Music of Pakistan

The Music of Pakistan (Urdu: موسیقی پاکستان, romanized: Musiqi-ye Pakistan) is a fusion of Turko-Persian, Arab, Hindustani (North Indian), and contemporary Western influences, creating a distinct musical tradition often referred to as "Pakistani Music." The genre has adapted and evolved over time in response to shifting cultural norms and global influences. It has also been deeply shaped by Pakistan's tumultuous political and geopolitical landscape. The Islamization policies of the 1980s, which sought to align Pakistani culture with conservative ideals of Wahhabism, imposed strict censorship on music and musical expression. This period of repression was further fueled by the ongoing Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, during which Wahhabism was aggressively promoted with backing from the United States and Saudi Arabia as part of efforts to counter Soviet influence.

British-Pakistani singer Annie Khalid during a live concert in Pakistan.

Although Pakistan as a nation emerged in 1947, the region it occupies has served as a historical crossroads for millennia. The Persian Empire, Turko-Persian dynasties, the Afghan Empire, Arab Caliphates, Indian dynasties, and British colonial rule, each era left defining imprints on the country's musical traditions, leading to classical forms like qawwali and ghazal, as well as vibrant folk music reflecting the country’s ethnic diversity—Punjabis, Pashtuns, Balti, Baloch, Hazaras, Sindhis, Wakhi, Shina and more.

In the late 20th century and beyond, globalization significantly influenced Pakistani music, with elements of Western popular music merging with local traditions to create contemporary genres. Diaspora Pakistanis in the West, such as Nazia Hassan, Zayn Malik (One Direction), Nadia Ali, and Annie Khalid, played a crucial role in introducing modern music to the Pakistani music scene. Their music resonated with younger Pakistani audiences, who saw in their success a representation of their own identity on the global stage, particularly at a time when that identity was under threat during the period of Islamization in Pakistan.

As of 2015, EMI Pakistan is the country's biggest record label, holding the licenses of some 60,000 Pakistani artists and around 70% of the total music of the country, while streaming service Patari has the largest independent digital collection, with some 3,000 artists and 50,000 songs.

Pre-history

The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro.

Pakistan boasts a rich and ancient history of music, with some of the earliest evidence traced back to the Indus Valley civilisation (c. 3300–1300 BCE), one of the world's oldest urban cultures. Among the notable artifacts from this period is the Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro (2300–1751 BC), a bronze sculpture discovered in the ancient city of Mohenjo-daro, located in present-day Pakistan. The sculpture, depicting a young female figure poised mid-motion, is widely believed by scholars to symbolize ritualistic or celebratory dance, likely performed to the accompaniment of music.

Other archaeological findings, including seals depicting musical instruments like flutes, drums, and stringed instruments, indicate that the Indus Valley people likely had a rich musical tradition. The legacy of this early musical culture continued to evolve through various dynasties and empires that ruled the region.

Traditional music

Pakistan, located in South-Central Asia, is home to a wide array of ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups. The country’s traditional music reflects this diversity, with each ethnic group contributing unique styles and forms. At the same time, Pakistan's music scene has also seen the development of musical forms born from the fusion of various influences, such as Qawwali and Ghazal, which blend traditional, regional, and Sufi elements.

Folk Music

Haroon Bacha performing at AVT Khyber's "Sparle Suroona" in Peshawar, Pakistan. Bacha was forced to leave Pakistan and resettle in Brooklyn, New York, after the Taliban threatened his life for refusing to abandon music.

Pakistan has diverse folk traditions, with each region reflecting its local culture and language through its musical traditions. These folk traditions are passed down through generations and often form the core of community events, rituals, and festivals, typically celebrating themes of village life, nature, bravery, spirituality, love, longing and separation. Some of the famous folk singers/bands of Pakistan include Zarsanga, Sanam Marvi, Nazia Iqbal, Gul Panra, Raheem Shah, Saieen Zahoor, Abida Parveen, Ghazala Javed, Tina Sani, Musarrat Nazir, Tahira Syed, Laila Khan, Naheed Akhtar, Zeb Bangash, Suraiya Multanikar, Allan Fakir, Alam Lohar, Hadiqa Kiani, Ali Zafar, Haroon Bacha, and Khumarian.

In Pakistan's rural areas and ethnic communities, bards continue to perform traditional folk music, preserving ancient songs and cultural customs. In the Pashtun community, ashiqs or barkhurdars are traditional bards who sing epic tales of Pashtunwali (the Pashtun code of honor), recounting historical battles, and the lives of famous warriors. In Balochistan, Ghazaks (Balochi bards) perform songs about historical figures, social struggles, and regional issues, often accompanied by the dambura, a stringed instrument. Similarly, in Sindh, bards continue to preserve and perform the poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai and other Sufi mystics, traveling between shrines and festivals.

Some of the major folk traditions of Pakistan include:

Pashto music

Main article: Pashto music

Pashto music is predominantly found in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and in major urban centers of Pakistan, including Peshawar, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Lahore, and Karachi. There is a long oral tradition of Pashto folk music, which includes genres such as the Tappa, Charbeta, Neemkai, Loba, Shaan and Badala.

The Tappa is considered one of the oldest forms of Pashto poetry, consisting of two unequal meters, with the second being longer than the first. Charbeta is another highly popular form of Pashto poetry, often epic in nature, focusing on heroic figures and events. It is typically performed at a fast tempo by two or more singers. Neemkai is a type of folk song usually composed by Pashto women, expressing themes drawn from daily life and personal experiences.

Loba is a dramatic form of Pashto folk song, often a dialogue that tells romantic stories or allegorical tales. Shaan is a celebratory song performed during significant life events, such as marriages or the birth of a child. Badala, is an epic poem set to music and accompanied by instruments like the harmonium, drums, and tabla. Although it is a form of folk music, it is typically performed by professional musicians.

Sindhi music

Main article: Sindhi music

Sufi folk singer Saieen Zahoor performing live.

Sindhi music is traditionally performed in two primary styles: Baits and Waee. The Baits style is a form of vocal music, characterized by two variations: Sanhoon (low voice) and Graham (high voice). On the other hand, Waee is primarily instrumental and often involves the use of string instruments. Waee music is also referred to as Kafi and is widely found in the surrounding regions of Balochistan and Punjab. Common instruments used in Sindhi regional music include the Yaktaro (a one-string instrument), Narr (a type of flute), and Naghara (a drum). The themes in Sindhi music often center around Sufism and mysticism.

Balti music

According to Balti folklore, Mughal princess Gul Khatoon (known in Baltistan as Mindoq Gialmo—Flower Queen) brought musicians and artisans with her into the region and they propagated Mughal music and art under her patronage. Musical instruments such as the surnai, karnai, dhol and chang were introduced into Baltistan. Classical and other dances are classified as sword dances, broqchhos and Yakkha and ghazal dances. Chhogho Prasul commemorates a victory by the Maqpon rajas. As a mark of respect, the musician who plays the drum (dang) plays for a long time. A Maqpon princess would occasionally dance to this tune. Gasho-Pa, also known as Ghbus-La-Khorba, is a sword dance associated with the Gasho Dynasty of Purik (Kargil). Sneopa, the marriage-procession dance by pachones (twelve wazirs who accompany the bride), is performed at the marriage of a raja.

Balochi music

Main article: Balochi music

Mural panel from the necropolis of Mian Nasir Muhammad Kalhoro in Dadu District, Pakistan, depicting the romance of Laila and Majnun (above), a famous Arabian folklore, and Sasui and Punhun (below), a Pakistani legend frequently celebrated in Pakistani folk music.

Balochi music, primarily found in the Pakistani province of Balochistan, is a diverse and rich tradition shaped by the region's variety of languages, including Balochi, Persian, Pashto, Brahui, Sindhi, Dari and Saraiki. Common instruments used in Balochi music include the sarod, doneli, and benju. Notable musical forms in Balochi culture include Sepad, Shabtagi, Vazbad, Lullaby, and Zayirak, which are performed in various rituals, such as those following the birth of a child, while lullabies are sung to soothe infants and children.

Shina music

Shina is the predominant language found in Pakistan's northern areas of Gilgit and Baltistan. The language has an extensive oral history which dates back several thousand years. With the increase in tourism to the northern areas and increased domestic as well as international awareness of the local folk music, the Shina folk traditions have managed to stay alive and vibrant. Folk music in this region has remained relatively pure and unscathed by modern influences due to the relative isolation of this area. The arrival of many refugees from the adjacent Nuristan province of Afghanistan and the subsequent increase in commercial activity in Chitrali bazaars allowed this local form of music to furthernflourish in the past few decades.

Punjabi music

Hadiqa Kiani, renowned Pakistani singer known for her contributions to folk and pop music in Urdu and Punjabi, among other languages.

Folk music from the Punjab province is rich and varied, showcasing a range of instruments such as the dhol (a large drum), flute, dholak (a smaller drum), and tumbi (a single-stringed instrument). The folk music invokes the traditions and tells stories of agricultural life, love, and joy. Famous folklores, such as that of Sassi Punnu set in the historic city of Bhanbhore (Sindh) and the coastal regions of Makran (Balochistan), are often the poetic content of Punjabi folk music.

Qawwali

Main article: Qawwali

Sufis performing Sama. Miniature from the Timurid copy of the Khamsa of Amir Khusrau, Herat (modern-day Afghanistan), 1485.

One of the most notable genres of traditional Pakistani music is Qawwali (Urdu: قوّالی, Persian: قوالی, Pashto: قاووالی), a devotional musical form primarily performed in Urdu, Persian, or Punjabi. A key characteristic of Qawwali is its emphasis on improvisation and lyrics derived from Sufi poetry, often expressing themes of divine love, longing, and spiritual devotion. In recent decades, however, Qawwali has increasingly incorporated secular themes into its repertoire.

Amir Khusrau, a prominent figure of the Chisti order of Sufis, is credited with creating Qawwali by blending Turkish, Persian, Arabic, and Hindustani musical traditions in the late 13th century. The word "Qawwali" is derived from the Arabic term "Qawl" (Arabic: قول), meaning "saying" or "utterance." A session of Qawwali is formally referred to as "Mehfil-e-Sama," as it is considered a form of Sama (Turkish: Sema;  Persian, Urdu and Persian: سَماع, romanized: samā‘^un), a Sufi tradition performed as part of the meditation and prayer practice known as dhikr. In Central Asia and Turkey, the word "Sama" is used (or is preferred) for musical forms that closely resemble Qawwali.

Qawwali music is performed by a group of about nine musicians, called Humnawa (Urdu: ہم نوا, lit. 'one who sings in harmony with') led by a principal singer. The performance incorporates various musical instruments alongside hand clapping by the singers. Common instruments used in Qawwali include the Harmonium, Tabla, Rubab, Sitar, Sarangi, and Tanpura.

Qawwali gained international acclaim through the legendary artist Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, often hailed as "Shahenshah-e-Qawwali" (Urdu: شهنشاهِ قوالی, lit. 'The King of Qawwali'). In 2016, LA Weekly ranked Khan as the fourth greatest singer of all time. One of his most celebrated albums, Night Song, produced in collaboration with Michael Brook, reached number 4 on the Billboard Top World Music Albums chart in 1996 and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best World Music Album in 1997.

Ghazal

Main article: Ghazal

An illustrated headpiece from a mid-18th century collection of Persian ghazals.

The ghazal (Urdu: غزل, Persian: غزل) is a form of poetry consisting of couplets which share a rhyme and a refrain, with both lines of the opening couplet and the second line of each subsequent couplet adhering to the same meter. Etymologically, the word "ghazal" (Arabic: غَزَل, romanized: ġazal) originates from Arabic, where it means "to flirt," and often denotes themes of love and longing in Arabic poetry. In the Persianate world, the term acquired additional symbolic meaning, being associated with the "mortal cry of a gazelle"—based on the Persian word "ghazāl" (Persian: غزال), from which the English word "gazelle" stems. The cry of a gazelle when hunted became a metaphor for the pain, separation, and yearning central to the ghazal's themes. The name ghazal encapsulates its dual essence: the tender, often melancholic exploration of love, loss, and existential musings, alongside its lyrical and rhythmic beauty, evoking the elegance and grace of the gazelle.

The renowned poet Faiz Ahmad Faiz sought asylum Beirut, Lebanon, during the Islamization regime of General Zia Ul Haq in Pakistan due to his support for Marxism. Faiz was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize in 1962 by the Soviet Union and was also nominated for the Nobel Prize in literature. His ghazals and poetry, known for their blend of political and romantic themes, have been rendered in both traditional and modern musical styles.

While traditionally rooted in poetry, the ghazal in Pakistan has evolved to become closely associated with music. This transformation began in the early 20th century when the recording industry played a key role in popularizing the musical adaptation of Urdu and Persian ghazals, making the works of renowned poets like Rumi, Hafez, Mirza Ghalib, Allama Muhammad Iqbal, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Ahmed Faraz, and Parveen Shakir accessible to a wider audience. Ghazal music originally adhered to the Hindustani (North Indian) classical tradition, employing ragas (melodic modes) and talas (rhythmic cycles), typically at a slow, contemplative tempo. In modern times, however, ghazals have seen a fusion with genres such as light classical, jazz, rock, or pop music, resulting in a more contemporary sound that retains the lyrical beauty of its origins.

Nazia Hassan, widely celebrated as the "Queen of Pakistani Pop."

Modern music

The song "Ko Ko Korina" (Urdu: کوکوکورینا) sung by Ahmed Rushdi in 1966 is considered to be the first pop song of Pakistan. Rushdi was born in present day India in 1934, where he started his musical career, but later migrated to Pakistan in 1954. Pop music in Pakistan truly gained momentum during the 1980s with the brother-sister duo Nazia and Zoheb Hassan. Their debut album, Disco Deewane (Urdu: دسکو دیوانے, lit. 'disco lovers'), released in 1981, broke sales records in Pakistan and became the best-selling Asian pop album at the time. It topped charts in India, Russia, South Africa, Latin America, and Philippines, and earned international acclaim.

Another popular act of the 1980s was the pop and rock band Vital Signs, with Junaid Jamshed as the vocalist and Rohail Hyatt as the keyboardist. From the 1980s to the 1990s, they produced many of their highly successful and critically praised albums. Their song "Dil Dil Pakistan" was voted as the third most popular song of all time by a BBC World poll in 2003.

However, the 1980s were also the time of rapid political change in Pakistan, driven by the Islamization policies of President Muhammad Zia Ul Haq, who came to power through a coup d'état in 1977. Under the banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa (Urdu: نظام مصطفی, lit. 'Order of the Prophet'), Zia's regime sought to implement a conservative Islamic agenda, which came with strict bans and restrictions on musical expression across the country. Even the song "Dil Dil Pakistan" by Vital Signs, despite being a patriotic anthem—typically the kind of music that thrives under autocratic regimes—got censored for showing young men in Western clothing. President Zia Ul Haq had strongly denounced "western ideas" such as jeans and rock music. The regime also banned music for reasons such as "endorsing alcohol consumption" if lyrics mentioned alcohol, or "obscenity" if a male and female were shown standing close or dancing. This period also saw the closure of all bars, nightclubs, and theater halls in the country, depriving aspiring musicians and bands of venues to perform and earn a living.

The Islamization regime of Zia Ul Haq in Pakistan coincided with the broader rise of conservative movements across the Greater Middle East, including the Islamic Revolution (1979) in neighboring Iran, the Soviet invasion of neighboring Afghanistan (1979), and the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990)—all of which strengthened the role of the clergy and fueled sectarian tensions throughout the region. Of particular relevance to Pakistan was the Soviet-Afghan War, in which Pakistan played a direct role as an ally in the U.S.-led Operation Cyclone to expel Soviet forces from Afghanistan. As part of this operation, Saudi Arabia arranged the transport of thousands of young, indoctrinated volunteers, known as "Afghan Arabs," from across the Middle East to Pakistan. There, they were trained and equipped with U.S.-provided arms before being sent into Afghanistan to fight against Soviet forces. Additionally, Saudi Arabia funded the establishment of thousands of madrassahs in Pakistan, with their number growing from about 900 in 1971 to over 33,000 in 1988. These madrassahs promoted Wahhabi ideology, seeking to radicalize Afghan refugees and impoverished local populations to join the "jihad" (Arabic: جهاد, lit. 'struggle, fight') against the Soviets in Afghanistan. However, these radicalized youths also launched a campaign inside Pakistan against music, which is considered impermissible under Wahhabi doctrine. Many musicians were threatened with violence unless they abandoned their craft or left the country. This fervor escalated into acts of violence, including the burning of record shops and attacks on art exhibitions and musical performances.

Pop music

Pop singer Momina Mustehsan (right), who gained widespread fame with her hit song "Afreen Afreen," a contemporary tribute to Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan's iconic qawwali of the same name.

Despite the crackdown on music during the Islamization regime, Pakistani music continued to evolve, often thriving in underground performances, through the efforts of diaspora communities, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States, and through artists at home who continued to defy the regime. In the 1980s and 1990s, pop acts like Nazia Hassan, Zoheb Hassan, Vital Signs, Strings, and Nermin Niazi gained widespread popularity, defining a new era of Pakistani pop music. The 1990s also saw the rise of rock and fusion bands such as Junoon, Aaroh, and Noori, which became household names and enjoyed immense popularity. By the early 2000s, a fresh wave of pop acts has emerged, including Ali Zafar, Momina Mustehsan, Zoe Viccaji, Hadiqa Kiani, Aima Baig, Awaz (Haroon, Faakhir Mehmood), and Jal.

Rock music

Main articles: Pakistani rock and Sufi rock

The rise of rock music in Pakistan began in the 1980s when cassettes first came into Pakistan bringing in a wave of Western rock music, particularly groups such as Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, Van Halen, and AC/DC. Despite the restrictive environment of the Islamization era, which sought to suppress Western cultural influences, underground rock concerts began to flourish across the country. Rock bands Vital Signs and Strings rose in defiance of the regime and gained immense popularity amongst the youth. Vital Signs is widely regarded as Pakistan's first and most successful pop rock band. Strings gained widespread acclaim following the release of their second album in 1992, eventually selling over 25 million albums worldwide.

The Sufi rock band Junoon during a live performance.

The 1990s saw the rise of other notable bands, including Junoon, Aaroh, and Noori. Junoon pioneered the genre of Sufi rock, combining the poetry of famous Sufi poets such as Rumi, Hafez, and Bulleh Shah with the hard rock brand of Led Zeppelin and Santana and Hindustani instruments such as the tabla. Junoon is one of Pakistan's and South-Central Asia's most successful bands with over 30 million albums sold worldwide; the New York Times called Junoon "the U2 of Pakistan" and Q magazine dubbed them as "One of the biggest bands in the world". Junoon became the first rock band to perform at the United Nations General Assembly Hall and only the second Pakistani act to perform at a Nobel Peace Prize Concert.

Fawad Khan, lead singer of the heavy metal band Entity Paradigm.

The early 2000s saw the arrival of progressive metal, progressive rock, and psychedelic rock with bands such as Entity Paradigm and Mizraab. Qayaas, Call, Roxen, Jal, Mizmaar, Karavan, and Mekaal Hasan Band also exploded onto the music scene with different brands of rock including alternative and soft rock. The television series Pepsi Battle of the Bands was instrumental in launching Entity Paradigm, Aaroh, and the Mekaal Hasan Band, all of whom competed in the inaugural edition of the show in 2002. After a 15-year hiatus, the series resumed in 2017, introducing new bands to the rock scene, such as Kashmir, Bayaan, and Badnaam.

Although the heavy metal genre began to rise in popularity in the late 1990s and early 2000s, its roots can be traced back to the influence of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal (NWOBHM) of the late 1970s and 1980s. Early pioneers of Pakistani heavy metal included bands like Black Warrant, Final Cut, and Barbarians. Since then, a number of heavy and black metal bands have emerged, including Overload, Saturn, Saakin, Karakoram, Burq - The Band, Taarma, The Nuke, and Aag.

Patriotic and political music

Patriotic music in Pakistan has long played a significant role in shaping the national identity and reflecting the country’s spirit. Early iconic songs, such as Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan's "Mera Paigham Pakistan", Vital Signs' "Dil Dil Pakistan", Awaz's "Ay Jawan", and Shabana Benjamin's "Aye Gul-e-Yasmeen", became anthems that resonated with the nation's pride and sense of unity.

Political music in Pakistan also extends beyond fostering national pride, frequently veering into propaganda. Pakistani military's media arm, the Inter Services Public Relations (ISPR), colloquially referred to as the "propaganda house" in the country, regularly produces and sponsors music that glorifies the military. The military has a long history of overthrowing democratic governments, which has contributed to civilian mistrust, with confidence in the institution remaining among the lowest in the world. ISPR uses music and other forms of media to shape and whitewash the military’s image, and deflect attention from ongoing allegations of corruption, election rigging, human rights abuses, and oppression. ISPR productions frequently use emotional imagery and lyrics to frame dissent and criticism of the military as an attack on personnel who are on the frontlines, sacrificing their lives for the nation’s security and well-being.

In addition to state-sponsored patriotic music, political parties in Pakistan have also harnessed the power of music to rally their supporters. Political songs are regularly featured during rallies, gatherings, and protests to energize crowds. At the same time, music serves as a powerful tool for activism and resistance. Songs such as "Intebah" by Saakin, "Mori Araj Suno" by Tina Sani (based on Faiz Ahmed Faiz's poetry), and "Wajood-e-Zan" by Natasha Noorani (based on Allama Iqbal's poetry) have become iconic in Pakistan's activism culture, representing dissent and resistance to political injustice.

Loss of musical identity and attempts at revival

American-Pakistani actress Nargis Fakhri, known for her roles in several popular Bollywood films.

In the decades following the Islamization regime, restrictions on music in Pakistan eased somewhat, and the rise of the internet opened new avenues for sharing and accessing music. This shift has contributed to a considerable resurgence in the country’s domestic music scene. However, many feel that the music of today diverges significantly from its pre-Islamization roots, with much of Pakistan’s distinctive musical identity—a fusion of Turko-Persian, Western, Hindustani, and Arab influences—now largely absent.

The erosion of this identity began during the Islamization period, when local music industries were systematically dismantled. This created a cultural void that foreign music sought to fill. However, at the same time, music industries throughout the Greater Middle East, particularly in Iran, Lebanon, and Afghanistan, were also being dismantled by Islamization movements and ongoing conflicts, leaving these industries unable to fill the gap. Meanwhile, Western music was heavily censored to prevent the spread of Western values, which left the Pakistani music market wide open for India’s rapidly growing Bollywood industry to dominate.

With limited exposure to other musical traditions, generations of Pakistanis grew up immersed largely in Bollywood’s melodies, leading to a gradual cultural shift. By the 2000s, as Pakistan’s domestic music industry began to reemerge, it found itself catering to an audience attuned to Bollywood's sound and style. As a result, many Pakistani artists and studios embraced a process of “Bollywood-ification” to remain relevant, often at the expense of the rich musical heritage that once defined the country’s unique sound.

Coke Studio Pakistan

Coke Studio Pakistan, a music television series, aimed to revive the blended identity of Pakistani music. The first season mainly featured live-recorded performances of pop and rock songs. From Season 2 onward, the show began emphasizing Pakistan's original musical identity, while also evolving by fusing in more contemporary Western influences—a trend that became more prominent in Seasons 3, 5, and 6. As the show's founder and director, Rohail Hyatt, described, the aim was to "promote Pakistan's folk, classical, and indigenous music by merging it with more popular or mainstream music." However, after Hyatt's departure at the end of Season 6, the show took a different direction. From Season 7 onward, Coke Studio shifted to a more mainstream style, increasingly incorporating more Bollywood influences to attract a wider audience. This shift also expanded Coke Studio’s appeal in India, with viewership from Indian audiences surpassing that of Pakistan on platforms like YouTube and streaming services.

See also

• Coke Studio
• Culture of Pakistan
• Filmi pop
• History of Pakistani pop music
• Karachi: The Musical
• List of Pakistani musicians
• List of Pakistani film singers
• List of Pakistani folk singers
• List of Pakistani ghazal singers
• List of Pakistani qawwali singers
• List of Pakistani music bands
• List of songs about Pakistan
• National Academy of Performing Arts
• Nescafé Basement
• Pakistani hip hop
• Uth Records
• List of most-viewed Pakistani music videos on YouTube

External links

• BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): The Nizamuddin shrine in Delhi
• BBC Radio 3 Audio (45 minutes): A mahfil Sufi gathering in Karachi
• BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Music from the Sufi Shrines of Pakistan