198 

Biological evolution and the society

[edit]

The first public exposition of the 'Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection', arguably the greatest single leap of progress made in biology, was presented to a meeting of the Linnean Society on 1 July 1858. At this meeting a joint presentation of papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace was made, sponsored by Joseph Hooker and Charles Lyell, as neither author could be present.[7]: 288–289 

The society's connection with evolution remained strong into the 20th century. Sir Edward Poulton, who was president in 1912–1916, was a great defender of natural selection, and was the first biologist to recognise the importance of frequency-dependent selection.[3]: 95 [8]

Female fellows

[edit]

In 1904, the society elected its first female fellows, following a number of years of tireless campaigning by the botanist Marian Farquharson. Whilst the society's council was reluctant to admit women, the wider fellowship was more supportive; only 17% voted against the proposal. Among the first to benefit from this were the ornithologist and photographer Emma Louisa Turner, Lilian J. Veley, a microbiologist, Annie Lorrain Smith, a lichenologist and mycologist, Gulielma Lister, a mycologist, and Margaret Jane Benson, a paleobotanist, all formally admitted on 19 January 1905.[3]: 88 [9]

Also numbered in the first cohort of women to be elected in 1904 were: the paleobotanist, and later pioneer of family planning, Marie Stopes, the philanthropist Constance Sladen, founder of the Percy Sladen Memorial Trust and Alice Laura Embleton (1876–1960), biologist, zoologist and suffragist, who had been one of the earliest women to deliver a paper to the society on 4 Jun 1903.[10][11][12][13] Overall, 15 out of 16 women nominated in 1904 were elected to the society. Marian Farquharson was not admitted, having been "shamefully blackballed" as the society now states, although she was finally admitted in 1908.[14]

The painting "Admission of Lady Fellows" by James Sant R.A., which hangs on the upper staircase, shows the eleven women signing the society's Book of Admission and Obligation on 19 January 1905. The painting was altered to remove the figures of T R R Stebbing, the Zoological Secretary, and his wife, Mary Anne, from the right hand side sometime before the painting was presented to the society in 1919.[15]

The first female president of the society was Irene Manton (1973 to 1976), who pioneered the biological use of electron microscopy. Her work revealed the structure of the flagellum and cilia, which are central to many systems of cellular motility.[16][17]

Present interests

[edit]

Recent years have seen an increased interest within the society in issues of biodiversity conservation. This was highlighted by the inception in 2015 of an annual award, the John Spedan Lewis Medal, specifically honouring persons making significant and innovative contributions to conservation.[18]

Locations

[edit]

The society has had a number of different homes, initially meeting in Marlborough Coffee House (1788), before moving to Panton Square in 1795, then Gerrard Street, Soho in 1805, and Soho Square in 1821.[19] Since 1857 the society has been based at Burlington House, Piccadilly, London; an address it shares with a number of other learned societies: the Geological Society of London, the Royal Astronomical Society, the Society of Antiquaries of London and the Royal Society of Chemistry.[3]: 51 

In April 1939 the threat of war obliged the society to relocate the Linnean collections out of London to Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire, where they remained for the duration of World War II. This move was facilitated by the 12th Duke of Bedford, a Fellow of the Linnean Society himself. Three thousand of the most precious items from the library collections were packed up and evacuated to Oxford; the country house of librarian Warren Royal Dawson provided a refuge for the society's records.[3]: 110 

Membership

[edit]

Fellowship is open to both professional scientists and to amateur naturalists who have shown active interest in natural history and allied disciplines. Having authored relevant publications is an advantage, but not a necessity, for election. Prior to November 2024, fellowship required nomination by at least one fellow, and election by a minimum of two-thirds of those electors voting. Following election, new fellows had be formally admitted, in person at a meeting of the society, before they were able to vote in society elections. Admission took the form of signing the membership book, and thereby agreeing to an obligation to abide by the statutes of the society. Following this the new fellow was taken by the hand by the president, who recited a formula of admission to the fellowship.[3]: 195, 198–202 [20]

As of November of 2024, applications for fellowship will be considered by a newly instigated 'Fellowship Committee'. Existing fellows may make a formal objection to the admittance of any prospective fellow. Election to fellowship is via an application supported by named referees. The fellowship committee reports to the council of the society on the suitability of applicants. After approval at a society meeting, applicants will be deemed elected as fellows.[21] Fellows may employ the post-nominal letters 'FLS'.[22]

Other forms of membership exist: 'Associate' (or 'ALS'), for supporters of the society who do not wish to submit to the formal election process for fellowship, and 'Student Associate', for those registered as students at a place of tertiary education. Associate members may apply for election to the fellowship at any time.[3]: 195, 198–202 [20]

Finally, there are three types of membership that are prestigious and strictly limited in number: 'Fellow honoris causa', 'Foreign', and lastly, 'Honorary'. These forms of membership are bestowed following election by the fellowship at the annual Anniversary Meeting in May.[3]: 195, 198–202 [20]

Meetings

[edit]

Meetings have historically been, and continue to be, the main justification for the society's existence. Meetings are venues for people of like interests to exchange information, talk about scientific and literary concerns, exhibit specimens, and listen to lectures. Today, meetings are held in the evening and also at lunchtime. Most are open to the general public as well as to members, and the majority are offered without charge for admission.[3]: 149–152 

On or near 24 May, traditionally regarded as the birthday of Carl Linnaeus, the Anniversary Meeting is held. This is for fellows and guests only, it includes ballots for membership of the council of the society and the awarding of medals.[3]: 149–152  On 22 May 2020, for the first time in its history, the Anniversary Meeting was held online via videotelephony. This was due to restrictions on public gatherings imposed in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Medals and prizes

[edit]

The Linnean Society of London aims to promote the study of all aspects of the biological sciences, with particular emphasis on evolution, taxonomy, biodiversity, and sustainability. Through awarding medals and grants, the society acknowledges and encourages excellence in all of these fields.[23][3]: 165–174 

The following medals and prizes are awarded by the Linnean Society:

  • Linnean Medal, established 1888, awarded annually to alternately a botanist or a zoologist or (as has been common since 1958) to one of each in the same year.
  • Darwin-Wallace Medal, first awarded in 1908, for major advances in evolutionary biology.
  • H. H. Bloomer Award, established 1963 from a legacy by the amateur naturalist Harry Howard Bloomer, awarded to "an amateur naturalist who has made an important contribution to biological knowledge"
  • Trail-Crisp Award, established in 1966 from the amalgamation of two previous awards – both dating to 1910 – awarded "in recognition of an outstanding contribution to biological microscopy that has been published in the UK".
  • Bicentenary Medal, established 1978, on the 200th anniversary of the death of Linnaeus, "in recognition of work done by a person under the age of 40 years".
  • Jill Smythies Award, established 1986, awarded for botanical illustrations.
  • Linnean Gold Medal, For services to the society – awarded in exceptional circumstances, from 1988.
  • Irene Manton Prize, established 1990, for the best dissertation in botany during an academic year.
  • Linnean Tercentenary Medal, awarded in 2007 in celebration of the three hundredth anniversary of the birth of Linnaeus.
  • John C Marsden Medal, established 2012, for the best doctoral thesis in biology examined during a single academic year.
  • John Spedan Lewis Medal, established 2015, awarded to "an individual who is making a significant and innovative contribution to conservation".
  • Sir David Attenborough Award for Fieldwork, established in 2015.

Collections

[edit]
Main article: Linnaean Herbarium

Linnaeus' botanical and zoological collections were purchased in 1783 by Sir James Edward Smith, the first president of the society, and are now held in London by the society.[24] The collections include 14,000 plants, 158 fish, 1,564 shells, 3,198 insects, 1,600 books and 3,000 letters and documents. They may be viewed by appointment and there is a monthly tour of the collections.[25]

Smith's own plant collection of 27,185 dried specimens, together with his correspondence and book collection, is also held by the society.[26]

Other notable holdings of the society include the notebooks and journals of Alfred Russel Wallace and the paintings of plants and animals made by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton (1762–1829) in Nepal.[27]

In December 2014, the society's specimen, library, and archive collections were granted designated status by the Arts Council England, recognising collections of national and international importance (one of only 152 institutions so recognised as of 2020).[28]

Publications

[edit]

The Linnean Society began its extensive series of publications on 13 August 1791, when Volume I of Transactions of the Linnean Society of London was produced. Over the following centuries the society published a number of different journals, some of which specialised in more specific subject areas, whilst earlier publications were discontinued.[3]: 153–164 

Those still in publication include: the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, which covers the evolutionary biology of all organisms, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, which focuses on plant sciences, and Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society focusing on animal systematics and evolution. In 2022, the society launched the Evolutionary Journal of the Linnean Society, its first fully open access scholarly publication.[29] The Linnean is a biannual newsletter. It contains commentary on recent activities and events, articles on history and science, and occasional biographies/obituaries of people connected to the Linnean Society; it also includes book reviews, reference material and correspondence. The society also publishes books and Synopses of the British Fauna, a series of field-guides.[3]: 153–164 

Previously, an electronic magazine for Fellows, Pulse, was produced quarterly. This ceased publication in 2021.[30]

Presidents

[edit]

Arms

[edit]
Coat of arms of Linnean Society of London
Crest
On a wreath of the colours behind a mount in which vegetates the linnaea-borealis the sun rising in splendour all Proper.
Escutcheon
Per fesse the chief per pale Gules and Vert the base Sable on a fesse Argent a hurt charged with an egg erect Proper.
Supporters
On the dexter side a lion Or gorged with a linnaea-borealis Proper therefrom a shield pendent per pale wavy Argent and Ermine charged with a rose slipped Gules and a thistle fesseways Proper and on the sinister side an eagle rising Proper gorged as the dexter therefrom a shield pendent Argent charged with a trefoil slipped Vert.
Motto
NATURAE DISCERE MORES[31]

Fellows

[edit]

For the fellows of the Linnean Society of London, see: Fellows of the Linnean Society of London

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Annual Review 2023, Linnean Society, p. 10: https://ca1-tls.edcdn.com/AnnualReview_LinneanSociety_2023_Final_Web.pdf
  2. ^ "Royal Patrons and Honorary Fellows". The Linnean Society.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Gage, A.T.; Stearn, W.T. (1988). A Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London. Linnean Society of London.
  4. ^ O'Brian, P. (1987) Joseph Banks, Collins Harvill. p. 240
  5. ^ Timmermann, Anke. 2020. “A Palimpsest of Naturalists: The Manuscripts of the Linnean Society of London.” The Book Collector 69 (2): 237–50.
  6. ^ Harris, Henry (1999). The Birth of the Cell. Yale University Press. pp. 76–81. ISBN 978-0-300-07384-3.
  7. ^ Cohen, I.B. (1985). Revolution in Science. Harvard University Press.
  8. ^ Poulton, E. B. 1884. Notes upon, or suggested by, the colours, markings and protective attitudes of certain lepidopterous larvae and pupae, and of a phytophagous hymenopterous larva. Transactions of the Entomological Society of London 1884: 27–60.
  9. ^ Waterfield, Amanda (2004). "The Listers and the Myxomycete Collections at the Natural History Museum (BM), London". Systematics and Geography of Plants. 74 (2): 289–291. ISSN 1374-7886. JSTOR 3668497.
  10. ^ "The Linnean". 21 (2). 2005: 25. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  11. ^ Gage, A. T. (1938). A history of the Linnean Society of London: Printed for the Linnean Society by Taylor and Francis, p. 90.
  12. ^ "EDITORIAL NOTES.|1903-06-26|The Cambrian News and Merionethshire Standard – Welsh Newspapers". newspapers.library.wales. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  13. ^ "Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London". Internet Archive. Linnean Society of London. Retrieved 16 August 2020.
  14. ^ "New Exhibition: Celebrating the Linnean Society's First Women Fellows". The Linnean Society.
  15. ^ Walker, Margot (January 1984). "Admission of Lady Fellows". The Linnean. 1 (1): 9–11.
  16. ^ Preston, Reginald Dawson (1990). "Irene Manton. 17 April 1904 – 13 May 1988". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 35: 247–261. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1990.0011.
  17. ^ Barry Leadbeater (2004). "Irene Manton: A Biography (1904–1988)". CiteSeerX 10.1.1.693.4850.
  18. ^ "The John Spedan Lewis Medal". The Linnean Society.
  19. ^ "The Homes of the Linnean Society". The Linnean. 4 (2): 23–32. March 1988.
  20. ^ a b c "Charter and Byelaws" (PDF). The Linnean Society. 24 May 2016.
  21. ^ The Charter and Bye-Laws of The Linnean Society of London, 2024 Supplemental Charter, p.9
  22. ^ The Charter and Bye-Laws of The Linnean Society of London, 2024 Supplemental Charter, pp.4, 8
  23. ^ "Recipients of the 2019 Medals, Awards, Prizes and Grants". linnean.org. The Linnean Society. 2019.
  24. ^ White, Paul (1999). "The purchase of knowledge: James Edward Smith and the Linnean collections" (PDF). Endeavour. 23 (3): 126–129. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  25. ^ The Linnean Society of London: Linnean Collections
  26. ^ The Linnean Society of London: Smith Collections
  27. ^ Gage A. T. and Stearn W. T. (1988) A Bicentenary History of the Linnean Society of London, Linnean Society of London, pp. 175–181 (specimen collections) 183–188 (manuscript, illustration and publication collections)
  28. ^ "Four collections of national importance gain Designated Status from Arts Council". Museums + Heritage Advisor. 12 December 2014.
  29. ^ "Our Journals". The Linnean Society. Retrieved 6 July 2022.
  30. ^ "Pulse". The Linnean Society of London.
  31. ^ "Linnean Society of London". Heraldry of the World. Retrieved 11 September 2021.
[edit]

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