Phialophora gregata: Difference between revisions
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{{short description|Species of fungus}} |
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{{Taxobox |
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{{Speciesbox |
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| regnum = [[Fungi]] |
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| divisio = [[Ascomycota]] |
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| classis = [[Eurotiomycetes]] |
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| subclassis = [[Chaetothyriomycetidae]] |
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| ordo = [[Chaetothyriales]] |
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| familia = [[Herpotrichiellaceae]] |
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| genus = ''[[Phialophora]]'' |
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| species = '''''P. gregata''''' |
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| synonyms = |
| synonyms = |
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''Cadophora gregata'' <br> |
''Cadophora gregata'' <br> |
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'''''Phialophora gregata''''' is a [[deuteromycetes|Deuteromycete]]<ref>Weidong, Chen, Lynn E. Gray, James Kurle, and Craig Grau. "Specific Detection of Phialophora Gregata and Plectosporium Tabacinum in Infected Soybean Plants Using Polymerase Chain Reaction." Molecular Ecology 8.5 (1999): 871-77. Web.</ref> fungus that is a [[plant pathogen]] which causes the disease commonly known as |
'''''Phialophora gregata''''' is a [[deuteromycetes|Deuteromycete]]<ref>Weidong, Chen, Lynn E. Gray, James Kurle, and Craig Grau. "Specific Detection of Phialophora Gregata and Plectosporium Tabacinum in Infected Soybean Plants Using Polymerase Chain Reaction." Molecular Ecology 8.5 (1999): 871-77. Web.</ref> fungus that is a [[plant pathogen]] which causes the disease commonly known as '''brown stem rot of soybean'''. ''P. gregata'' does not produce survival structures, but has the ability to overwinter as mycelium in decaying [[soybean]] residue.<ref name="Grau" /> |
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Two strains of the fungus exist;<ref name="Grau">Grau, C. "Brown Stemrot of Soybeans." <http://fyi.uwex.edu/fieldcroppathology/files/2010/11/bsr_063.pdf></ref> genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms.<ref name="Grau" /> Common leaf symptoms are browning, [[chlorosis]], and necrosis<ref name="Grau" /> Foliar symptoms which are often seen with genotype A are chlorosis, defoliation, and wilting.<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> |
Two strains of the fungus exist;<ref name="Grau">Grau, C. "Brown Stemrot of Soybeans." <http://fyi.uwex.edu/fieldcroppathology/files/2010/11/bsr_063.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722201953/http://fyi.uwex.edu/fieldcroppathology/files/2010/11/bsr_063.pdf |date=2011-07-22 }}></ref> genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms.<ref name="Grau" /> Common leaf symptoms are browning, [[chlorosis]], and necrosis<ref name="Grau" /> Foliar symptoms which are often seen with genotype A are chlorosis, defoliation, and wilting.<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> |
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Brown Stem Rot of soybeans is a common fungal disease in soybeans grown in the upper Midwest and Canada. Brown Stem Rot (BSR) may commonly reduce yield of soybeans by 10-30% on susceptible varieties,<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://fyi.extension.wisc.edu/fieldcroppathology/files/2013/04/Brown-Stem-Rot-of-Soybean.pdf|title=Brown Stem Rot in Wisconsin|last=Smith, Damon|first=Groves, C.|date=April 2013|website=University of Wisconsin Extension|access-date=2019-12-10|archive-date=2019-12-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210225843/https://fyi.extension.wisc.edu/fieldcroppathology/files/2013/04/Brown-Stem-Rot-of-Soybean.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> up to 10 bu./acre in severe cases. BSR decreases both the number of beans per pod as well as bean size as a result of wilting, premature defoliation and lodging.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://soybeanresearchinfo.com/soybean-disease/brown-stem-rot/|title=Brown Stem Rot - Soybean Disease|website=Soybean Research & Information Network|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> In addition to decreasing yield, plants infected by BSR can be difficult to harvest due to lodging of soybean plants. University of Wisconsin Extension Field Crop Pathologist, Damon Smith ranks Brown Stem Rot as the third most important soybean disease in Wisconsin.<ref name=":0" /> Brown Stem Rot can impact most susceptible soybean beans in the north central states, especially during cooler late summer months.<ref name=":1" /> |
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| ⚫ | There are many ways to manage Phialophora gregata. The most effective form of management is disease resistance,<ref name="Grau" /> but crop rotation, |
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| ⚫ | There are many ways to manage Phialophora gregata. The most effective form of management is disease resistance,<ref name="Grau" /> but crop rotation, tillage, SCN management, and changing the pH of the soil can also be effective <ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Robertson 2012">Robertson, A.E. and Nutter, F.W. Iowa Soybean Disease Survey. www.soybeandiseasesurvey.info</ref> |
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''Phialophora gregata’''s infection of a soybean plant is accompanied by browning of the plant’s vascular and pith tissues.<ref name="Grau"/> The plant often exhibits chlorosis and necrosis, as well as leaf browning.<ref name="Grau" /> Wilting and defoliation are also known to occur.<ref name="Grau"/> |
''Phialophora gregata’''s infection of a soybean plant is accompanied by browning of the plant’s vascular and pith tissues.<ref name="Grau"/> The plant often exhibits chlorosis and necrosis, as well as leaf browning.<ref name="Grau" /> Wilting and defoliation are also known to occur.<ref name="Grau"/> |
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Signs of infection often go unnoticed until reproductive stages of a plant’s life cycle. They can be diagnosed earlier on by opening the stem and visualizing the pathogen. One can visualize signs by cutting open the stem in early stages of infection,<ref name="Grau" /> but symptoms do not become apparent until after the soybean pod formation.<ref name="Monsanto">Monsanto. "Brown Stem Rot and Sudden Death Syndrome in Soybean." Lewis Hybrids. Lewis Hybrids, 2010. Web. <http://www.lewishybrids.com/files/File/Agronomic%20Spotlight%20-%20Brown_Stem_Rot_Sudden_Death_Soy.pdf?PHPSESSID=0c6bc72c5c097a7e80e53605fd2effce{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}></ref> |
Signs of infection often go unnoticed until reproductive stages of a plant’s life cycle. They can be diagnosed earlier on by opening the stem and visualizing the pathogen. One can visualize signs by cutting open the stem in early stages of infection,<ref name="Grau" /> but symptoms do not become apparent until after the soybean pod formation.<ref name="Monsanto">Monsanto. "Brown Stem Rot and Sudden Death Syndrome in Soybean." Lewis Hybrids. Lewis Hybrids, 2010. Web. <http://www.lewishybrids.com/files/File/Agronomic%20Spotlight%20-%20Brown_Stem_Rot_Sudden_Death_Soy.pdf?PHPSESSID=0c6bc72c5c097a7e80e53605fd2effce{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}></ref> |
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Depending on which strain infects the plant, and what the environmental conditions are,<ref>Westphal, Andreas, Scott Abney, and Gregory Shaner. "Diseases of Soybean: Brown Stem Rot." Purdue University Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and USDA-ARS, May 2006. Web.</ref> the effect is more or less potent. Genotype A causes browning of stems as well as foliar symptoms such as interveinal chlorosis, defoliation and wilting.<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Robertson & Tabor"> |
Depending on which strain infects the plant, and what the environmental conditions are,<ref name=":2">Westphal, Andreas, Scott Abney, and Gregory Shaner. "Diseases of Soybean: Brown Stem Rot." Purdue University Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and USDA-ARS, May 2006. Web.</ref> the effect is more or less potent. Genotype A causes browning of stems as well as foliar symptoms such as interveinal chlorosis, defoliation and wilting.<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Robertson & Tabor">Robertson, A. & Tabor, G. “Soybean Brown Stem Rot.” Iowa State University. <http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PMR1004.pdf.>2012{{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Symptomatic leaves have a shriveled appearance, but remain attached to the stem.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> Genotype B causes only browning of stems.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> |
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Robertson, A. & Tabor, G. “Soybean Brown Stem Rot.” Iowa State University. <http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PMR1004.pdf.>2012.</ref> Symptomatic leaves have a shriveled appearance, but remain attached to the stem.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> Genotype B causes only browning of stems.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> |
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Secondary symptoms of brown stem rot are stunting, premature death, decrease in seed number, reduced pod set, and decrease in seed size.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> |
Secondary symptoms of brown stem rot are stunting, premature death, decrease in seed number, reduced pod set, and decrease in seed size.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> |
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==Environment== |
==Environment== |
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The fungal pathogen, ''Phialophora gregata'', that causes Brown Stem Rot (BSR) of soybeans prefers conditions that are also optimal to soybean plant growth. Later planted soybeans are more susceptible to BSR as cooler temperatures during early pod forming stages make the plant most vulnerable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://cropwatch.unl.edu/plantdisease/soybean/brown-stem-rot.|title=Brown Stem Rot|last=Giesler|first=L. J.|date=2019-07-22|website=University of Nebraska - Lincoln Cropwatch|access-date=2019-12-10}}{{Dead link|date=December 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Early season wet conditions can also favor early season pathogen growth, often causing more dramatic affects later in season.<ref name=":2" /> Foliar symptoms of BSR are favored when conditions are cool during flowering and pod formation.<ref name=":3" /> The ''Phialophora gregata'' pathogen proliferates in stem tissues when soil has high moisture content and air temperatures remain near 60-75 degrees Fahrenheit.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> Fungal growth of ''Phialophora gregata'' shuts down above 80 degrees Fahrenheit.<ref name=":2" /> Low water available to the plant, late in season can also dramatically increase disease severity.<ref name=":3" /> As the disease is soilborne, it is not uncommon to find clusters of diseased plants together.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> Additionally, the prevalence of Soybean Cyst Nematodes (SCN) can affect the growth of ''Phialophora gregata'', the BSR pathogen. Greater populations of SCN, can greatly increase the likelihood and impact of Brown Stem Rot.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.plantpath.iastate.edu/scn/research_SCN_BSR|title=Studies of the interactions of SCN with brown stem rot of soybean {{!}} Soybean Cyst Nematode - www.soybeancyst.info|website=www.plantpath.iastate.edu|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> |
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As the disease is soilborne, it is not uncommon to find clusters of diseased plants together.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> The pathogen proliferates in stem tissues when soil has high moisture content and air temperatures from 70-80 degrees Fahrenheit.<ref name = "Robertson & Tabor" /> Rainy seasons promote brown stem rot.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> When soil is untilled, the disease is more likely to persist in soil.<ref name="Robertson & Tabor" /> The incidence of brown stem rot is highest at soil pH ~6.3.<ref name ="Pedersen 2006">Pedersen, Palle. “Brown Stem Rot.” <http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/soybean/diseases_bsr.html> 2006.</ref> |
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==Disease |
==Disease cycle== |
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The ''Phialophora gregata'' fungus is a deuteromycete with a monocyclic life cycle. There are two strains of Phialophora gregata, referred to as genotype A and genotype B.<ref name="Robertson 2012"/> Genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms.<ref name="Grau" /> |
The ''Phialophora gregata'' fungus is a deuteromycete with a monocyclic life cycle. There are two strains of Phialophora gregata, referred to as genotype A and genotype B.<ref name="Robertson 2012"/> Genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms.<ref name="Grau" /> |
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The ''Phialophora gregata'' fungus produces no survival structures, but can overwinter as mycelium <ref name="Pedersen 2006" /> in decaying soybean residue. During overwintering, conidia are produced; these conidia are the inoculum for new plants in the spring.<ref name="Pedersen 2006" /> The amount of asexual reproduction that occurs during the winter affects the spring inoculum levels.<ref name="Pedersen 2006" /> Infection initially occurs in the roots of young soybean plants, and then spreads to the stem (and foliage, depending on the strain).<ref name="Grau" /> Generally, early and severe foliar symptoms indicate that the yield losses will be heavier.<ref name="Robertson 2012" /> |
The ''Phialophora gregata'' fungus produces no survival structures, but can overwinter as mycelium <ref name="Pedersen 2006">Pedersen, Palle. “Brown Stem Rot.” <http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/soybean/diseases_bsr.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119051423/http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/soybean/diseases_bsr.html |date=2011-11-19 }}> 2006.</ref> in decaying soybean residue. During overwintering, conidia are produced; these conidia are the inoculum for new plants in the spring.<ref name="Pedersen 2006" /> The amount of asexual reproduction that occurs during the winter affects the spring inoculum levels.<ref name="Pedersen 2006" /> Infection initially occurs in the roots of young soybean plants, and then spreads to the stem (and foliage, depending on the strain).<ref name="Grau" /> Generally, early and severe foliar symptoms indicate that the yield losses will be heavier.<ref name="Robertson 2012" /> |
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==Economic |
==Economic significance== |
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Brown Stem Rot of soybeans is a source of major crop loss. It is not uncommon for soybeans grown in management systems prone for brown stem rot to have yield losses between 10%, with a maximum potential loss of 30%.<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Grau et al" /> It has been listed as the 3rd most important disease to soybeans in [[Wisconsin]].<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Grau et al" /> A recent study showed that nearly half the counties in Iowa, from 2006 and 2007, had brown stem rot of soybean.<ref name="Robertson 2012" /> |
Brown Stem Rot of soybeans is a source of major crop loss. It is not uncommon for soybeans grown in management systems prone for brown stem rot to have yield losses between 10%, with a maximum potential loss of 30%.<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Grau et al">Grau, Craig, and Nancy C. Kurtzweil. "Brown Stem Rot: Management and Variety Options." The Yields II Project: Research-Based Management Information. Soybean Research and Development Council, Oct. 2003. Web.</ref> It has been listed as the 3rd most important disease to soybeans in [[Wisconsin]].<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Grau et al" /> A recent study showed that nearly half the counties in Iowa, from 2006 and 2007, had brown stem rot of soybean.<ref name="Robertson 2012" /> |
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==Management== |
==Management== |
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Brown Stem Rot can be easily managed using several techniques employed by the grower. Common techniques include crop rotation, tillage, selection and Soybean Cyst Nematode management. There are currently no available seed treatments or fungicides to prevent or protect against BSR. |
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Brown stem rot has the uncanny ability to produce yield loss even without obvious symptoms.<ref name="Grau et al">Grau, Craig, and Nancy C. Kurtzweil. "Brown Stem Rot: Management and Variety Options." The Yields II Project: Research-Based Management Information. Soybean Research and Development Counci, Oct. 2003. Web.</ref> Due to this and its economic significance, management of brown stem rot has focused on the area of prevention. The resistant forms soybean are currently effective against all strains of brown stem rot,<ref name="Grau" /> and thus this is a very effective method of management. Commercial soy plant resistance varieties of brown stem rot have been successful in the field. Fungicides are not available.<ref name="Grau" /><ref name="Grau et al" /> |
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The easiest and most effective way to protect against Brown Stem Rot in soybeans is crop rotation. ''Phialophora gregata'' has no overwintering structures but instead lives in plant debris. Due to this, waiting until plant debris has decomposed (at least one full growing season) is the most effective way to control this disease<ref name=":1" />'''.''' In cases of severe infection 2–3 years without planting soybeans in infected fields may be necessary.<ref name=":3" /> |
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Crop rotation is used to lower the ''P. gregata'' inoculum level in the soil; soybean is the only known Wisconsin host of ''P. gregata'',<ref name="Grau" /> so 2-3 years of a different crop can rid a field of the pathogen. |
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Given the presence of ''Phialophora gregata'' on much of the nation’s soybean acres, research and development have gone into selecting soybean varieties that have greater resistance to BSR, although not immunity. Brown stem rot has the uncanny ability to produce yield loss even without obvious symptoms.<ref name="Grau et al" /> Higher rated BSR tolerance in beans can be selected for when choosing a variety to be grown. Genetic Resistance should not be relied upon when expected BSR pressure is high.<ref name=":3" /> Additionally, choosing varieties higher rated for tolerance against soybean Cyst nematode can be effective.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://ipcm.wisc.edu/blog/2015/07/mid-season-soybean-issues-in-wisconsin/|title=Mid-Season Soybean Issues in Wisconsin|date=2015-07-29|website=Integrated Pest and Crop Management|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref> |
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===Tillage=== |
===Tillage=== |
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More decomposition of soybean residue results in less pathogen, as the fungus can only survive on soybean residue. Therefore, tillage can be effective. Once the soybean residue has decomposed, the survival of ''P. gregata'' is drastically decreased. It is common for farmers to practice both crop rotations and tillage in a cyclic fashion.<ref name="Dorrance">Dorrance, Anne E., and Dennis R. Mills. "Brown Stem Rot of Soybean." Ohio State University, 2008. Web. <{{cite web |url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/ac-fact/pdf/0035.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-12-05 | |
More decomposition of soybean residue results in less pathogen, as the fungus can only survive on soybean residue.<ref name=":3" /> Therefore, tillage can be effective. Once the soybean residue has decomposed, the survival of ''P. gregata'' is drastically decreased. It is common for farmers to practice both crop rotations and tillage in a cyclic fashion.<ref name="Dorrance">Dorrance, Anne E., and Dennis R. Mills. "Brown Stem Rot of Soybean." Ohio State University, 2008. Web. <{{cite web |url=http://ohioline.osu.edu/ac-fact/pdf/0035.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-12-05 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113041925/http://ohioline.osu.edu/ac-fact/pdf/0035.pdf |archivedate=2011-01-13 }}>. |
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</ref> This is done by conducting little to no tillage when a soybean crop is planted after corn, followed by intensive tillage when a corn crop is planted after soybean.<ref name="Dorrance" /> |
</ref> This is done by conducting little to no tillage when a soybean crop is planted after corn, followed by intensive tillage when a corn crop is planted after soybean.<ref name="Dorrance" /> |
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===Management of |
===Management of soybean cyst nematode (''Heterodera glycines'') === |
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''P. gregata'' is often found to be more severe in the presence of SCN;<ref name="Grau" /> soybean plants showing resistance to SCN have been found to produce greater yields.<ref name="Grau" /> Soybean plants with resistance to both SCN and genotype A of ''P. gregata'' can grow normally, even when both pathogens are present.<ref name="Robertson 2012" /> |
''P. gregata'' is often found to be more severe in the presence of SCN;<ref name="Grau" /> soybean plants showing resistance to SCN have been found to produce greater yields.<ref name="Grau" /> Soybean plants with resistance to both SCN and genotype A of ''P. gregata'' can grow normally, even when both pathogens are present.<ref name="Robertson 2012" /> Given the correlation between SCN populations and disease impact of BSR it is important to control SCN. SCN can be controlled using rotation to non-susceptible crops, seed treatments, variety selection and nematicides.<ref name=":4" /> |
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=== Monitoring soil pH === |
=== Monitoring soil pH === |
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Maintaining a soil pH near 6.5-7.5 can also help protect against BSR. There is evidence of significantly lower disease severity<ref name="Grau" /> with a near neutral soil pH, although there is no evidence to suggest a neutral pH prevents BSR.<ref name=":5" /> |
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Soil pH has been shown to have an effect on brown stem rot. Maintaining a soil pH of 7.0 reduces the risk of disease the greatest.<ref name="Grau" /> |
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[[Category:Eurotiomycetes]] |
[[Category:Eurotiomycetes]] |
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[[Category:Fungi described in 1971]] |
[[Category:Fungi described in 1971]] |
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[[Category:Fungus species]] |
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Latest revision as of 00:45, 9 December 2024
| Phialophora gregata | |
|---|---|
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Fungi |
| Division: | Ascomycota |
| Class: | Eurotiomycetes |
| Order: | Chaetothyriales |
| Family: | Herpotrichiellaceae |
| Genus: | Phialophora |
| Species: | P. gregata
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| Binomial name | |
| Phialophora gregata (Allington & D.W. Chamb.) W. Gams, (1971)
| |
| Synonyms | |
|
Cadophora gregata | |
Phialophora gregata is a Deuteromycete[1] fungus that is a plant pathogen which causes the disease commonly known as brown stem rot of soybean. P. gregata does not produce survival structures, but has the ability to overwinter as mycelium in decaying soybean residue.[2]
Two strains of the fungus exist;[2] genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms.[2] Common leaf symptoms are browning, chlorosis, and necrosis[2] Foliar symptoms which are often seen with genotype A are chlorosis, defoliation, and wilting.[2][3]
Brown Stem Rot of soybeans is a common fungal disease in soybeans grown in the upper Midwest and Canada. Brown Stem Rot (BSR) may commonly reduce yield of soybeans by 10-30% on susceptible varieties,[4] up to 10 bu./acre in severe cases. BSR decreases both the number of beans per pod as well as bean size as a result of wilting, premature defoliation and lodging.[5] In addition to decreasing yield, plants infected by BSR can be difficult to harvest due to lodging of soybean plants. University of Wisconsin Extension Field Crop Pathologist, Damon Smith ranks Brown Stem Rot as the third most important soybean disease in Wisconsin.[4] Brown Stem Rot can impact most susceptible soybean beans in the north central states, especially during cooler late summer months.[5]
There are many ways to manage Phialophora gregata. The most effective form of management is disease resistance,[2] but crop rotation, tillage, SCN management, and changing the pH of the soil can also be effective [2][6]
Symptoms and signs
[edit]Phialophora gregata’s infection of a soybean plant is accompanied by browning of the plant’s vascular and pith tissues.[2] The plant often exhibits chlorosis and necrosis, as well as leaf browning.[2] Wilting and defoliation are also known to occur.[2] Signs of infection often go unnoticed until reproductive stages of a plant’s life cycle. They can be diagnosed earlier on by opening the stem and visualizing the pathogen. One can visualize signs by cutting open the stem in early stages of infection,[2] but symptoms do not become apparent until after the soybean pod formation.[7]
Depending on which strain infects the plant, and what the environmental conditions are,[8] the effect is more or less potent. Genotype A causes browning of stems as well as foliar symptoms such as interveinal chlorosis, defoliation and wilting.[2][3] Symptomatic leaves have a shriveled appearance, but remain attached to the stem.[3] Genotype B causes only browning of stems.[3]
Secondary symptoms of brown stem rot are stunting, premature death, decrease in seed number, reduced pod set, and decrease in seed size.[3]
Disease from P. gregata is easily confused with Fusarium wilt, due to the similar vascular symptoms observed in both.[9] The diseases could be differentiated through growth on isolation media.[9] The two diseases can be further distinguished by splitting the stems. A split stem with Fusarium infection would have tan or light brown discoloration in the cortex and a normal white pith, while a split stem with P. gregata would have a discolored, reddish brown pith.[7] Root rot and blue masses of spores are symptoms only caused by Fusarium.[7]
Environment
[edit]The fungal pathogen, Phialophora gregata, that causes Brown Stem Rot (BSR) of soybeans prefers conditions that are also optimal to soybean plant growth. Later planted soybeans are more susceptible to BSR as cooler temperatures during early pod forming stages make the plant most vulnerable.[10] Early season wet conditions can also favor early season pathogen growth, often causing more dramatic affects later in season.[8] Foliar symptoms of BSR are favored when conditions are cool during flowering and pod formation.[10] The Phialophora gregata pathogen proliferates in stem tissues when soil has high moisture content and air temperatures remain near 60-75 degrees Fahrenheit.[3] Fungal growth of Phialophora gregata shuts down above 80 degrees Fahrenheit.[8] Low water available to the plant, late in season can also dramatically increase disease severity.[10] As the disease is soilborne, it is not uncommon to find clusters of diseased plants together.[3] Additionally, the prevalence of Soybean Cyst Nematodes (SCN) can affect the growth of Phialophora gregata, the BSR pathogen. Greater populations of SCN, can greatly increase the likelihood and impact of Brown Stem Rot.[11]
Disease cycle
[edit]The Phialophora gregata fungus is a deuteromycete with a monocyclic life cycle. There are two strains of Phialophora gregata, referred to as genotype A and genotype B.[6] Genotype A causes both foliar and stem symptoms, while genotype B causes only stem symptoms.[2]
The Phialophora gregata fungus produces no survival structures, but can overwinter as mycelium [12] in decaying soybean residue. During overwintering, conidia are produced; these conidia are the inoculum for new plants in the spring.[12] The amount of asexual reproduction that occurs during the winter affects the spring inoculum levels.[12] Infection initially occurs in the roots of young soybean plants, and then spreads to the stem (and foliage, depending on the strain).[2] Generally, early and severe foliar symptoms indicate that the yield losses will be heavier.[6]
Economic significance
[edit]Brown Stem Rot of soybeans is a source of major crop loss. It is not uncommon for soybeans grown in management systems prone for brown stem rot to have yield losses between 10%, with a maximum potential loss of 30%.[2][13] It has been listed as the 3rd most important disease to soybeans in Wisconsin.[2][13] A recent study showed that nearly half the counties in Iowa, from 2006 and 2007, had brown stem rot of soybean.[6]
Management
[edit]Brown Stem Rot can be easily managed using several techniques employed by the grower. Common techniques include crop rotation, tillage, selection and Soybean Cyst Nematode management. There are currently no available seed treatments or fungicides to prevent or protect against BSR.
Crop rotation
The easiest and most effective way to protect against Brown Stem Rot in soybeans is crop rotation. Phialophora gregata has no overwintering structures but instead lives in plant debris. Due to this, waiting until plant debris has decomposed (at least one full growing season) is the most effective way to control this disease[5]. In cases of severe infection 2–3 years without planting soybeans in infected fields may be necessary.[10]
Disease resistance
[edit]Given the presence of Phialophora gregata on much of the nation’s soybean acres, research and development have gone into selecting soybean varieties that have greater resistance to BSR, although not immunity. Brown stem rot has the uncanny ability to produce yield loss even without obvious symptoms.[13] Higher rated BSR tolerance in beans can be selected for when choosing a variety to be grown. Genetic Resistance should not be relied upon when expected BSR pressure is high.[10] Additionally, choosing varieties higher rated for tolerance against soybean Cyst nematode can be effective.[14]
Tillage
[edit]More decomposition of soybean residue results in less pathogen, as the fungus can only survive on soybean residue.[10] Therefore, tillage can be effective. Once the soybean residue has decomposed, the survival of P. gregata is drastically decreased. It is common for farmers to practice both crop rotations and tillage in a cyclic fashion.[15] This is done by conducting little to no tillage when a soybean crop is planted after corn, followed by intensive tillage when a corn crop is planted after soybean.[15]
Management of soybean cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines)
[edit]P. gregata is often found to be more severe in the presence of SCN;[2] soybean plants showing resistance to SCN have been found to produce greater yields.[2] Soybean plants with resistance to both SCN and genotype A of P. gregata can grow normally, even when both pathogens are present.[6] Given the correlation between SCN populations and disease impact of BSR it is important to control SCN. SCN can be controlled using rotation to non-susceptible crops, seed treatments, variety selection and nematicides.[11]
Monitoring soil pH
[edit]Maintaining a soil pH near 6.5-7.5 can also help protect against BSR. There is evidence of significantly lower disease severity[2] with a near neutral soil pH, although there is no evidence to suggest a neutral pH prevents BSR.[14]
References
[edit]- ^ Weidong, Chen, Lynn E. Gray, James Kurle, and Craig Grau. "Specific Detection of Phialophora Gregata and Plectosporium Tabacinum in Infected Soybean Plants Using Polymerase Chain Reaction." Molecular Ecology 8.5 (1999): 871-77. Web.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Grau, C. "Brown Stemrot of Soybeans." <http://fyi.uwex.edu/fieldcroppathology/files/2010/11/bsr_063.pdf Archived 2011-07-22 at the Wayback Machine>
- ^ a b c d e f g Robertson, A. & Tabor, G. “Soybean Brown Stem Rot.” Iowa State University. <http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PMR1004.pdf.>2012[permanent dead link].
- ^ a b Smith, Damon, Groves, C. (April 2013). "Brown Stem Rot in Wisconsin" (PDF). University of Wisconsin Extension. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-12-10. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c "Brown Stem Rot - Soybean Disease". Soybean Research & Information Network. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ a b c d e Robertson, A.E. and Nutter, F.W. Iowa Soybean Disease Survey. www.soybeandiseasesurvey.info
- ^ a b c Monsanto. "Brown Stem Rot and Sudden Death Syndrome in Soybean." Lewis Hybrids. Lewis Hybrids, 2010. Web. <http://www.lewishybrids.com/files/File/Agronomic%20Spotlight%20-%20Brown_Stem_Rot_Sudden_Death_Soy.pdf?PHPSESSID=0c6bc72c5c097a7e80e53605fd2effce[permanent dead link]>
- ^ a b c Westphal, Andreas, Scott Abney, and Gregory Shaner. "Diseases of Soybean: Brown Stem Rot." Purdue University Department of Botany and Plant Pathology and USDA-ARS, May 2006. Web.
- ^ a b Smith, S. N. "Association of Phialophora Gregata with Fusarium Solani F. Sp. Pisi in Garbanzo Beans in California." APS Net 83.9 (1999): 876.1. Web.
- ^ a b c d e f Giesler, L. J. (2019-07-22). "Brown Stem Rot". University of Nebraska - Lincoln Cropwatch. Retrieved 2019-12-10.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b "Studies of the interactions of SCN with brown stem rot of soybean | Soybean Cyst Nematode - www.soybeancyst.info". www.plantpath.iastate.edu. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ a b c Pedersen, Palle. “Brown Stem Rot.” <http://extension.agron.iastate.edu/soybean/diseases_bsr.html Archived 2011-11-19 at the Wayback Machine> 2006.
- ^ a b c Grau, Craig, and Nancy C. Kurtzweil. "Brown Stem Rot: Management and Variety Options." The Yields II Project: Research-Based Management Information. Soybean Research and Development Council, Oct. 2003. Web.
- ^ a b "Mid-Season Soybean Issues in Wisconsin". Integrated Pest and Crop Management. 2015-07-29. Retrieved 2019-12-10.
- ^ a b Dorrance, Anne E., and Dennis R. Mills. "Brown Stem Rot of Soybean." Ohio State University, 2008. Web. <"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-13. Retrieved 2012-12-05.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)>.