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Coordinates: 5°41′32″N 76°39′29″W / 5.69222°N 76.65806°W / 5.69222; -76.65806
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{{Short description|Capital city of Choco Department, Colombia}}
{{Expand language|langcode=es}}


{{Use American English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox settlement
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}{{Infobox settlement
|name = Quibdó
|name = Quibdó
|type = [[Municipalities of Colombia|Municipality]] and town
|type = [[Municipalities of Colombia|Municipality]] and town
Line 19: Line 22:
|subdivision_name1 = [[Pacific Region (Colombia)|Pacific Region]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Pacific Region (Colombia)|Pacific Region]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Departments of Colombia|Department]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Departments of Colombia|Department]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Chocó Department]]
|subdivision_name2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Chocó.svg}} [[Chocó Department]]
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_title = Mayor
|leader_name = Zulia María Mena García ([[Radical Change]])
|leader_name = Rafael Bolaños Pino (2024 - 2027)
|established_title = Founded
|established_title = Founded
|established_date = 1648
|established_date = 1648
|area_magnitude =
|area_magnitude =
|area_total_km2 = 3337.5
|area_total_km2 = 3507
|area_land_km2 =
|area_land_km2 =
|area_water_km2 =
|area_water_km2 =
|area_water_percent = 11394 mm
|area_water_percent = 11394 mm
|area_urban_km2 = 28.71
|population_as_of = 2018 Census<ref>https://www.dane.gov.co/files/varios/informacion-capital-DANE-2019.pdf</ref>
|population_as_of = 2018 census
|population_footnotes =<ref> {{cite web |url=https://www.dane.gov.co/files/varios/informacion-capital-DANE-2019.pdf |title=informacion-capital-DANE-2019.pdf |website=dane.gov.co |access-date=2023-07-04}}</ref>
|population_note =
|population_note =
|population_total = 129237
|population_total = 129237
|population_urban = 113124
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_density_urban_km2 = auto
|coordinates = {{coord|5|41|32|N|76|39|29|W|region:CO_type:city(100000)|display=inline,title}}
|coordinates = {{coord|5|41|32|N|76|39|29|W|region:CO_type:city(100000)|display=inline,title}}
|timezone = Colombia Standard Time
|timezone = Colombia Standard Time
Line 42: Line 49:
}}
}}


'''Quibdó''' ({{IPA-es|kiβˈðo}}) is the capital city of [[Chocó Department]], in Western [[Colombia]], and is located on the [[Atrato River]]. The municipality of Quibdó has an area of 3,337.5&nbsp;km² and a population of 129,237,<ref>{{Cite web
'''Quibdó''' ({{IPA|es|kiβˈðo}}) is the capital city of [[Chocó Department]], in the [[Pacific/Chocó natural region|Pacific Region]] of [[Colombia]], and is located on the [[Atrato River]]. The municipality of Quibdó has an area of {{Convert|3,507|km2}} and a population of 129,237,<ref>{{Cite web
| title = Colombia: Departments, Municipalities, Cities, Localities & Metropolitan Areas - Statistics & Maps on City Population
| title = Colombia: Departments, Municipalities, Cities, Localities & Metropolitan Areas - Statistics & Maps on City Population
| work = citypopulation.de
| work = citypopulation.de
| access-date = 2014-05-22
| access-date = 2014-05-22
| url = http://www.citypopulation.de/Colombia.html
| url = http://www.citypopulation.de/Colombia.html
⚫
}}</ref> predominantly [[African diaspora|Afro Colombian]], including [[Zambo]] Colombians.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-09-11 |title=Incursiones armadas ahogan en la zozobra al Chocó |work=El Tiempo |url=http://www.eltiempo.com/colombia/otraszonas/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-10398947.html |access-date=2014-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006042059/http://www.eltiempo.com/colombia/otraszonas/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-10398947.html |archive-date=2012-10-06}}</ref>
}}</ref> predominately [[Afro Colombian]] and [[Zambo]] Colombians.
⚫
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eltiempo.com/colombia/otraszonas/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-10398947.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-12-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006042059/http://www.eltiempo.com/colombia/otraszonas/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-10398947.html |archivedate=2012-10-06 }}</ref>


==History==
==History==
In prehistoric times the Chocó rainforest and mountains comprised a major barrier dividing the Mesoamerican and Andean civilisations. The high rainfall and the extremely humid climate did not attract the Spanish colonists. The [[Emberá people|Emberá Indians]] ceded much of their territory to the Spanish [[Franciscan]] order in 1648. Subsequent attacks on colonial outposts by hostile tribes discouraged attempts at settlement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vivatravelguides.com/south-america/colombia/the-pacific-coast/the-choco/quibdo/quibdo-overview/history-of-quibdo/|title=V!VA Travel Guides History - The History of Quibdó from V!VA's up-to-date book and ebook|website=www.vivatravelguides.com}}</ref> Six years later, the Spanish began again to colonize the region, eventually establishing some lumber camps and plantations where they used [[Slavery in South American|enslaved Africans]] as workers.
In prehistoric times, the Chocó rainforest and mountains constituted a major barrier dividing the Mesoamerican and Andean civilizations. The high rainfall and the extremely humid climate did not attract the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonists]]. The [[Emberá people]] ceded much of their territory to the Spanish [[Franciscan]] order in 1648. Subsequent attacks on colonial outposts by hostile tribes discouraged attempts at settlement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vivatravelguides.com/south-america/colombia/the-pacific-coast/the-choco/quibdo/quibdo-overview/history-of-quibdo/|title=V!VA Travel Guides History - The History of Quibdó from V!VA's up-to-date book and ebook|website=www.vivatravelguides.com}}</ref> Six years later, the Spanish began again to colonize the region, eventually establishing some [[lumber camp]]s and plantations where they used [[Atlantic slave trade|enslaved Africans]] as workers.


It was not until the nineteenth century when there was interest in finding a shipping route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to avoid traveling via the [[Straits of Magellan]] that the Chocó region again became of significant interest to European colonial powers, as the Atrato River Valley was thought the best possibility for this purpose by the explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]];<ref name ="practicality">Kelley, Frederick M.; Kennish, William; and Serrell, Edward Wellman; ''The Practicability and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, with a History of the Enterprise''; published 1855 By George F. Nisbett</ref> however it was eventually shelved in favour of the [[Panama Canal]]. At the same time research on using the Chocó to connect the Pacific and Atlantic was being carried out, [[gold]] and [[platinum]] were discovered in the Atrato Valley<ref name ="practicality"/> and this ensured Quibdó’s growth and status as the chief town in the region.
It was not until the nineteenth century when there was interest in finding a shipping route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to avoid traveling via the [[Straits of Magellan]] that the Chocó region again became of significant interest to European colonial powers, as the Atrato River Valley was thought the best possibility for this purpose by the explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]];<ref name ="practicality">Kelley, Frederick M.; Kennish, William; and Serrell, Edward Wellman; ''The Practicability and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, with a History of the Enterprise''; published 1855 By George F. Nisbett</ref> however this idea was eventually shelved in favor of the [[Panama Canal]]. At the same time that research on using the Chocó to connect the Pacific and Atlantic was being carried out, [[gold]] and [[platinum]] were discovered in the Atrato Valley<ref name ="practicality"/> and this ensured Quibdó’s growth and status as the chief town in the region.


Another crucial development at this time was the migration of freed black slaves into the Chocó; they were primarily working in shifting cultivation to cope with the extreme [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] from the super-humid climate. They also fished and harvested forest products. <ref>Asher, Kiran; ''Black and Green: Afro-Colombians, Development and Nature in the Pacific Lowlands''; p. 36. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-4483-4}}</ref>
Another crucial development at this time was the migration of freed black slaves into the Chocó; they were primarily working in shifting cultivation to cope with the extreme [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] from the super-humid climate. They also fished and harvested forest products.<ref>Asher, Kiran; ''Black and Green: Afro-Colombians, Development and Nature in the Pacific Lowlands''; p. 36. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-4483-4}}</ref>


The 1853 watercolors by [[Manuel María Paz]] document two [[mestizo]] or European men with an Afro-Colombian street vendor, and depict the dress of Afro-Colombian and European women in the town square.<ref>{{Cite web
The 1853 watercolors by [[Manuel María Paz]] document two [[mestizo]] or European men with an Afro-Colombian street vendor, and depict the dress of Afro-Colombian and European women in the town square.<ref>{{Cite web
| last = Paz
| last = Paz
| first = Manuel María
| first = Manuel María
| authorlink = Manuel María Paz
| author-link = Manuel María Paz
| title = View of a Street in Quibdó, Chocó Province
| title = View of a Street in Quibdó, Chocó Province
| work = World Digital Library
| work = World Digital Library
Line 72: Line 78:
| access-date = 2014-05-22
| access-date = 2014-05-22
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9058
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9058
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


The Afro-Colombian communities established trade with highland cities such as [[Medellín]] via rough mule trails that were used until the 1950s.<ref>Zarsky, Lyuba; ''Human Rights and the Environment: Conflicts and Norms in a Globalizing World''; pp. 177-178. {{ISBN|1-85383-815-2}}</ref> A combination of population growth and declining values for the region’s natural resources gradually resulted in an economic downturn for the region and especially Quibdó.
The Afro-Colombian communities established trade with highland cities such as [[Medellín]] via rough mule trails that were used until the 1950s.<ref>Zarsky, Lyuba; ''Human Rights and the Environment: Conflicts and Norms in a Globalizing World''; pp. 177-178. {{ISBN|1-85383-815-2}}</ref> A combination of population growth and declining values for the region’s natural resources gradually resulted in an economic downturn for the region and especially Quibdó.


==Climate==
==Climate==
Quibdó has an extremely wet and cloudy [[tropical rainforest climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Af'') without noticeable [[season]]s. It has the highest amount of rainfall in South America and of any city of its size or greater. The wettest city of larger size, [[Monrovia]] in [[Liberia]], receives {{convert|3050|mm|in|-1}} less rain annually than Quibdó. The extreme rainfall occurs because the [[Andes]], to the east of the city, block the westerly winds driven by the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]]. Throughout the year, owing to the [[Humboldt Current]] off the West coast of South America, these winds remain centred in the north of the continent at Quibdó’s longitudes. The result is that the extremely unstable, ascending air from the Intertropical Convergence Zone is consistently forced to rise over the Chocó plain; as it cools, enormous quantities of moisture precipitate as rainfall. What is more, due to the exuberant nature and biodiversity in the region, a [[biotic pump]] phenomena causes the Chocó low-level-jet, another important factor in driving atmospheric moisture from the Pacific into the Colombian Andes.<ref>https://usclivar.org/sites/default/files/meetings/2015/presentations/Sierra-J-IASCLIP.pdf</ref>.
Quibdó has an extremely wet and cloudy [[tropical rainforest climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Af'') without noticeable [[season]]s. It has the highest amount of rainfall in South America of any city of its size or greater. A comparable high-rainfall city of larger size, [[Monrovia]] in [[Liberia]], receives {{convert|3050|mm|in|-1}} less rain annually than Quibdó. The extreme rainfall occurs because the [[Andes]], to the east of the city, block the westerly winds driven by the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone]]. Throughout the year, owing to the [[Humboldt Current]] off the West coast of South America, these winds remain centered in the north of the continent at Quibdó’s longitudes. The result is that the extremely unstable, ascending air from the Intertropical Convergence Zone is consistently forced to rise over the Chocó plain; as it cools, enormous quantities of moisture precipitate as rainfall. What is more, due to the exuberant nature and biodiversity in the region, a [[biotic pump]] phenomena causes the Chocó low-level-jet, another important factor in driving atmospheric moisture from the Pacific into the Colombian Andes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sierra |first=Juan P. |last2=Agudelo |first2=Jhoana |last3=Arias |first3=Paola A. |last4=Vieira |first4=Sara C. |title=Sierra-J-IASCLIP.pdf |url=https://usclivar.org/sites/default/files/meetings/2015/presentations/Sierra-J-IASCLIP.pdf |access-date=2023-07-04 |website=usclivar.org}}</ref>


Rain falls almost every day from clouds in intense thunderstorms; the region has a [[wet season]] year round. Some 309 days (84%) of the year are rainy. Sunny periods seldom last more than a few hours after sunrise. Quibdó has only 1,276 hours of sunshine annually, and it ranks as one of the cloudiest cities in the world. Its sunniest month is July, with typically a total of 135 hours of sunshine for the entire month.
Rain falls almost every day from clouds in intense thunderstorms; the region has a [[wet season]] year round. Some 309 days (84%) of the year are rainy. Sunny periods seldom last more than a few hours after sunrise. Quibdó has only 1,276 hours of sunshine annually, and it ranks as one of the cloudiest cities in the world. Its sunniest month is July, with typically a total of 135 hours of sunshine for the entire month.
Line 164: Line 170:
|Nov rain mm = 728.1
|Nov rain mm = 728.1
|Dec rain mm = 588.5
|Dec rain mm = 588.5
|humidity colour = green
|humidity colour =
| precip days colour = green
| precip days colour =
|Jan rain days = 24
|Jan rain days = 24
|Feb rain days = 21
|Feb rain days = 21
Line 206: Line 212:


==Transportation==
==Transportation==
Quibdo is served by [[El Caraño Airport]] with flights by three commercial airlines.
Quibdó is served by [[El Caraño Airport]] with flights by three commercial airlines.


==Notable residents==
==Notable residents==
* [[Vanessa Mendoza]] (b. 1981), politician and first black [[Miss Colombia]]
* [[Jackson Martínez]] (b. 1986), former professional footballer who played as a striker
* [[Jackson Martínez]] (b. 1986), former professional footballer who played as a striker
* [[Elvis Rivas]] (b. 1987), footballer
* [[Wbeymar Angulo]] (b. 1992), professional footballer who plays for the [[Armenia national football team]]
* [[Andrea Tovar]] (b. 1993), Model and [[Miss Colombia 2015|Miss Colombia 2015'''‑'''2016]]
* [[Edwin Mosquera (footballer)|Edwin Mosquera]] (b. 2001), professional footballer who plays for [[Atlanta United]]
* [[Daniel Mosquera]] (b. 1999), professional footballer who plays for [[Hellas Verona FC|Hellas Verona]]

==Gallery ==
{{Gallery
|File:Aeropuerto el caraño.jpg
|El Caraño Airport
|File:Centrum Quibdó.jpg
|Street in Quibdó
|File:CO Quibdó 1109 (199) (17248118081).jpg
|Cathedral of St. Francis of Assisi
|File:Quibdo - The other side (52427032053).jpg
|Slit houses in Quibdó
|File:Iglesia de la Santa Cruz de Quibdó, 2015.jpg
|Santa Cruz church|File:CO Quibdó 1109 (210) (16628464253).jpg| }}


==See also==
==See also==
Line 218: Line 243:


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


==External Links==
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Commonscat}}


{{Municipalities choco department}}
{{Municipalities choco department}}
{{Mining in Colombia}}
{{Mining in Colombia}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Quibdo}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Quibdo}}

Latest revision as of 00:27, 9 December 2024

Quibdó
Municipality and town
Aerial views
Aerial views
Flag of Quibdó
Flag
Official seal of Quibdó
Seal
Location of Quibdó
Coordinates: 5°41′32″N 76°39′29″W / 5.69222°N 76.65806°W / 5.69222; -76.65806
Country Colombia
RegionPacific Region
Department Chocó Department
Founded1648
Government
 • MayorRafael Bolaños Pino (2024 - 2027)
Area
 • Municipality and town
3,507 km2 (1,354 sq mi)
 • Urban
28.71 km2 (11.08 sq mi)
Elevation
43 m (141 ft)
Population
 (2018 census)[1]
 • Municipality and town
129,237
 • Density37/km2 (95/sq mi)
 • Urban
113,124
 • Urban density3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)
Time zoneUTC-05 (Colombia Standard Time)
Area code57 + 4
WebsiteOfficial website (in Spanish)

Quibdó (Spanish pronunciation: [kiβˈðo]) is the capital city of Chocó Department, in the Pacific Region of Colombia, and is located on the Atrato River. The municipality of Quibdó has an area of 3,507 square kilometres (1,354 sq mi) and a population of 129,237,[2] predominantly Afro Colombian, including Zambo Colombians.[3]

History

[edit]

In prehistoric times, the Chocó rainforest and mountains constituted a major barrier dividing the Mesoamerican and Andean civilizations. The high rainfall and the extremely humid climate did not attract the Spanish colonists. The Emberá people ceded much of their territory to the Spanish Franciscan order in 1648. Subsequent attacks on colonial outposts by hostile tribes discouraged attempts at settlement.[4] Six years later, the Spanish began again to colonize the region, eventually establishing some lumber camps and plantations where they used enslaved Africans as workers.

It was not until the nineteenth century when there was interest in finding a shipping route between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans to avoid traveling via the Straits of Magellan that the Chocó region again became of significant interest to European colonial powers, as the Atrato River Valley was thought the best possibility for this purpose by the explorer Alexander von Humboldt;[5] however this idea was eventually shelved in favor of the Panama Canal. At the same time that research on using the Chocó to connect the Pacific and Atlantic was being carried out, gold and platinum were discovered in the Atrato Valley[5] and this ensured Quibdó’s growth and status as the chief town in the region.

Another crucial development at this time was the migration of freed black slaves into the Chocó; they were primarily working in shifting cultivation to cope with the extreme leaching from the super-humid climate. They also fished and harvested forest products.[6]

The 1853 watercolors by Manuel María Paz document two mestizo or European men with an Afro-Colombian street vendor, and depict the dress of Afro-Colombian and European women in the town square.[7][8]

The Afro-Colombian communities established trade with highland cities such as Medellín via rough mule trails that were used until the 1950s.[9] A combination of population growth and declining values for the region’s natural resources gradually resulted in an economic downturn for the region and especially Quibdó.

Climate

[edit]

Quibdó has an extremely wet and cloudy tropical rainforest climate (Köppen Af) without noticeable seasons. It has the highest amount of rainfall in South America of any city of its size or greater. A comparable high-rainfall city of larger size, Monrovia in Liberia, receives 3,050 millimetres (120 in) less rain annually than Quibdó. The extreme rainfall occurs because the Andes, to the east of the city, block the westerly winds driven by the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Throughout the year, owing to the Humboldt Current off the West coast of South America, these winds remain centered in the north of the continent at Quibdó’s longitudes. The result is that the extremely unstable, ascending air from the Intertropical Convergence Zone is consistently forced to rise over the Chocó plain; as it cools, enormous quantities of moisture precipitate as rainfall. What is more, due to the exuberant nature and biodiversity in the region, a biotic pump phenomena causes the Chocó low-level-jet, another important factor in driving atmospheric moisture from the Pacific into the Colombian Andes.[10]

Rain falls almost every day from clouds in intense thunderstorms; the region has a wet season year round. Some 309 days (84%) of the year are rainy. Sunny periods seldom last more than a few hours after sunrise. Quibdó has only 1,276 hours of sunshine annually, and it ranks as one of the cloudiest cities in the world. Its sunniest month is July, with typically a total of 135 hours of sunshine for the entire month.

Climate data for Quibdó (Aeropuerto El Caraño)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 36.6
(97.9) 		35.0
(95.0) 		35.4
(95.7) 		37.0
(98.6) 		35.0
(95.0) 		38.0
(100.4) 		36.8
(98.2) 		35.4
(95.7) 		35.0
(95.0) 		34.8
(94.6) 		35.4
(95.7) 		35.6
(96.1) 		38.0
(100.4)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 30.1
(86.2) 		30.2
(86.4) 		30.4
(86.7) 		30.8
(87.4) 		31.0
(87.8) 		31.2
(88.2) 		31.1
(88.0) 		31.0
(87.8) 		30.7
(87.3) 		30.4
(86.7) 		30.2
(86.4) 		29.6
(85.3) 		30.6
(87.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 26.2
(79.2) 		26.4
(79.5) 		26.6
(79.9) 		26.6
(79.9) 		26.7
(80.1) 		26.6
(79.9) 		26.6
(79.9) 		26.4
(79.5) 		26.2
(79.2) 		26.0
(78.8) 		26.0
(78.8) 		26.0
(78.8) 		26.4
(79.5)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 23.0
(73.4) 		23.1
(73.6) 		23.2
(73.8) 		23.4
(74.1) 		23.2
(73.8) 		23.0
(73.4) 		22.8
(73.0) 		22.9
(73.2) 		22.8
(73.0) 		22.7
(72.9) 		22.8
(73.0) 		23.0
(73.4) 		23.0
(73.4)
Record low °C (°F) 19.0
(66.2) 		21.0
(69.8) 		20.8
(69.4) 		20.0
(68.0) 		20.0
(68.0) 		19.0
(66.2) 		19.8
(67.6) 		19.6
(67.3) 		20.0
(68.0) 		18.0
(64.4) 		20.0
(68.0) 		20.0
(68.0) 		18.0
(64.4)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 579.3
(22.81) 		505.4
(19.90) 		526.1
(20.71) 		654.6
(25.77) 		776.2
(30.56) 		761.6
(29.98) 		802.6
(31.60) 		851.7
(33.53) 		702.4
(27.65) 		654.0
(25.75) 		728.1
(28.67) 		588.5
(23.17) 		8,130.5
(320.1)
Average rainy days 24 21 22 25 27 26 26 27 27 27 26 26 304
Average relative humidity (%) 88 86 86 88 87 87 86 87 87 88 88 89 87
Mean monthly sunshine hours 90.5 83.4 85.6 92.9 112.5 114 135.1 132.7 112.7 116.7 112.2 88.1 1,276.4
Source: INSTITUTO DE HIDROLOGIA METEOROLOGIA Y ESTUDIOS AMBIENTALES[11]

Transportation

[edit]

Quibdó is served by El Caraño Airport with flights by three commercial airlines.

Notable residents

[edit]
[edit]
  • El Caraño Airport
    El Caraño Airport
  • Street in Quibdó
    Street in Quibdó
  • Cathedral of St. Francis of Assisi
    Cathedral of St. Francis of Assisi
  • Slit houses in Quibdó
    Slit houses in Quibdó
  • Santa Cruz church
    Santa Cruz church

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "informacion-capital-DANE-2019.pdf" (PDF). dane.gov.co. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
  2. ^ "Colombia: Departments, Municipalities, Cities, Localities & Metropolitan Areas - Statistics & Maps on City Population". citypopulation.de. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  3. ^ "Incursiones armadas ahogan en la zozobra al Chocó". El Tiempo. 11 September 2011. Archived from the original on 6 October 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
  4. ^ "V!VA Travel Guides History - The History of Quibdó from V!VA's up-to-date book and ebook". www.vivatravelguides.com.
  5. ^ a b Kelley, Frederick M.; Kennish, William; and Serrell, Edward Wellman; The Practicability and Importance of a Ship Canal to Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, with a History of the Enterprise; published 1855 By George F. Nisbett
  6. ^ Asher, Kiran; Black and Green: Afro-Colombians, Development and Nature in the Pacific Lowlands; p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8223-4483-4
  7. ^ Paz, Manuel María. "View of a Street in Quibdó, Chocó Province". World Digital Library. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  8. ^ Paz, Manuel María. "The Square of Quibdó, Chocó". World Digital Library. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
  9. ^ Zarsky, Lyuba; Human Rights and the Environment: Conflicts and Norms in a Globalizing World; pp. 177-178. ISBN 1-85383-815-2
  10. ^ Sierra, Juan P.; Agudelo, Jhoana; Arias, Paola A.; Vieira, Sara C. "Sierra-J-IASCLIP.pdf" (PDF). usclivar.org. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
  11. ^ "QUIBDÓ". bart.ideam.gov.co.
[edit]
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