Horn of Africa: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Peninsula in East Africa including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia}} |
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{{Redirect|Geeska Afrika|the Somali-language newspaper|Geeska Afrika (newspaper)}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}} |
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<!-- Until Puntland accepts the constitutional changes it is independent. --> |
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{{Infobox |
{{Infobox |
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| bodyclass = geography |
| bodyclass = geography |
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| above = Horn of Africa |
| above = Horn of Africa |
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| image = [[File:Horn of Africa. |
| image = [[File:Horn of Africa (orthographic projection).svg|250px]] |
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| label1 |
| label1 = [[Country|Countries]] |
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| data1 = {{ |
| data1 = {{collapsible list |
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| title = {{nowrap|4 sovereign states}}<ref name="Britannica22">Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Jacob E. Safra, ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.61: "The northern mountainous area, known as the Horn of Africa, comprises Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia."</ref> |
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*[[Djibouti]] |
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| titlestyle = text-align:left;padding-right:4em;font-weight:normal;background-color:whitesmoke; | {{flag|Djibouti}} || {{flag|Eritrea}} || {{flag|Ethiopia}} || {{flag|Somalia}}}} |
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*[[Eritrea]] |
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{{collapsible list |
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*[[Ethiopia]] |
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| title = {{nowrap|2 unrecognised states}} |
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*[[Somalia]] |
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| titlestyle = text-align:left;padding-right:4em;font-weight:normal;background-color:whitesmoke; |
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| {{unbulleted list |
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| {{flag|Somaliland}} |
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| {{flag|Puntland}} |
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}} |
}} |
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| label2 = Demonym(s) |
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| data2 = {{Flatlist| |
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*Horn African |
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*Horner |
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*Abyssinian <small>(historical)</small> |
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*Puntite <small>(historical)</small> |
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*Cushite <small>(historical)</small> |
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}} |
}} |
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| label4 = Population |
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| label3 = Major regional organizations |
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| data4 = 140,683,144 (2020 est.) |
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| data3 = {{Flatlist| |
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| label5 = Area |
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*[[Arab League]] |
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| data5 = 1,882,757 km<sup>2</sup> |
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*[[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] |
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*[[Community of Sahel-Saharan States]] |
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*[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] |
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}} |
}} |
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| label4 = Population |
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| data4 = 122,618,170 (2016 est.) |
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| label5 = Area |
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| data5 = 1,882,757 km<sup>2</sup> |
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| label6 = Main native languages |
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| data6 = {{Flatlist| |
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*[[Amharic language|Amharic]] |
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*[[Oromo language|Oromo]] |
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*[[Somali language|Somali]] |
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*[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] |
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*[[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] |
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*[[Afar language|Afar]] |
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*[[Wolaytta language|Wolaytta]]<!--- Only regional languages, do not add irrelevant tribal ones --> |
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}} |
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| label7 = Main foreign working languages<!--- Foreign administrative languages --> |
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| data7 = {{Flatlist| |
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*[[English language|English]] <small>(widely taught)</small> |
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*[[Arabic language|Arabic]] <small>(co-official in Djibouti and Somalia & liturgical language of Muslims)</small> |
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*[[French language|French]] <small>(co-official in Djibouti)</small> |
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*[[Italian language|Italian]] <small>(formerly in Eritrea and Somalia)</small> |
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}} |
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| label8 = Religion |
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| data8 = [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Traditional African religions|traditional faiths]], [[Judaism]] <small>(formerly in Ethiopia, most have migrated to [[Israel]])</small> |
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| label9 = Time zones |
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| data9 = [[UTC+03:00]] |
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| label10 = Currency |
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| data10 = {{plainlist| |
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*[[Ethiopian Birr]] |
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*[[Somali Shilling]] |
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*[[Eritrean Nakfa]] |
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*[[Djiboutian Franc]] |
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}} |
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| label11 = Capitals |
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| data11 = [[Addis Ababa]] (Ethiopia)<br>[[Mogadishu]] (Somalia)<br>[[Asmara]] (Eritrea)<br>[[Djibouti (city)|Djibouti]] (Djibouti) |
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|label12 = Total [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) |
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|data12 = $ 247.751 billion (2016)<br>($2,020 per capita) |
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|label13 = Total [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (nominal) |
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|data13 = $ 102.057 billion (2016)<br>($832 per capita) |
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}} |
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The '''Horn of Africa''' ({{lang-so|Geeska Afrika}}, {{lang-om|Gaaffaa Afriikaa}}, {{lang-am|የአፍሪካ ቀንድ|yäafrika qänd}}, {{lang-ti|ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ}|k’erinī afirīka}}, {{lang-ar|القرن الأفريقي|al-qarn al-'afrīqī}}) (shortened to '''HOA''') is a [[peninsula]] in [[Northeast Africa]]. It extends hundreds of kilometers into the [[Arabian Sea]] and lies along the southern side of the [[Gulf of Aden]]. The area is the easternmost projection of the [[Africa|African continent]]. Referred to in ancient and medieval times as the land of the ''[[Barbara (region)|Barbara]]'' and ''[[Habesha]]'',<ref>J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p.190</ref><ref>[[George Wynn Brereton Huntingford]], Agatharchides, ''The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea"'', (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p.83</ref><ref>John I. Saeed, ''Somali'' – Volume 10 of London Oriental and African language library, (J. Benjamins: 1999), p. 250.</ref> the Horn of Africa denotes the region containing the countries of [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], and [[Somalia]].<ref name="Stock">Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press: 2004), p. 26</ref><ref name="Hodd">Michael Hodd, ''East Africa Handbook'', 7th Edition, (Passport Books: 2002), p. 21: "To the north are the countries of the Horn of Africa comprising Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia."</ref><ref name="Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica, inc, Jacob E. Safra, ''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', (Encyclopædia Britannica: 2002), p.61: "The northern mountainous area, known as the Horn of Africa, comprises Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia."</ref><ref name="Joireman">Sandra Fullerton Joireman, ''Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa'', (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1: "The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments."</ref> |
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The '''Horn of Africa''' ('''HoA'''), also known as the '''Somali Peninsula''',<ref name="Montana State University2">{{cite book |author=Christy A. Donaldson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=PA422 |title=Encyclopedia of World Geography – Horn of Africa |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-8160-7229-3 |pages=422–424 |quote=This area is also known as the Somali Peninsula, because within it lies the countries of Somalia and eastern Ethiopia.}}</ref><ref name="Egerton University2">{{cite web |date=October 2005 |title=Rethinking Pastoralism and African Development: a case study of the Horn of Africa |url=https://codesria.org/IMG/pdf/kandagor.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326173940/https://codesria.org/IMG/pdf/kandagor.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2022 |access-date=13 December 2021 |quote=The Horn of Africa (or, Somali Peninsula) is a peninsula of Eastern Africa.}}</ref><ref name="Brock Millman2">{{cite book |author=Brock Millman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1xKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |title=British Somaliland An Administrative History, 1920–1960 |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-317-97544-1 |pages=8}}</ref> is a large [[peninsula]] and [[Geopolitics|geopolitical]] region in [[East Africa]].<ref name="Stock22">Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004), p. 26</ref> Located on the easternmost part of the [[Africa]]n mainland, it is the fourth largest peninsula in the world. It is composed of [[Somalia]] (including the [[De facto#Governance and sovereignty|de facto]] independent [[Somaliland]] and [[Puntland]]), [[Djibouti]], [[Ethiopia]], and [[Eritrea]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Horn of Africa - Its Strategic Importance for Europe, the Gulf States, and Beyond |url=http://www.cirsd.org/en/horizons/horizons-winter-2016--issue-no-6/the-horn-of-africa---its-strategic-importance-for-europe-the-gulf-states-and-beyond |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=CIRSD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Between Somaliland and Puntland – Rift Valley Institute |url=https://riftvalley.net/publication/between-somaliland-and-puntland/ |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=riftvalley.net}}</ref> Although not common, broader definitions include parts or all of [[Kenya]] and [[Sudan]].<ref name="auto12">John I. Saeed, ''Somali'' – Volume 10 of London Oriental and African language library, (J. Benjamins: 1999), p. 250.</ref><ref name="Joireman222">Sandra Fullerton Joireman, ''Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa'', (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1: "The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments."</ref><ref name="BritannicaOnline2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Horn of Africa |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |location=Chicago, Illinois |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Horn-of-Africa |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=19 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219155226/https://www.britannica.com/place/Horn-of-Africa |url-status=live }}</ref> It has been described as a region of geopolitical and strategic importance, since it is situated along the southern boundary of the [[Red Sea]]; extending hundreds of kilometres into the [[Gulf of Aden]], [[Guardafui Channel]], and [[Indian Ocean]], it also shares a maritime border with the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Three important oil trade chokepoints are located around the Arabian Peninsula - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=32352 |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=www.eia.gov |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402141102/https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=32352 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Red Sea chokepoints are critical for international oil and natural gas flows - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61025 |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=www.eia.gov |archive-date=5 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240405060740/https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61025 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Horn of Africa {{!}} Countries, Map, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Horn-of-Africa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219155226/https://www.britannica.com/place/Horn-of-Africa |archive-date=19 December 2021 |access-date=19 December 2021 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=the Chairman of DPFZA and CEO of Red Sea Bunkering signed an investment with Afreximbank {{!}} DPFZA |url=http://dpfza.gov.dj/chairman-dpfza-and-ceo-red-sea-bunkering-signed-investment-afreximbank |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=dpfza.gov.dj |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402141105/https://dpfza.gov.dj/chairman-dpfza-and-ceo-red-sea-bunkering-signed-investment-afreximbank |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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It covers approximately 2 million km<sup>2</sup> (770 thousand sq mi) and is inhabited by roughly 115 million people (Ethiopia: 96.6 million, Somalia: 10.4 million, Eritrea: 6.4 million, and Djibouti: 0.81 million). Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out, among others, in the fields of [[Ethiopian Studies]] as well as [[Somali Studies]]. |
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==Names== |
==Names== |
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This peninsula |
This peninsula has been known by various names. [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]] referred to it as [[Aromata|Regio Aromatica]] or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants found there, or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. In ancient and medieval times, the Horn of Africa was referred to as the [[Barbara (region)|Bilad al Barbar]] ("Land of the Berbers").<ref name="auto2">J. D. Fage, Roland Oliver, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', (Cambridge University Press: 1977), p.190</ref><ref name="auto">[[George Wynn Brereton Huntingford]], Agatharchides, ''The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: With Some Extracts from Agatharkhidēs "On the Erythraean Sea"'', (Hakluyt Society: 1980), p.83</ref><ref name="auto1"/> It is also known as the ''Somali Peninsula,'' or in the Somali language as ''Geeska Afrika or'' ''Jasiiradda Soomaali''.<ref>Ciise, Jaamac Cumar. Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan, 1895–1920. JC Ciise, 2005.</ref> In other local languages it is called "Horn of Africa" or the "African Horn", in [[Amharic]] የአፍሪካ ቀንድ ''yäafrika qänd,'' in [[Arabic]] القرن الأفريقي ''al-qarn al-'afrīqī'', in [[Oromo language|Oromo]] ''Gaanfaa Afrikaa'', and in [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ ''q'ärnī afīrīqa''.<ref name="Teklehaimanot, Hailay Kidu 2015">Teklehaimanot, Hailay Kidu. "A Mobile Based Tigrigna Language Learning Tool." International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies (iJIM) 9.2 (2015): 50–53.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Schmidt |first1=Johannes Dragsbaek |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4rqXDwAAQBAJ&q=Horn+of+Africa+HOA&pg=PA34 |title=Refugees and Forced Migration in the Horn and Eastern Africa: Trends, Challenges and Opportunities |last2=Kimathi |first2=Leah |last3=Owiso |first3=Michael Omondi |date=13 May 2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-03721-5 |language=en}}</ref> |
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==Description== |
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The Horn of Africa Region consists of the internationally recognized countries of [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], and [[Somalia]].<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1">John I. Saeed, ''Somali'' – Volume 10 of London Oriental and African language library, (J. Benjamins: 1999), p. 250.</ref><ref name="Joireman22">Sandra Fullerton Joireman, ''Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa'', (Universal-Publishers: 1997), p.1: "The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments."</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Felter|first=Claire|date=1 February 2018|title=Somaliland: The Horn of Africa's Breakaway State|url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/somaliland-horn-africas-breakaway-state|access-date=24 March 2021|website=Council on Foreign Relations|archive-date=21 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121005407/https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/somaliland-horn-africas-breakaway-state|url-status=live}} It covers approximately two million square kilometers (770,000 square miles) and is inhabited by roughly 115 million people (Ethiopia: 110 million, Somalia: 15.8 million, Eritrea: 6.4 million, and Djibouti: 921.8 thousand).</ref> |
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Geographically the protruding shape that resembles a "Horn" consists of the "Somali peninsula" and eastern part of Ethiopia. But the region encompasses also the rest of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351330011 |title=A Brief History of Judaism in the Somali Peninsula |date=May 2021 |author=Aweis A Ali |via=[[ResearchGate]] |access-date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141251/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351330011_A_Brief_History_of_Judaism_in_the_Somali_Peninsula |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.worldatlas.com/geography/horn-of-africa.html | title=Horn of Africa | date=4 June 2021 | access-date=13 August 2022 | archive-date=25 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025161239/https://www.worldatlas.com/geography/horn-of-africa.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://school.eb.com.au/?target=%2Flevels%2Fmiddle%2Farticle%2FHorn-of-Africa%2F472542 | title=Britannica School | access-date=13 August 2022 | archive-date=25 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025161240/https://school.eb.com.au/?target=/levels/middle/article/Horn-of-Africa/472542 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200709070199.html |title=Somalia: Africa Insight – Why Talk in Hotels Won't Yield Long Term Peace |author=Eliezer Wangulu |date=6 September 2007 |work=The Nation |place=Nairobi |via=[[AllAfrica]] |access-date=25 August 2022 |archive-date=8 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608231208/http://allafrica.com/stories/200709070199.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Broader definitions include [[Kenya]] and [[Sudan]].<ref name="BritannicaOnline">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Horn of Africa |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |location=Chicago, Illinois |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Horn-of-Africa |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=19 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219155226/https://www.britannica.com/place/Horn-of-Africa |url-status=live }}</ref> The term Greater Horn Region (GHR) can additionally include [[South Sudan]] and [[Uganda]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt1x73f1 |title=Regional Integration, Identity and Citizenship in the Greater Horn of Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |isbn=978-1-84701-058-2 |jstor=10.7722/j.ctt1x73f1 |access-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210193032/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt1x73f1 |archive-date=10 December 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> The term ''Greater Horn of Africa'' is sometimes used to be inclusive of neighbouring [[southeast Africa]]n countries to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of the Horn of Africa from narrower peninsular definitions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Schreck, Carl J. 2004">Schreck, Carl J., and Fredrick HM Semazzi. "Variability of the recent climate of eastern Africa." International Journal of Climatology 24.6 (2004): 681–701.</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia | title=Somalia | Election, President, News, Capital, & Economy | Britannica | access-date=13 August 2022 | archive-date=22 January 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122030214/https://www.britannica.com/place/Somalia | url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Horn of Africa Base Map.png|thumb|The Greater Horn of Africa consists of more than the typical four countries, including also [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], [[Sudan]] and [[South Sudan]].<ref>{{Cite book|url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt1x73f1|jstor = 10.7722/j.ctt1x73f1|title = Regional Integration, Identity and Citizenship in the Greater Horn of Africa|year = 2012|publisher = Boydell & Brewer|isbn = 9781847010582|access-date = 12 December 2021|archive-date = 10 December 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211210193032/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7722/j.ctt1x73f1|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/countries/horn-africa.html|title=Horn of Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya)|access-date=12 December 2021|archive-date=10 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211210220434/https://www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/countries/horn-africa.html|url-status=live}}</ref>]] |
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The name Horn of Africa is sometimes shortened to ''HoA''. Quite commonly it is referred to simply as "the Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially termed ''Horn Africans'' or ''Horners''.<ref name="Teklehaimanot, Hailay Kidu 2015"/><ref name=":0" /> Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out in fields of [[Ethiopian studies]] and [[Somali studies]]. This peninsula has been known by various names. [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]] referred to it as [[Aromata|Regio Aromatica]] or ''Regio Cinnamonifora'' due to the aromatic plants or as ''Regio Incognita'' owing to its uncharted territory. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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{{further|Sub-Saharan Africa#Horn of Africa|African empires#Horn of Africa}} |
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===Prehistory=== |
===Prehistory=== |
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[[File:Dera rock art.jpg|thumb|Deka rock art in Deka Arbaa, [[Southern Region (Eritrea)|Debub]] region of [[Eritrea]]]] |
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{{main|Laas Geel|Dhambalin}} |
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Some of the earliest ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' fossils, the [[Omo remains]] (from ca. 233,000 years ago) and the [[Herto Man|Herto skull]] (from ca. 160,000 ago) have been found in the region, both in Ethiopia.<ref name="Vidal22">{{Cite journal |last1=Vidal |first1=Celine M. |last2=Lane |first2=Christine S. |author-link2=Christine Lane |last3=Asfawrossen |first3=Asrat |display-authors=etal |date=Jan 2022 |title=Age of the oldest known Homo sapiens from eastern Africa |journal=Nature |volume=601 |issue=7894 |pages=579–583 |bibcode=2022Natur.601..579V |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04275-8 |pmc=8791829 |pmid=35022610}}</ref> |
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[[File:Expansion_of_Afroasiatic.svg|thumb|The Horn of Africa is the [[Afroasiatic Urheimat|proposed urheimats]] (original homelands) of the [[Proto-Afroasiatic language]].|alt=]] |
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The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from the [[Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia|Ethiopian Rift]] dated to more than 279,000 years ago "in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate East Africa as a source of modern cultures and biology."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sahle|first1=Yonatan|last2=Hutchings|first2=W. Karl|last3=Braun|first3=David R.|last4=Sealy|first4=Judith C.|last5=Morgan|first5=Leah E.|last6=Negash|first6=Agazi|last7=Atnafu|first7=Balemwal|date=13 November 2013|title=Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=11|pages=e78092|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078092|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3827237|pmid=24236011|bibcode=2013PLoSO...878092S|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cavalazzi|first1=B.|last2=Barbieri|first2=R.|last3=Gómez|first3=F.|last4=Capaccioni|first4=B.|last5=Olsson-Francis|first5=K.|last6=Pondrelli|first6=M.|last7=Rossi|first7=A.P.|last8=Hickman-Lewis|first8=K.|last9=Agangi|first9=A.|last10=Gasparotto|first10=G.|last11=Glamoclija|first11=M.|date=1 April 2019|title=The Dallol Geothermal Area, Northern Afar (Ethiopia)—An Exceptional Planetary Field Analog on Earth|journal=Astrobiology|volume=19|issue=4|pages=553–578|doi=10.1089/ast.2018.1926|issn=1531-1074|pmc=6459281|pmid=30653331|bibcode=2019AsBio..19..553C}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwbxDQAAQBAJ&q=Cradle+of+Humankind|title=The Cradle of Humanity: How the changing landscape of Africa made us so smart|last=Maslin|first=Mark|date=18 January 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-100971-6|language=en|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141155/https://books.google.com/books?id=xwbxDQAAQBAJ&q=Cradle+of+Humankind#v=snippet&q=Cradle%20of%20Humankind&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Shell [[middens]] 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea,<ref name="pmid10811218">{{cite journal |vauthors=Walter RC, Buffler RT, Bruggemann JH, etal |title=Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial |journal=Nature |volume=405 |issue=6782 |pages=65–9 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10811218 |doi=10.1038/35011048 |bibcode=2000Natur.405...65W }}</ref> indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by [[beachcombing]]. |
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According to the [[Southern Dispersal]] scenario, the Southern route of the Out of Africa migration occurred in the Horn of Africa through the [[Bab el Mandeb]]. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about {{convert|12|mi|km|abbr=off}} wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell [[midden]]s 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea,<ref name="pmid10811218">{{cite journal |vauthors=Walter RC, Buffler RT, Bruggemann JH, etal |title=Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial |journal=Nature |volume=405 |issue=6782 |pages=65–9 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10811218 |doi=10.1038/35011048 |bibcode=2000Natur.405...65W |s2cid=4417823 }}</ref> indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by [[beachcombing]]. |
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According to both genetic and fossil evidence, [[Archaic humans|archaic Homo sapiens]] evolved into [[anatomically modern human]]s solely in the Horn of Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago and have dispersed from the Horn of Africa.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Ghirotto S|first=|author2=Penso-Dolfin L|author3=Barbujani G.|author4=|date=Aug 2011|year=2011|title=Genomic evidence for an African expansion of anatomically modern humans by a Southern route.|journal=Human Biology|volume=83|issue=4|pages=477–89|doi=10.3378/027.083.0403|pmc=|pmid=21846205|quote=Data on cranial morphology have been interpreted as suggesting that, before the main expansion from Africa through the Near East, anatomically modern humans may also have taken a Southern route from the Horn of Africa through the Arabian peninsula to India, Melanesia and Australia, about 100,000 yrs ago.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mellars|first=P|last2=KC|first2=Gori|last3=M|first3=Carr|last4=PA|first4=Soares|last5=Richards|first5=MB|date=Jun 2013|title=Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia.|pmid=23754394|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=110|pages=26|quote=These data support a coastally oriented dispersal of modern humans from eastern Africa to southern Asia ∼60-50 thousand years ago (ka). This was associated with distinctively African microlithic and "backed-segment" technologies analogous to the African "Howiesons Poort" and related technologies, together with a range of distinctively "modern" cultural and symbolic features (highly shaped bone tools, personal ornaments, abstract artistic motifs, microblade technology, etc.), similar to those that accompanied the replacement of "archaic" Neanderthal by anatomically modern human populations in other regions of western Eurasia at a broadly similar date.}}</ref> The recognition of ''[[Homo sapiens idaltu|Homo sapien idaltu]]'' as a [[Human subspecies|valid subspecies]] of the anatomically modern human lineage would justify the description of contemporary humans with the subspecies name ''H. s. sapiens''. Because of their early dating and unique physical characteristics, they represent the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans, as suggested by the [[Recent African origin of modern humans|Out-of-Africa]] theory.<ref name="White032">{{Citation|last=White|first=Tim D.|title=Pleistocene ''Homo sapiens'' from Middle Awash, Ethiopia|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=423|issue=6491|pages=742–747|year=2003|bibcode=2003Natur.423..742W|doi=10.1038/nature01669|pmid=12802332|last2=Asfaw|first2=B.|last3=DeGusta|first3=D.|last4=Gilbert|first4=H.|last5=Richards|first5=G. D.|last6=Suwa|first6=G.|last7=Howell|first7=F. C.|authorlink=Tim White (anthropologist)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/meet-the-contenders-for-earliest-modern-human-17801455/?no-ist|title=Meet the Contenders for Earliest Modern Human|date=January 11, 2012|publisher=Smithsonian|accessdate=June 8, 2016}}</ref>[[File:Red Sea2.png|thumb|left|upright|The [[Bab-el-Mandeb]] crossing in the [[Red Sea]]: now some 12 miles (20 km) wide, in prehistory narrower.]] |
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Ethiopian and Eritrean [[agriculture]] established the earliest known use of the seed grass [[teff]] (''Poa abyssinica'') between 4000 and 1000 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16-ejysyRCgC |title=The Agricultural Systems of the World |author=David B. Grigg |page=66 |date=1974 |publisher=C.U.P. |access-date=25 July 2013 |isbn=9780521098434 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141156/https://books.google.com/books?id=16-ejysyRCgC |url-status=live }}</ref> Teff is used to make the flatbread [[injera]]/taita. [[Coffee]] also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKj__YqTU4AC|title=Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia|first1=J. M. M.|last1=Engels|first2=J. G.|last2=Hawkes|first3=M.|last3=Worede|date=21 March 1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780521384568|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141246/https://books.google.com/books?id=WKj__YqTU4AC|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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Today at the [[Bab-el-Mandeb]] straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. |
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Historian [[Christopher Ehret]], cited genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker "[[Haplogroup E-M35|M35]]/[[Haplogroup E-M215|215]]" Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afrasian language family]] with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago.<ref name="Ancient Africa: A Global History, t">{{cite book |last1=Ehret |first1=Christopher |title=Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE |date=20 June 2023 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-24410-5 |pages=97, 167 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S5KjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |language=en |access-date=22 December 2023 |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715090326/https://books.google.com/books?id=S5KjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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According to linguists, the Horn of Africa is the [[Afroasiatic Urheimat|original homeland]] of the proto-Afroasiatic language as it is considered the region the Afroasiatic language family displays the greatest diversity, a sign often viewed to represent a geographic origin. The Horn of Africa is also the place where the haplogroup [[Haplogroup E-M215 (Y-DNA)|E1b1b]] originated from, [[Christopher Ehret]] and Shomarka Keita have suggested that the geography of the E1b1b lineage coincides with the distribution of the Afroasiatic languages.<ref name="ehret2004">{{cite journal|authorlink=Christopher Ehret|vauthors=Ehret C, Keita SO, Newman P|date=December 2004|title=The origins of Afroasiatic|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/citation/306/5702/1680c|journal=Science|volume=306|issue=5702|pages=1680; author reply 1680|doi=10.1126/science.306.5702.1680c|pmid=15576591}}</ref> Genetic analysis done on the Afroasiatic speaking population further found that a pre-agricultural back-to-Africa migration into the Horn of Africa occurred through Egypt 23,000 years ago and it brought a non-African ancestry dubbed Ethio-Somali in the region.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Jason A. Hodgson|author2=Connie J. Mulligan|author3=Ali Al-Meeri|author4=Ryan L. Raaum|date=June 12, 2014|title=Early Back-to-Africa Migration into the Horn of Africa|url=http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393&representation=PDF|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume=10|issue=6|pages=e1004393|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393|pmc=4055572|pmid=24921250}}; {{cite journal|title=Supplementary Text S1: Affinities of the Ethio-Somali ancestry component|url=http://www.plosgenetics.org/article/fetchSingleRepresentation.action?uri=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393.s017|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004393.s017|accessdate=9 June 2016}}</ref> |
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=== Ancient history === |
=== Ancient history === |
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{{main|Land of Punt|Dʿmt|Aksumite Empire}} |
{{main|Land of Punt|Dʿmt|Aksumite Empire|Maritime history of Somalia|Barbaria (East Africa)|Macrobia|Sesea|Ancient Somali City-States}} |
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{{further|History of Ethiopia|History of Eritrea|Ethiopian historiography}} |
{{further|History of Ethiopia|History of Eritrea|History of Somalia|History of Djibouti|Ethiopian historiography}} |
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[[File:Queen of punt.jpg|thumb|upright|Queen Ati, wife of King Perahu of [[Land of Punt|Punt]], as depicted on Pharaoh [[Hatshepsut]]'s temple at [[Deir el-Bahri]].]] |
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The area comprising [[Somalia]], [[Djibouti]], the [[Red Sea]] coast of [[Eritrea]] and [[Sudan]] is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient [[Egyptians]] as ''[[Land of Punt|Punt]]'' (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE.<ref>Simson Najovits, ''Egypt, trunk of the tree, Volume 2'', (Algora Publishing: 2004), p.258.</ref> |
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[[Dʿmt]] was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern [[Ethiopia]], which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital probably at [[Yeha]], the kingdom developed [[irrigation]] schemes, used [[plow]]s, grew [[millet]], and made [[iron]] tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite Kingdom]], which was able to reunite the area.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard K.P. ''Addis Tribune'', "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm Let's Look Across the Red Sea I]", 17 January 2003 (archive.org mirror copy)</ref> |
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[[File:Stela aksum.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[King Ezana's Stela]] at [[Aksum]], symbol of the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite civilization]].]] |
[[File:Stela aksum.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[King Ezana's Stela]] at [[Aksum]], symbol of the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite civilization]].]] |
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The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopian highlands]], which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Ancient India]], Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own [[Aksumite currency|currency]]. The state also established its [[hegemony]] over the declining [[Kingdom of Kush]] and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]]. Under [[Ezana]] (fl. 320–360), the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt [[Christianity]], and was named by [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] as one of the four great powers of his time, along with [[Sassanid Empire|Persia]], [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and [[Han dynasty|China]]. |
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[[Dʿmt]] was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern [[Ethiopia]], which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital at [[Yeha]], the kingdom developed [[irrigation]] schemes, used [[plow]]s, grew [[millet]], and made [[iron]] tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite Kingdom]], which was able to reunite the area.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard K.P. ''Addis Tribune'', "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060109162335/http://www.addistribune.com/Archives/2003/01/17-01-03/Let.htm Let's Look Across the Red Sea I]", January 17, 2003 (archive.org mirror copy)</ref> |
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[[File:MapHymiariteKingdom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ancient trading centers in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula according to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'']] |
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The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the [[Eritrean highlands]] and [[Ethiopian highlands]], which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Ancient India]], Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own [[Aksumite currency|currency]]. The state also established its [[hegemony]] over the declining [[Kingdom of Kush]] and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the [[Arabian peninsula]], eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]]. Under [[Ezana]] (fl. 320–360), the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt [[Christianity]], and was named by [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] as one of the four great powers of his time, along with [[Sassanid Empire|Persia]], [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and [[Han Dynasty|China]]. |
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Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of [[frankincense]], [[myrrh]] and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to the [[Ancient Egyptians]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaeans]], [[Babylonians]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]].<ref>Phoenicia, pg. 199.</ref><ref>Rose, Jeanne, and John Hulburd, ''The Aromatherapy Book'', p. 94.</ref> The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as ''Regio Aromatica''. In the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], several flourishing [[Sesea|Somali city-states]] such as [[Opone]], [[Mosylon]] and [[Malao]] also competed with the [[Sabaeans]], [[Parthia]]ns and [[Axumite Empire|Axumites]] for the rich [[India|Indo]]-[[Greco-Roman]] trade.<ref>Vine, Peter, ''Oman in History'', p. 324.</ref> |
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[[File:MapHymiariteKingdom.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Ancient trading centers in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian peninsula according to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'']] |
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Northern Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of [[frankincense]], [[myrrh]] and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to the [[Ancient Egyptians]], [[Phoenicians]], [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaeans]], [[Babylonians]] and [[Roman Empire|Romans]].<ref>Phoenicia, pg. 199.</ref><ref>Rose, Jeanne, and John Hulburd, ''The Aromatherapy Book'', p. 94.</ref> The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as ''Regio Aromatica''. In the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], several flourishing Somali city-states such as [[Opone]], [[Mosylon]] and [[Malao]] also competed with the [[Sabaean]]s, [[Parthia]]ns and [[Axumite Empire|Axumites]] for the rich [[India|Indo]]-[[Greco-Roman]] trade.<ref>Vine, Peter, ''Oman in History'', p. 324.</ref> |
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The [[History of Islam|birth of Islam]] opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted [[Arab]] Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the [[Islamic world]] to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic [[Mogadishu]], [[Berbera]], [[Zeila]], [[Barawa]] and [[Merka]], which were part of the ''[[Barbara (region)|Barbara civilization]]''.<ref name="Laitin">David D. Laitin, Said S. Samatar, ''Somalia: Nation in Search of a State'', (Westview Press: 1987), p. 15.</ref><ref>I.M. Lewis, ''A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa'', 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p.20</ref> The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam"<ref>Brons, Maria (2003), ''Society, Security, Sovereignty and the State in Somalia: From Statelessness to Statelessness?'', p. 116.</ref> and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.<ref>Morgan, W. T. W. (1969), ''East Africa: Its Peoples and Resources'', p. 18.</ref> |
The [[History of Islam|birth of Islam]] opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted [[Arab]] Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the [[Islamic world]] to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic [[Mogadishu]], [[Berbera]], [[Zeila]], [[Barawa]] and [[Merka]], which were part of the ''[[Barbara (region)|Barbara civilization]]''.<ref name="Laitin">David D. Laitin, Said S. Samatar, ''Somalia: Nation in Search of a State'', (Westview Press: 1987), p. 15.</ref><ref>I.M. Lewis, ''A modern history of Somalia: nation and state in the Horn of Africa'', 2nd edition, revised, illustrated, (Westview Press: 1988), p.20</ref> The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam"<ref>Brons, Maria (2003), ''Society, Security, Sovereignty and the State in Somalia: From Statelessness to Statelessness?'', p. 116.</ref> and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.<ref>Morgan, W. T. W. (1969), ''East Africa: Its Peoples and Resources'', p. 18.</ref> |
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===Middle Ages and Early Modern era=== |
===Middle Ages and Early Modern era=== |
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{{main|Adal Sultanate|Ajuran Sultanate| |
{{main|Adal Sultanate|Ajuran Sultanate|Isaaq Sultanate|Ethiopian Empire|Sultanate of Showa|Sultanate of Ifat|Sultanate of the Geledi|Zagwe dynasty|Sultanate of Mogadishu|Aussa Sultanate|Majeerteen Sultanate|Sultanate of Hobyo| Khedivate's Somali Coast|Ottoman Zeila |
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}} |
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[[File:Zayla.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Sultanate of Adal]] in [[Zeila]]]] |
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{{further|History of Africa#Horn of Africa}} |
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[[File:Map of Ethiopia circa 1350.png|thumb|The expansion of the [[Habesha Kingdom]] during the [[Amda Seyon I's expansions|campaigns]] of [[Amde Seyon I]]]] |
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[[File:Map of Ethiopia circa 1540.png|thumb|The [[Adal Sultanate]] at its peak in 1540]] |
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During the [[Middle Ages]], several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the [[Adal Sultanate]], the [[Ajuran Sultanate]], the [[ |
During the [[Middle Ages]], several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the [[Adal Sultanate]], the [[Ajuran Sultanate]], the [[Ethiopian Empire]], the [[Zagwe dynasty]], and the [[Sultanate of the Geledi]]. |
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The [[Sultanate of Showa]], established in 896, was one of the oldest local [[Islam]]ic states. It was centered in the former [[Shewa]] province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the [[Sultanate of Ifat]] around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at [[Zeila]] in |
The [[Sultanate of Showa]], established in 896, was one of the oldest local [[Islam]]ic states. It was centered in the former [[Shewa]] province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the [[Sultanate of Ifat]] around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at [[Zeila]] in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate.<ref name=C1>{{cite book|author-link=Nehemia Levtzion|author1=Nehemia Levtzion|author2=Randall Pouwels|title=The History of Islam in Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA228|year=2000|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-4461-0|page=228|access-date=11 November 2016|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141259/https://books.google.com/books?id=J1Ipt5A9mLMC&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The [[Adal Sultanate]] was a medieval multi-ethnic [[Muslim]] state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as [[Amud]], [[Maduna]], [[Abasa, Somalia|Abasa]], [[Berbera]], [[Zeila]] and [[Harar]], flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous [[courtyard|courtyard houses]], [[mosque]]s, [[shrine]]s and [[defensive wall|walled enclosures]]. Under the leadership of rulers such as [[Sabr ad-Din II]], [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|Mansur ad-Din]], [[Jamal ad-Din II]], [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|Shams ad-Din]], General [[Mahfuz]] and [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]], Adalite armies continued the struggle against the [[Solomonic dynasty]], a campaign historically known as the [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] or ''Futuh al Habash''. |
The [[Adal Sultanate]] was a medieval multi-ethnic [[Muslim]] state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as [[Amud]], [[Maduna]], [[Abasa, Somalia|Abasa]], [[Berbera]], [[Zeila]] and [[Harar]], flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous [[courtyard|courtyard houses]], [[mosque]]s, [[shrine]]s and [[defensive wall|walled enclosures]]. Under the leadership of rulers such as [[Sabr ad-Din II]], [[Mansur ad-Din of Adal|Mansur ad-Din]], [[Jamal ad-Din II]], [[Shams ad-Din ibn Muhammad|Shams ad-Din]], General [[Mahfuz]] and [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]], Adalite armies continued the struggle against the [[Solomonic dynasty]], a campaign historically known as the [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Conquest of Abyssinia]] or ''Futuh al Habash''. |
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The [[Warsangali Sultanate]] was a kingdom centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the [[Sanaag]] region and parts of the northeastern [[Bari, Somalia|Bari]] region of the country, an area historically known as [[Maakhir]] or the ''[[Maakhir Coast]]''. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the [[Warsangali]] branch of the [[Darod]] clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the [[Gerad Dhidhin]]. |
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[[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|thumb|left|The [[citadel]] in [[Gondershe]], an important city in the medieval [[Ajuran Sultanate]]]] |
[[File:Gondereshe2008.jpg|thumb|left|The [[citadel]] in [[Gondershe]], an important city in the medieval [[Ajuran Sultanate]]]] |
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Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the [[Ajuran Sultanate]] successfully resisted an [[Oromo people|Oromo]] invasion from the west and a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese |
Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the [[Ajuran Sultanate]] successfully resisted an [[Oromo people|Oromo]] invasion from the west and a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] incursion from the east during the [[Gaal Madow]] and the [[Ajuran Sultanate#Ajuran-Portuguese battles|Ajuran-Portuguese wars]]. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of [[Maritime history of Somalia|Somali maritime enterprise]] were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive [[Somali architecture|architectural legacy]]. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers,<ref>Shaping of Somali Society pg 101</ref> including a lot of the [[pillar tomb]] fields, [[necropolis]]es and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, the [[House of Gareen]], also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances.<ref>Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900 (African Studies) by Pouwels, Randall L.. pg 15</ref> |
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The [[Zagwe dynasty]] ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]-speaking [[Agaw people]] of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the [[Solomonic dynasty]] ruled the [[Ethiopian Empire]]. |
The [[Zagwe dynasty]] ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]]-speaking [[Agaw people]] of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the [[Solomonic dynasty]] ruled the [[Ethiopian Empire]]. |
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In 1270, the [[Amharas|Amhara]] nobleman [[Yekuno Amlak]], who claimed descent from the last [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksumite]] king and ultimately the [[Queen of Sheba]], overthrew the [[Agaw people|Agaw]] [[Zagwe dynasty]] at the [[Battle of Ansata]], ushering his reign as [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]. While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the empire managed to expand significantly during the [[crusades]] of [[Amda Seyon I]] (1314–1344) and his successors, becoming the dominant force in [[East Africa]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erlikh |first1=Hagai |title=The Nile Histories, Cultures, Myths |year=2000 |publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers |page=41 |isbn=9781555876722 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&dq=eleni+hadiya+princess&pg=PA41 |access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141703/https://books.google.com/books?id=LcsJosc239YC&dq=eleni+hadiya+princess&pg=PA41#v=onepage&q=eleni%20hadiya%20princess&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hassen |first1=Mohammed |title=Oromo of Ethiopia with special emphasis on the Gibe region |publisher=University of London |page=22 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |access-date=4 November 2023 |archive-date=13 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213003344/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/29226/1/10731321.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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[[File:Lalibela_Église_Bet_Giyorgis.JPG|thumb|The [[Lalibela]] churches carved by the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in the 12th century.]] |
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[[File:Lalibela_Église_Bet_Giyorgis.JPG|thumb|The [[Lalibela]] churches carved by the [[Zagwe dynasty]] in the 12th century]] |
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In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King [[Henry IV of England]] to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.<ref>Ian Mortimer, ''The Fears of Henry IV'' (2007), p. 111</ref> In 1428, the Emperor [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia|Yeshaq]] sent two emissaries to [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.<ref name="Beshah">[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 13–14.</ref> |
In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King [[Henry IV of England]] to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.<ref>Ian Mortimer, ''The Fears of Henry IV'' (2007), p. 111</ref> In 1428, the Emperor [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia|Yeshaq]] sent two emissaries to [[Alfonso V of Aragon]], who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.<ref name="Beshah">[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 13–14.</ref> |
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The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Lebna Dengel]], who had just inherited the throne from his father.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], p. 25.</ref> This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the [[Adal Sultanate]] General and [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (called "''Gurey''" or "''Grañ''", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son [[Gelawdewos of Ethiopia|Gelawdewos]] defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 45–52.</ref> This [[Abyssinian–Adal War]] was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the [[Ottoman Empire]], and Portugal took sides in the conflict. |
The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Lebna Dengel]], who had just inherited the throne from his father.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], p. 25.</ref> This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the [[Adal Sultanate]] General and [[Imam]] [[Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi]] (called "''Gurey''" or "''Grañ''", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son [[Gelawdewos of Ethiopia|Gelawdewos]] defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 45–52.</ref> This [[Abyssinian–Adal War|Ethiopian–Adal War]] was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the [[Ottoman Empire]], and Portugal took sides in the conflict. |
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[[File: |
[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving of the 13th century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]] built by Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]]]] |
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When Emperor [[Susenyos of Ethiopia|Susenyos]] converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 91, 97–104.</ref> The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On |
When Emperor [[Susenyos of Ethiopia|Susenyos]] converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], pp. 91, 97–104.</ref> The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor [[Fasilides of Ethiopia|Fasilides]], declared the state religion to again be [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity]], and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans.<ref>[[#Beshah|Beshah & Aregay (1964)]], p. 105.</ref><ref>van Donzel, Emeri, "Fasilädäs" in Siegbert Uhlig, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'' (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), p. 500.</ref> |
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During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by [[Ali I of Yejju]] several successive descendants of him and [[Abba Seru Gwangul]] ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan the [[Yejju Oromo tribe]] as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard, ''The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles'', (London:Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 139–43.</ref> |
During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by [[Ali I of Yejju]] several successive descendants of him and [[Abba Seru Gwangul]] ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan the [[Yejju Oromo tribe]] as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo.<ref>Pankhurst, Richard, ''The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles'', (London:Oxford University Press, 1967), pp. 139–43.</ref> |
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[[File:ST-Massowa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The port of [[Massawa]], Eritrea, founded by the Arabs and later modernized and expanded [[Italian Eritrea|by the Italians]], in a 19th-century engraving]] |
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[[File:Hobyo Sultanate Cavalry And Fort.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]]'s [[cavalry]] and fort]] |
[[File:Hobyo Sultanate Cavalry And Fort.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]]'s [[cavalry]] and fort]] |
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The [[Sultanate of the Geledi]] was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier [[Ibrahim Adeer]], who had defeated various [[vassal]]s of the Ajuran Empire and established the ''House of Gobroon''. The [[dynasty]] reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]], who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the [[Bardera|Bardera wars]], and Sultan [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]], who forced regional powers such as the [[Oman|Omani Empire]] to submit [[tribute]]. |
The [[Sultanate of the Geledi]] was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier [[Ibrahim Adeer]], who had defeated various [[vassal]]s of the Ajuran Empire and established the ''House of Gobroon''. The [[dynasty]] reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan [[Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim]], who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the [[Bardera|Bardera wars]], and Sultan [[Ahmed Yusuf (Gobroon)|Ahmed Yusuf]], who forced regional powers such as the [[Oman|Omani Empire]] to submit [[tribute]]. |
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The [[Isaaq Sultanate]] was a [[Somali people|Somali]] kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the [[Isaaq]] clan, descendants of the [[Banu Hashim]] clan,<ref name="Lewisapd">I. M. Lewis, ''A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa'', (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157.</ref> in modern-day [[Somaliland]] and [[Ethiopia]]. The sultanate was governed by the [[Guled Dynasty|Reer Guled]] branch of the [[Eidagale]] sub-clan established by the first sultan, Sultan [[Guled Abdi (Sultan)|Guled Abdi]]. The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern [[Somaliland]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa {{!}} Somalidiasporanews.com|url=http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|access-date=9 January 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=19 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219181303/http://www.qurbejoog.com/taariikhda-beerta-suldaan-cabdilaahi-ee-hargeysa/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Genealogies of the Somal|date=1896|publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode (London)|language=english}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). {{!}} Togdheer News Network|url=http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|access-date=9 August 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=11 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111020220/http://togdheernews.com/articles/31/05/2016/taariikhda-saldanada-reer-guuleed-ee-somaliland-abwaanibraahim-rashiid-cismaan-guure-aboor/|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by [[Boqor|King]] [[Osman Mahamuud]] during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.<ref name="HOA">''Horn of Africa'', Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.</ref><ref name="NEAS">Michigan State University. African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11–12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p.32.</ref> Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous [[Puntland]] region in northeastern Somalia.<ref name="IIA">Istituto italo-africano, ''Africa: rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione'', Volume 56, (Edizioni africane: 2001), p.591.</ref> |
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According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the [[Isaaq]] clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of [[Ishaaq bin Ahmed|Sheikh Ishaaq]]'s [[Harari people|Harari]] wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ({{Langx|so|Boqor Haaruun}}) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 October 2017|title=Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland|url=https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|access-date=11 August 2021|website=Hubaal Media|language=en-US|archive-date=11 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811205734/https://www.hubaalmedia.net/degmada-cusub-ee-dacarta-oo-loogu-wanqalay-munaasibad-kulmisay-madaxda-iyo-haldoorka-somaliland/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Taariikhda Toljecle|url=https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html|access-date=9 August 2021|website=www.tashiwanaag.com|archive-date=9 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809022129/https://www.tashiwanaag.com/toljecle-taariikh-ahaan.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The last Tolje'lo ruler [[Garad]] Dhuh Barar ({{langx|so|Dhuux Baraar}}) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the [[Habr Awal]] with whom they still mostly live.<ref>{{Citation|title=Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI|language=en|access-date=15 August 2021|archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815225220/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MfB4XvREbI|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5</ref> |
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The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]]. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in [[Yemen]]. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] with a band of [[Hadhramaut|Hadhrami]] [[musketeer]]s and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northeastern and central Somalia during the early modern period.<ref name="Metz">Helen Chapin Metz, ''Somalia: a country study'', (The Division: 1993), p.10.</ref> |
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The [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by [[Boqor|King]] [[Osman Mahamuud]] during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.<ref name="HOA">''Horn of Africa'', Volume 15, Issues 1–4, (Horn of Africa Journal: 1997), p.130.</ref><ref name="NEAS">Michigan State University. African Studies Center, Northeast African studies, Volumes 11–12, (Michigan State University Press: 1989), p.32.</ref> Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous [[Puntland]] region in northern Somalia.<ref name="IIA">Istituto italo-africano, ''[[Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione|Africa: rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione]]'', Volume 56, (Edizioni africane: 2001), p.591.</ref> |
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===Modern history=== |
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{{main|First Italo-Abyssinian War|Second Italo-Abyssinian War|East African Campaign (World War II)|Italian East Africa|Somaliland Campaign}} |
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[[File:Eritrea - Government building, Asmara.jpg|thumb|right|Building of regional administration in [[Asmara]]]] |
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The [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan [[Yusuf Ali Kenadid]]. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in [[Yemen]]. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] with a band of [[Hadhramaut|Hadhrami]] [[musketeer]]s and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period.<ref name="Metz">[[Helen Chapin Metz]], ''Somalia: a country study'', (The Division: 1993), p.10.</ref> |
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In the period following the opening of the [[Suez canal]] in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish [[coaling station]]s for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied [[Eritrea]]. On January 1, 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of [[Italy]]. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a province of [[Italian East Africa]] (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italian Somaliland]]. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Tesfagiorgis | first = Gebre Hiwet | title = Emergent Eritrea: challenges of economic development | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111| publisher = The Red Sea Press | year = 1993 | page = 111 | isbn = 0-932415-91-1}}</ref> The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941,<ref>[http://www.statoids.com/uer.html Regions of Eritrea] (accessed Nov 17, 2009)</ref> and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a [[UN Mandate]] until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, as per UN resolution 390(A) and under the prompting of the United States adopted in December 1950. |
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===Modern history=== |
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[[File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|thumb|left|Map of Africa in 1909, the Horn region is the easternmost projection of the African continent.]] |
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{{main|Italian Eritrea|Italian Somaliland|Italian East Africa|British Somaliland|French Somaliland|French Territory of the Afars and the Issas}} |
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{{see also|Dervish movement (Somali)|Agar Maqnat|British expedition to Abyssinia|First Italo-Abyssinian War|Second Italo-Abyssinian War|East African Campaign (World War II)|Somaliland Campaign|Ogaden War|Ethiopian Civil War|Eritrean War of Independence|Djiboutian–Eritrean border conflict|Ethiopian-Somali conflict|Somali Civil War|Piracy off the coast of Somalia}} |
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[[File:Africa 1909, Edward Hertslet (Map of Africa by treaty, 3rd edition).jpg|thumb|A 1909 map of Africa; the Horn of Africa is the easternmost projection of the African continent.]] |
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In the period following the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869, when European powers [[Scramble for Africa|scrambled for territory in Africa]] and tried to establish [[coaling station]]s for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied [[Eritrea]]. On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of [[Italy]]. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a [[Provinces of Ethiopia|province]] of [[Italian East Africa]] (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italian Somaliland]]. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Tesfagiorgis | first = Gebre Hiwet | title = Emergent Eritrea: challenges of economic development | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111 | publisher = The Red Sea Press | year = 1993 | page = 111 | isbn = 978-0-932415-91-2 | access-date = 14 October 2015 | archive-date = 16 February 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230216165941/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuCBNoOpQyEC&pg=PA111 | url-status = live }}</ref> The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941,<ref>[http://www.statoids.com/uer.html Regions of Eritrea] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812040841/http://www.statoids.com/uer.html |date=12 August 2011 }} (accessed 17 November 2009)</ref> and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a [[UN Mandate]] until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950. |
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The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in |
The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its [[Red Sea]] coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province [[Federation of Ethiopia and Eritrea#Aftermath|in 1962]]. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of [[Amharic]], the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a [[Eritrean War of Independence|30-year war]] against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervised [[Eritrean independence referendum, 1993|referendum]] in Eritrea (dubbed [[UNOVER]]) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.<ref name="Britannica_Eritrea-page20">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37675/Eritrea |title=Eritrea – The spreading revolution |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Article |access-date=16 October 2007 |archive-date=12 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012134946/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-37675/Eritrea |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]].<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/07/news/eritrea.php Eritrea orders Westerners in UN mission out in 10 days] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619042941/http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/07/news/eritrea.php |date=19 June 2008 }}. ''International Herald Tribune''. 7 December 2005</ref> |
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[[File:Raheita Incident 1898.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eritrean Ascari]]s, colonial troops of the Italian Army, in a 1898 wood engraving]] |
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[[File:Porta Ai Giardini, Mogadishu.jpg|thumb|upright|Porta di Giardini (Gate Gardens) at Mogadishu market, [[Italian Somaliland]]]] |
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[[File:Engelse kameelruiters - English camel troopers.jpg|thumb|upright|British camel troopers in [[British Somaliland]]]] |
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[[File:Damagedsomalitank.jgp.jpg|thumb|upright|Somali engineers repair a captured Ethiopian [[T-34 tank|T-34/85 Model 1969 tank]] for use by the [[Western Somali Liberation Front]] during the [[Ogaden War]], March 1978]] |
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[[File:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg|thumb|upright|United Nations soldiers, part of the [[United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea]], monitoring [[Eritrea–Ethiopia boundary]] (2005)]] |
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From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the [[Gulf of Tadjoura]] situated in modern-day [[Djibouti]] was called ''Obock'' and was ruled by [[Somali people|Somali]] and [[Afar people|Afar]] [[Sultan]]s, local authorities with whom [[France]] signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region.<ref name="Uwechue">Raph Uwechue, ''Africa year book and who's who'', (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p.209.</ref><ref>Hugh Chisholm (ed.), ''The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information'', Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.</ref><ref name="Apcoatf">''A Political Chronology of Africa'', (Taylor & Francis), p.132.</ref> In 1894, [[Léonce Lagarde]] established a permanent French administration in the [[Djibouti (city)|city of Djibouti]] and named the region ''Côte française des Somalis'' ([[French Somaliland]]), a name which continued until 1967. |
From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the [[Gulf of Tadjoura]] situated in modern-day [[Djibouti]] was called ''Obock'' and was ruled by [[Somali people|Somali]] and [[Afar people|Afar]] [[Sultan]]s, local authorities with whom [[France]] signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region.<ref name="Uwechue">Raph Uwechue, ''Africa year book and who's who'', (Africa Journal Ltd.: 1977), p.209.</ref><ref>Hugh Chisholm (ed.), ''The encyclopædia britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information'', Volume 25, (At the University press: 1911), p.383.</ref><ref name="Apcoatf">''A Political Chronology of Africa'', (Taylor & Francis), p.132.</ref> In 1894, [[Léonce Lagarde]] established a permanent French administration in the [[Djibouti (city)|city of Djibouti]] and named the region ''Côte française des Somalis'' ([[French Somaliland]]), a name which continued until 1967. |
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In 1958, on the eve of neighboring [[Somalia]]'s independence in 1960, a [[referendum]] was held in the territory to decide whether |
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring [[Somalia]]'s independence in 1960, a [[referendum]] was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.<ref name=Barrington2006>Barrington, Lowell, ''After Independence: Making and Protecting the Nation in Postcolonial and Postcommunist States'', (University of Michigan Press: 2006), p.115</ref> There was also reports of widespread [[vote rigging]], with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls.<ref>[[#Shillington|Shillington (2005)]], p. 360.</ref> The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by [[Mahmoud Harbi]], Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.<ref name=Barrington2006/> Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977. [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]], a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999).<ref name=Barrington2006/> In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a [[2011 Djiboutian protests|series of protests]] against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger [[Arab Spring]] demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling [[People's Rally for Progress]] party was re-elected to office. |
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[[File:Gragne.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright|Statue of [[Ahmed Gurey]] (Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi), the Somali Imam who invaded Abyssinia in the 16th century]] |
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[[Mohammed Abdullah Hassan]]'s [[Dervish State]] successfully repulsed the [[British Empire]] four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.<ref>[[#Shillington|Shillington (2005)]], p. 1406.</ref> Due to these successful expeditions, the Dervish State was recognized as an ally by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and [[German Empire]]s. The [[Turkish people|Turks]] also named Hassan [[Emir]] of the Somali nation,<ref>I.M. Lewis, ''The modern history of Somaliland: from nation to state'', (Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1965), p. 78</ref> and the [[German people|Germans]] promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.<ref>Thomas P. Ofcansky, Historical dictionary of Ethiopia, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: 2004), p.405</ref> After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of [[Airstrike|aerial bombardment]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Samatar | first = Said Sheikh | title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1982 | pages = 131 & 135 | isbn = 0-521-23833-1}}</ref> As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a [[protectorate]] of Britain. [[Italy]] faced similar opposition from Somali [[Sultan]]s and armies, and did not acquire full control of parts of modern Somalia until the [[Fascist|Fascist era]] in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[military administration]]. Northern Somalia would remain a [[protectorate]], while southern Somalia became a [[United Nations Trusteeship|trusteeship]]. The Union of the two regions in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on July 20, 1961, through a popular [[referendum]], a new [[constitution]] that had first been drafted the year before was ratified.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338.</ref> |
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The [[Dervish movement (Nugaal)|Dervish]] existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. The [[Turkish people|Turks]] named Hassan [[Emir]] of the Somali nation,<ref>I.M. Lewis, ''The modern history of Somaliland: from nation to state'', (Weidenfeld & Nicolson: 1965), p. 78</ref> and the [[German people|Germans]] promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.<ref>Thomas P. Ofcansky, Historical dictionary of Ethiopia, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: 2004), p.405</ref> After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of [[Airstrike|aerial bombardment]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Samatar | first = Said Sheikh | title = Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism | url = https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama | url-access = limited | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1982 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/oralpoetrysomali00sama/page/n144 131]& 135 | isbn = 978-0-521-23833-5}}</ref> As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a [[protectorate]] of Britain. [[Italy]] faced similar opposition from Somali [[Sultan]]s and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until the [[Fascist|Fascist era]] in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[military administration]]. Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, a [[United Nations Trusteeship|trusteeship]] of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular [[referendum]], the [[constitution]] drafted in 1960 was ratified.<ref>Greystone Press Staff, ''The Illustrated Library of The World and Its Peoples: Africa, North and East'', (Greystone Press: 1967), p.338.</ref> |
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Due to its longstanding ties with the [[Arab world]], Somalia was accepted in 1974 as a member of the [[Arab League]].<ref name="Frankel">Benjamin Frankel, ''The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World'', (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.</ref> During the same year, the nation's former [[Socialism|socialist]] administration also chaired the [[Organization of African Unity]], the predecessor of the [[African Union]].<ref name="Yang">Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.</ref> In 1991, the [[Somali Civil War]] broke out, which saw the collapse of the federal government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the [[Puntland]] administration in the northeast and [[Somaliland]], an [[Diplomatic recognition|unrecognised]] self-declared [[sovereign state]] that is internationally recognised as an [[States and regions of Somalia|autonomous region]] of Somalia,<ref name="NYT">{{Cite news| title = The Signs Say Somaliland, but the World Says Somalia| publisher = New York Times| date = 2006-06-05| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/world/africa/05somaliland.html| accessdate = 2010-02-02| first=Marc| last=Lacey}}</ref> in the northwest. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either [[Civil law (legal system)|secular]], [[religious law|Islamic]] or [[customary law]], with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A [[Transitional Federal Government]] was subsequently created in 2004.<ref name=2009factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|title=Somalia|accessdate=2009-05-31|date=2009-05-14|work=[[World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> The [[Federal Government of Somalia]] was established on August 20, 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm">{{cite news|title=Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|accessdate=24 August 2012|newspaper=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation|date=21 August 2012}}</ref> It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm"/> The [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]] serves as the government's [[Legislature|legislative]] branch.<ref name="Gttsdpc">{{cite web|title=Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution|url=http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|accessdate=2 August 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6Irrm56u6?url=http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8=&tabid=9705&language=en-US|archivedate=14 August 2013|df=}}</ref> |
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Due to its longstanding ties with the [[Arab world]], the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of the [[Arab League]].<ref name="Frankel">Benjamin Frankel, ''The Cold War, 1945–1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World'', (Gale Research: 1992), p.306.</ref> During the same year, the nation's former [[Socialism|socialist]] administration also chaired the [[Organization of African Unity]], the predecessor of the [[African Union]].<ref name="Yang">Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th Ed., (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p.1025.</ref> In 1991, the [[Somali Civil War]] broke out, which saw the dissolving of the union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the [[Puntland]] administration in the north.<ref name="NYT">{{cite news| title = The Signs Say Somaliland, but the World Says Somalia| newspaper = New York Times| date = 5 June 2006| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/world/africa/05somaliland.html| access-date = 2 February 2010| first = Marc| last = Lacey| archive-date = 27 June 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110627215844/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/05/world/africa/05somaliland.html| url-status = live}}</ref> Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either [[Civil law (legal system)|secular]], [[religious law|Islamic]] or [[customary law]], with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A [[Transitional Federal Government]] was subsequently created in 2004.<ref name=2009factbook>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612204029/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 June 2007|title=Somalia|access-date=31 May 2009|date=14 May 2009|work=[[World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> The [[Federal Government of Somalia]] was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm">{{cite news|title=Somalia: UN Envoy Says Inauguration of New Parliament in Somalia 'Historic Moment'|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|access-date=24 August 2012|newspaper=Forum on China-Africa Cooperation|date=21 August 2012|archive-date=14 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014234626/http://allafrica.com/stories/201208220474.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.<ref name="Fcacsunesinpshm"/> The [[Federal Parliament of Somalia]] serves as the government's [[Legislature|legislative]] branch.<ref name="Gttsdpc">{{cite web|title=Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution|url=http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|access-date=2 August 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120021547/http://unpos.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=v067edqd7a8%3D&tabid=9705&language=en-US|archive-date=20 January 2013}}</ref> |
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[[File:Addis Ababa-8e00855u.jpg|thumb|left|[[Haile Selassie]]'s reign as emperor of [[Ethiopia]] is the best known and perhaps most influential in the nation's history.]] |
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Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Emperor Menelik II]] and [[Ras Gobena]].<ref name="Young">John Young. "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia" Third World Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2 (June 1998) pp. 192</ref> From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate |
Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Emperor Menelik II]] and [[Ras Gobena]].<ref name="Young">John Young. "Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia" Third World Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 2 (June 1998) pp. 192</ref> From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.'<ref name="Young"/><ref>the people subjugated and incorporated were the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups. International Crisis Group. "Ethiopia: Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" Africa Report No. 153, (4 September 2009) pp. 2</ref> He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.<ref>''Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire'' Edward C. Keefer, International Journal of African Studies'' Vol. 6 No. 3 (1973) page 470''</ref> Menelik had signed the [[Treaty of Wichale]] with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea).<ref>[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], pp. 13–14.</ref> In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor.<ref name="Tekeste">[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], p. 14.</ref> The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians.<ref name="Tekeste"/> This conflict erupted in the [[Battle of Adwa]] on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.<ref>[[#Negash|Negash (2005)]], p. 14, and ICG "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents" pp 2; Italy lost over 4.600 nationals in this battle.</ref> |
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The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie I]], who came to power after [[Iyasu V of Ethiopia|Iyasu V]] was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]], after which |
The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie I]], who came to power after [[Iyasu V of Ethiopia|Iyasu V]] was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]], after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to [[Italian East Africa]].<ref>Clapham, Christopher, "Ḫaylä Śəllase" in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed., ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha'' (Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005), pp. 1062–3.</ref> Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the [[League of Nations]], delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and 1935's [[Time Person of the Year|''Time'' magazine Man of the Year]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755559-1,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090730014234/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,755559-1,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 July 2009 |title=Man of the Year |magazine=TIME |date=6 January 1936 |access-date=16 March 2009}}</ref> Following the entry of Italy into World War II, [[British Empire]] forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia during the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]] in 1941.<ref>Clapham, "Ḫaylä Śəllase", ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica'', p. 1063.</ref> |
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Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[military junta]], the [[Derg]] led by [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]], deposed him, and established a one-party [[communist state]], which was called the [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia]]. In July 1977, the [[Ogaden War]] broke out after the Somalia government of [[Siad Barre]] sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited [[Ogaden]] region into a Pan-Somali [[Greater Somalia]]. By September 1977, the [[Military of Somalia|Somali army]] controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from the [[USSR]], [[Cuba]], [[South Yemen]], [[East Germany]]<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dagne | first = Haile Gabriel | title = The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources | publisher = Lit; Global | year = 2006 | location = Münster, London | isbn = 978-3-8258-9535-8}}</ref> and [[North Korea]], including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. |
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[[File:Senay.jpg|thumb|[[Addis Ababa]], capital of Ethiopia since 1886.]] |
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In 1989, the [[Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front]] (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the [[Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/news_archive/EFP_ethio-yemen_relations.htm |title=Core Principles of Ethiopia's Foreign Policy: Ethiopia-Yemen relations |publisher=Ethioembassy.org.uk |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=10 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510230458/http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/news_archive/EFP_ethio-yemen_relations.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Zenawi died in 2012, but his [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia. |
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Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[military junta]], the [[Derg]] led by [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]], deposed him, and established a one-party [[communist state]], which was called the [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia]]. In July 1977, the [[Ogaden War]] broke out after the government of President of Somalia [[Siad Barre]] sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited [[Ogaden]] region into a Pan-Somali [[Greater Somalia]]. By September 1977, the [[Military of Somalia|Somali army]] controlled 90% of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from the [[USSR]], [[Cuba]], [[South Yemen]], [[East Germany]]<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dagne | first = Haile Gabriel | title = The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources | publisher = Lit; Global | year = 2006 | location = Münster, London | isbn = 978-3-8258-9535-8}}</ref> and [[North Korea]], including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. |
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In 1989, the [[Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front]] (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the [[Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister [[Meles Zenawi]] was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethioembassy.org.uk/news_archive/EFP_ethio-yemen_relations.htm |title=Core Principles of Ethiopia’s Foreign Policy: Ethiopia-Yemen relations |publisher=Ethioembassy.org.uk |date= |accessdate=2013-07-25}}</ref> Zenawi died in 2012, but his [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia. |
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==Geography== |
==Geography== |
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The Horn of Africa is almost [[:wikt:equidistant|equidistant]] from the [[equator]] and the [[Tropic of Cancer]]. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the [[Great Rift Valley (geographical concept)|Great Rift Valley]], a fissure in the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]] extending from [[Turkey]] to [[Mozambique]] and marking the separation of the African and Arabian [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]]. Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley. |
The Horn of Africa is almost [[:wikt:equidistant|equidistant]] from the [[equator]] and the [[Tropic of Cancer]]. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the [[Great Rift Valley (geographical concept)|Great Rift Valley]], a fissure in the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]] extending from [[Turkey]] to [[Mozambique]] and marking the separation of the African and Arabian [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]]. Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley. |
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Geologically, the Horn and [[Yemen]] once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the [[Gulf of Aden]] rifted and separated the Horn region from the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="Ranrestar">{{cite web|title=2007 Annual Report|url=http://www.rangeresources.com.au/fileadmin/user_upload/Financial_Reports/RRS_Annual_Report_2007__PRINTERS_FINAL_.pdf|publisher=Range Resources| |
Geologically, the Horn and [[Yemen]] once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the [[Gulf of Aden]] rifted and separated the Horn region from the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref name="Ranrestar">{{cite web|title=2007 Annual Report|url=http://www.rangeresources.com.au/fileadmin/user_upload/Financial_Reports/RRS_Annual_Report_2007__PRINTERS_FINAL_.pdf|publisher=Range Resources|access-date=14 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321194039/http://www.rangeresources.com.au/fileadmin/user_upload/Financial_Reports/RRS_Annual_Report_2007__PRINTERS_FINAL_.pdf|archive-date=21 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Rrloageappabh">{{cite web|title=Oil and Gas Exploration and Production – Playing a Better Hand|url=http://www.rangeresources.com.au/fileadmin/user_upload/research_Reports/lloydsEJ_feb12.pdf|publisher=Range Resources|access-date=14 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121017183314/http://www.rangeresources.com.au/fileadmin/user_upload/research_Reports/lloydsEJ_feb12.pdf|archive-date=17 October 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Somali Plate]] is bounded on the west by the East African Rift, which stretches south from the [[triple junction]] in the [[Afar Depression]], and an undersea continuation of the rift extending southward offshore. The northern boundary is the [[Aden Ridge]] along the coast of [[Saudi Arabia]]. The eastern boundary is the [[Central Indian Ridge]], the northern portion of which is also known as the [[Carlsberg Ridge]]. The southern boundary is the [[Southwest Indian Ridge]]. |
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Extensive [[glacier]]s once covered the [[Simien Mountains|Simien]] and [[Bale Mountains]] but melted at the beginning of the [[Holocene]]. The mountains descend in a huge [[escarpment]] to the [[Red Sea]] and more steadily to the [[Indian Ocean]]. [[Socotra]] is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 |
Extensive [[glacier]]s once covered the [[Simien Mountains|Simien]] and [[Bale Mountains]] but melted at the beginning of the [[Holocene]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kaser|first1=Georg|last2=Osmaston|first2=Henry|title=Tropical Glaciers|year=2002|pages=150, 164|isbn=9780521633338}}</ref> The mountains descend in a huge [[escarpment]] to the [[Red Sea]] and more steadily to the [[Indian Ocean]]. [[Socotra]] is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is {{convert|3,600|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} and it is a territory of Yemen. |
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The [[lowland]]s of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical [[monsoon]]s that give seasonal rains to the [[Sahel]] and the [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]] blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and Somalia, with the result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season. |
The [[lowland]]s of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical [[monsoon]]s that give seasonal rains to the [[Sahel]] and the [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]] blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and northern part of Somalia, with the result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season.<ref name="Desert">{{cite book|last=Warner|first=Thomas T.|title=Desert Meteorology|pages=99-104|isbn=978-0-521-81798-1|year=2004}}</ref> |
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[[File:Nasa Horn of Africa.JPG|thumb|left|The Horn of Africa. [[NASA]] image]] |
[[File:Nasa Horn of Africa.JPG|thumb|left|The Horn of Africa. [[NASA]] image]] |
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In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 |
In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over {{convert|2,000|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year, and even [[Asmara]] receives an average of {{convert|570|mm|in|abbr=on}}. This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including [[Egypt]]. In the winter, the northeasterly [[trade wind]]s do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as {{convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on}}. On the eastern coast, a strong [[upwelling]] and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as {{convert|50|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Desert"/> |
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The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At [[Addis Ababa]], which ranges from |
The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At [[Addis Ababa]], which ranges from {{convert|2200|to|2600|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, maximum temperature is {{convert|26|C|F|1}} and minimum {{convert|4|C|F|1}}. The weather is usually sunny and dry, but the short (''belg'') rains occur from February to April and the big (''meher'') rains from mid-June to mid-September. The [[Danakil Desert]] stretches across 100,000 km<sup>2</sup> of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has a number of lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among these are [[Lake Karum|Lake Asale]] (116 m below sea level) and [[Lake Afrera|Lake Giuletti/Afrera]] (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in the [[Danakil Depression]]. The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho, [[Dabbahu Volcano|Dabbahu]], [[Afdera (volcano)|Afdera]] and [[Erta Ale]].<ref name="Stobin">{{cite book|last1=Marco Stoppato|first1=Alfredo Bini|title=Deserts|date=2003|publisher=Firefly Books|isbn=978-1552976692|pages=[https://archive.org/details/deserts00stop/page/160 160–163]|url=https://archive.org/details/deserts00stop/page/160|access-date=17 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="Etpame">{{cite book|last1=Facts On File, Incorporated|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East|date=2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1438126760|page=7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC|access-date=17 September 2014|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191257/https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic [[monsoon]] winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from {{convert|28|to|43|C|F}}, except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the [[Jubba River|Jubba]] and the [[Shebelle River|Shabele]], both of which begin in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]].<ref name="Hadden">Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. [http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006 "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science."] Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center</ref> |
In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic [[monsoon]] winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from {{convert|28|to|43|C|F}}, except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the [[Jubba River|Jubba]] and the [[Shebelle River|Shabele]], both of which begin in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]].<ref name="Hadden">Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090327102547/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA464006 "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science."] Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center</ref> |
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===Ecology=== |
===Ecology=== |
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[[File:Common beisa oryx (Oryx beisa beisa) female.jpg|alt=|thumb|Oryx beisa beisa is found throughout the Horn of Africa]] |
[[File:Common beisa oryx (Oryx beisa beisa) female.jpg|alt=|thumb|''[[Oryx beisa beisa]]'' is found throughout the Horn of Africa]] |
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About 220 [[mammal]]s are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened [[species]] of the region, there are several [[antelope]]s such as the [[Beira (antelope)|beira]], the [[dibatag]], the [[silver dikdik]] and the [[Speke's gazelle]]. Other remarkable species include the [[Somali wild ass]], the [[desert warthog]], the [[hamadryas baboon]], the [[Somalia gerbil|Somali pygmy gerbil]], the [[ammodile]], and the [[gundi|Speke's pectinator]]. The [[Grevy's zebra]] is the unique wild [[Equidae|equid]] of the region. There are predators such as [[spotted hyena]], [[striped hyena]] and [[leopard|African leopard]]. The [[endangered]] [[painted hunting dog]] had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region.<ref>{{cite web|author=info@globaltwitcher.com |url=http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 |title=''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg |publisher=Globaltwitcher.auderis.se |date= |
About 220 [[mammal]]s are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened [[species]] of the region, there are several [[antelope]]s such as the [[Beira (antelope)|beira]], the [[dibatag]], the [[silver dikdik]] and the [[Speke's gazelle]]. Other remarkable species include the [[Somali wild ass]], the [[desert warthog]], the [[hamadryas baboon]], the [[Somalia gerbil|Somali pygmy gerbil]], the [[ammodile]], and the [[gundi|Speke's pectinator]]. The [[Grevy's zebra]] is the unique wild [[Equidae|equid]] of the region. There are predators such as [[spotted hyena]], [[striped hyena]] and [[leopard|African leopard]]. The [[endangered]] [[painted hunting dog]] had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region.<ref>{{cite web|author=info@globaltwitcher.com |url=http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 |title=''Painted Hunting Dog: Lycaon pictus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg |publisher=Globaltwitcher.auderis.se |date=31 January 2009 |access-date=25 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209234758/http://globaltwitcher.auderis.se/artspec_information.asp?thingid=35993 |archive-date=9 December 2010 }}</ref> |
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Some important bird species of the Horn are the [[black boubou]], the [[golden-winged grosbeak]], the [[Warsangli linnet]], and the [[Djibouti |
Some important bird species of the Horn are the [[black boubou]], the [[golden-winged grosbeak]], the [[Warsangli linnet]], and the [[Djibouti spurfowl]]. |
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The Horn of Africa holds more [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[reptile]]s than any other region in Africa, with over 285 species total and about 90 species which are found exclusively in the region. Among endemic reptile genera, there are ''[[Haackgreerius]]'', ''[[Haemodracon]]'', ''Ditypophis'', ''Pachycalamus'' and ''Aeluroglena''. Half of these genera are uniquely found on Socotra. Unlike reptiles, [[amphibian]]s are poorly represented in the region. |
The Horn of Africa holds more [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[reptile]]s than any other region in Africa, with over 285 species total and about 90 species which are found exclusively in the region. Among endemic reptile genera, there are ''[[Haackgreerius]]'', ''[[Haemodracon]]'', ''[[Ditypophis]]'', ''[[Pachycalamus]]'' and ''[[Aeluroglena]]''. Half of these genera are uniquely found on Socotra. Unlike reptiles, [[amphibian]]s are poorly represented in the region. |
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There are about 100 species of [[freshwater]] [[fish]] in the Horn of Africa, about 10 of which are endemic. Among the endemic, |
There are about 100 species of [[freshwater]] [[fish]] in the Horn of Africa, about 10 of which are endemic. Among the endemic, three [[cavefish]]es, [[Somali blind barb]], ''[[Phreatichthys andruzzii]]'' and ''[[Uegitglanis zammaranoi]]'' can be found. |
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[[File:Commiphora-myrrha-resin-myrrh.jpg|thumb|left|[[Myrrh]], a common resin in the Horn]] |
[[File:Commiphora-myrrha-resin-myrrh.jpg|thumb|left|[[Myrrh]], a common resin in the Horn]] |
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It is estimated that about 5,000 species of [[vascular plant]]s are found in the Horn, about half of which are endemic. Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia. The region has two endemic plant [[family (biology)|families]]: the [[Barbeyaceae]] and the [[Dirachmaceae]]. Among the other remarkable species, there are the cucumber tree found only on Socotra |
It is estimated that about 5,000 species of [[vascular plant]]s are found in the Horn, about half of which are endemic. Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia. The region has two endemic plant [[family (biology)|families]]: the [[Barbeyaceae]] and the [[Dirachmaceae]]. Among the other remarkable species, there are the [[cucumber tree]] found only on Socotra, the [[Bankoualé palm]], the [[Cordeauxia edulis|yeheb nut]], and the Somali [[cyclamen]]. |
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Due to the Horn of Africa's [[semi-arid]] and [[arid]] climate, droughts are not uncommon. They are complicated by climate change and changes in agricultural practices. For centuries, the region's [[Pastoralism|pastoral groups]] have observed careful [[rangeland management]] practices to mitigate the effects of drought, such as avoiding overgrazing or setting aside land only for young or ill animals. However, population growth has put pressure on limited land and led to these practices no longer being maintained. Droughts in 1983–85, 1991–92, 1998–99 and 2011 have disrupted periods of gradual growth in herd numbers, leading to a decrease of between 37 |
Due to the Horn of Africa's [[semi-arid]] and [[arid]] climate, droughts are not uncommon. They are complicated by climate change and changes in agricultural practices. For centuries, the region's [[Pastoralism|pastoral groups]] have observed careful [[rangeland management]] practices to mitigate the effects of drought, such as avoiding overgrazing or setting aside land only for young or ill animals. However, population growth has put pressure on limited land and led to these practices no longer being maintained. Droughts in 1983–85, 1991–92, 1998–99 and 2011 have disrupted periods of gradual growth in herd numbers, leading to a decrease of between 37 and 62 percent of the cattle population. Initiatives by [[Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations|ECHO]] and [[USAID]] have succeeded in reclaiming hundreds of hectares of pastureland through rangeland management, leading to the establishment of the Dikale Rangeland in 2004.<ref name="ODI 2009">Sara Pantuliano and Sara Pavanello (2009) [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=3591&title=drought-livelihoods-pastoralists-humanitarian Taking drought into account Addressing chronic vulnerability among pastoralists in the Horn of Africa] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307103951/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=3591&title=drought-livelihoods-pastoralists-humanitarian |date=7 March 2012 }} [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> |
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As of 2023, the Horn of Africa is affected by a severe [[2020–present Horn of Africa drought|ongoing drought]] and famine that has been going on for six consecutive years, especially in Somalia and in the months from March to May during which 60 percent of the annual rainfall occurs. It is estimated that the lives of a number of people ranging from 22<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.africanews.com/amp/2023/01/31/22-million-people-at-risk-of-hunger-in-horn-of-africa-due-to-drought/|title=22 million people at risk of hunger in horn of Africa due to drought|date=31 January 2023|publisher=[[Africanews]]|access-date=23 February 2023|archive-date=23 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223140752/https://www.africanews.com/amp/2023/01/31/22-million-people-at-risk-of-hunger-in-horn-of-africa-due-to-drought/|url-status=live}}</ref> to 58 million<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www-osservatoreromano-va.translate.goog/it/news/2023-01/quo-013/corno-d-africa-morsa-mortale.html?_x_tr_sl=it&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=it&_x_tr_pto=wapp|publisher=[[L'Osservatore Romano]]|date=17 January 2023|language=it|title=Horn of Africa. Death grip|access-date=23 February 2023|archive-date=23 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223142255/https://www-osservatoreromano-va.translate.goog/it/news/2023-01/quo-013/corno-d-africa-morsa-mortale.html?_x_tr_sl=it&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=it&_x_tr_pto=wapp|url-status=live}}</ref> are at risk. |
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==Ethnicity and languages== |
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[[File:Ethiopia 3.jpg|alt=|thumb|upright|A woman from Horn Africa carrying her earthenware water jugs]] |
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Besides sharing similar geographic endowments, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together,<ref name="Joireman"/> evincing a complex pattern of interrelationships among the various groups.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Katsuyoshi Fukui|author2=John Markakis|title=Ethnicity & Conflict in the Horn of Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ol9m-tItWjsC|year=1994|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=978-0-85255-225-4|page=4}}</ref> |
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==Demographics, ethnicity and languages== |
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[[File:Languages of Ethiopia piechart.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|The major [[Afroasiatic languages]] spoken in Ethiopia.]] |
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{{Further|Languages of Africa|Demographics of Africa|List of ethnic groups of Africa#Horn of Africa|List of African countries by population|Writing systems of Africa#Indigenous writing systems|Cushitic languages|Ethiopian Semitic languages|label1=Cushitic Peoples|label2=Habesha Peoples|Nilotic languages|Omotic languages|Afroasiatic languages|Nilo-Saharan languages}} |
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According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'', there are 10 individual languages spoken in Djibouti, 14 in Eritrea, 90 in Ethiopia, and 15 in Somalia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/country |title=Languages – Summary by country |publisher=Ethnologue.com |date=1999-02-19 |accessdate=2013-07-25}}</ref> Most people in the Horn speak [[Afroasiatic languages]] of the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] or [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] branches. The former includes [[Oromo language|Oromo]], spoken by the [[Oromo people]] in Ethiopia, and [[Somali language|Somali]], spoken by the [[Somali people]] in Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia; the latter includes [[Amharic language|Amharic]], spoken by the [[Amhara people]] of Ethiopia, and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] spoken by the [[Tigrayans|Tigrayan people]] of Eritrea and Ethiopia. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic [[Afar language|Afar]], [[Saho language|Saho]], [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]], [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] and [[Agaw languages|Agaw]] languages, as well as the Semitic [[Tigre language|Tigre]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Gurage language|Gurage]], [[Harari language|Harari]], [[Silt'e language|Silt'e]] and [[Argobba language|Argobba]] tongues.<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|title=Languages of Ethiopia|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=ET|work=Ethnologue|publisher=SIL International|accessdate=9 February 2013}}</ref> |
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[[Image:Cushitic map.svg|thumb|150px|left|Map of the ethnic groups who speak [[Cushitic languages]]]] |
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Besides sharing similar geographic endowments, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together,<ref name="Joireman22"/> evincing a complex pattern of interrelationships among the various groups.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Katsuyoshi Fukui|author2=John Markakis|title=Ethnicity & Conflict in the Horn of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicityconflic00kats|url-access=registration|year=1994|publisher=James Currey Publishers|isbn=978-0-85255-225-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/ethnicityconflic00kats/page/4 4]}}</ref> The two main macro groups in the Horn are the [[Cushitic languages|'''Cushitic-speaking''']] [[Cushitic peoples]] traditionally centered in the lowlands and the [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|'''Ethiosemitic-speaking''']] [[Habesha peoples]] who inhabit the [[Ethiopian Highlands|Ethiopian]] and [[Eritrean Highlands|Eritrean]] highlands. |
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Additionally, [[Omotic languages]] are spoken by Omotic communities inhabiting Ethiopia's southern regions. Among these idioms are [[Aari language|Aari]], [[Dizi language|Dizi]], [[Gamo language|Gamo]], [[Kafa language|Kafa]], [[Hamer language|Hamer]] and [[Wolaytta language|Wolaytta]].<ref name="Tspahcoe">{{cite web|title=Country Level |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=264&format=raw&Itemid=521 |work=2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia |publisher=[[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|CSA]] |date=13 July 2010 |accessdate=18 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114004942/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=264&format=raw&Itemid=521 |archivedate=14 November 2010 |df= }}</ref> |
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According to ''[[Ethnologue]]'', there are 10 individual languages spoken in Djibouti (two native), 14 in Eritrea, 90 in Ethiopia, 15 in Somalia (Somali being the only native).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/country |title=Languages – Summary by country |publisher=Ethnologue.com |date=19 February 1999 |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=19 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719010654/http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/country |url-status=live }}</ref> Most people in the Horn speak [[Afroasiatic languages]] of the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]], [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], or [[Omotic languages|Omotic]] branches. The Cushitic branch includes [[Oromo language|Oromo]], spoken by the [[Oromo people]] in Ethiopia, and [[Somali language|Somali]], spoken by the [[Somali people]] in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya; the Semitic branch (specifically the [[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethiosemitic]] sub-branch) includes [[Amharic language|Amharic]], spoken by the [[Amhara people]] of Ethiopia, and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] spoken by the [[Tigrayans|Tigrayan people]] of Ethiopia and the [[Tigrinya people]] of Eritrea. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic [[Afar language|Afar]], [[Saho language|Saho]], [[Hadiyya language|Hadiyya]], [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] and [[Agaw languages|Agaw]] languages, the Semitic [[Tigre language|Tigre]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Gurage language|Gurage]], [[Harari language|Harari]], [[Silt'e language|Silt'e]] and [[Argobba language|Argobba]] tongues<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|title=Languages of Ethiopia|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=ET|work=Ethnologue|publisher=SIL International|access-date=9 February 2013|archive-date=3 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203002449/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=ET|url-status=live}}</ref> as well as [[Omotic languages]] are spoken by Omotic communities inhabiting Ethiopia's southern regions. Among these languages are [[Aari language|Aari]], [[Dizi language|Dizi]], [[Gamo language|Gamo]], [[Kafa language|Kafa]], [[Hamer language|Hamer]] and [[Wolaytta language|Wolaytta]].<ref name="Tspahcoe">{{cite web|title=Country Level |url=http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=264&format=raw&Itemid=521 |work=2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia |publisher=[[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|CSA]] |date=13 July 2010 |access-date=18 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101114004942/http://www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc&view=doc&id=264&format=raw&Itemid=521 |archive-date=14 November 2010 }}</ref> |
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Languages belonging to the [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] and [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] families are also spoken in some areas by [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] and [[Somali Bantu|Bantu]] ethnic minorities, respectively. These tongues include the Nilo-Saharan [[Me'en language|Me'en]] and [[Mursi language|Mursi]] languages used in southwestern Ethiopia, and [[Kunama language|Kunama]] and [[Nara language|Nara]] idioms spoken in parts of southern Eritrea. In the riverine and littoral areas of southern Somalia, [[Bajuni people|Bajuni]], [[Bravanese people|Barawani]], and Bantu groups also speak variants of the Niger-Congo [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Zigula language|Mushunguli]] languages.<ref name="Ethnologue Mushungulu">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=xma |title=Ethnologue – Mushungulu |publisher=Ethnologue.com |date=1999-02-19 |accessdate=2013-07-25}}</ref><ref name="Abdullahi">{{cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|title=Culture and customs of Somalia|publisher=Greenwood|year=2001|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Nu918tYMB8C|isbn = 978-0-313-31333-2}}</ref> |
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[[File:Eritrean Women.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Saho people|Saho]] women in traditional attire.]] |
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==Culture== |
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[[File:University students sits in front of Somali traditional house.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Somalis|Somali]] men and women in front of a traditional house]] |
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[[File:Axum northern stelea park.jpg|thumb|The Northern Stelae Park in [[Axum]] with [[King Ezana's Stele]] at the centre. The Great Stele lies broken.]] |
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Languages belonging to the [[Nilo-Saharan languages|Nilo-Saharan]] language family are also spoken in some areas by [[Nilotic peoples|Nilotic]] ethnic minorities mostly in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]. These tongues include the Nilo-Saharan [[Me'en language|Me'en]] and [[Mursi language|Mursi]] languages used in southwestern Ethiopia, and [[Kunama language|Kunama]] and [[Nara language|Nara]] idioms spoken in parts of southern Eritrea. |
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Languages belonging to the [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] language family are also spoken in some areas by [[Somali Bantu|Bantu]] ethnic minorities in Somalia. In the riverine and littoral areas of southern Somalia, [[Bajuni people|Bajuni]], [[Bravanese people|Barawani]], and Bantu groups also speak variants of the Niger-Congo [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Zigula language|Mushunguli]] languages.<ref name="Ethnologue Mushungulu">{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=xma |title=Ethnologue – Mushungulu |publisher=Ethnologue.com |date=19 February 1999 |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=19 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019120950/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=xma |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Abdullahi">{{cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|title=Culture and customs of Somalia|publisher=Greenwood|year=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/11 11]|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri|url-access=registration|isbn = 978-0-313-31333-2}}</ref> |
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The countries of the Horn of Africa have been the birthplace of many ancient, as well as modern, cultural achievements in several fields including agriculture, architecture, art, cuisine, education, literature, music, technology and theology. |
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The Horn has produced numerous indigenous writing systems. Among these is [[Ge'ez script]] ({{lang|gez|ግዕዝ}} ''{{transliteration|sem|Gəʿəz}}'') (also known as ''Ethiopic''), which has been written in for at least 2000 years.<ref>Rodolfo Fattovich, "Akkälä Guzay" in Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C''. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz KG, 2003, p. 169.</ref> It is an [[abugida]] script that was originally developed to write the [[Ge'ez language]]. In speech communities that use it, such as the Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called ''{{transliteration|sem|fidäl}}'' ({{lang|gez|ፊደል}}), which means "script" or "alphabet". |
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Ethiopian agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass [[teff]] (''Poa abyssinica'') between 4000–1000 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16-ejysyRCgC&pg |title=The Agricultural Systems of the World |author= David B. Grigg| page=66 |date=1974 |publisher= C.U.P. |accessdate=2013-07-25|isbn=9780521098434 }}</ref> Teff is used to make the flatbread [[injera]]/taita. [[Coffee]] also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=WKj__YqTU4AC&oi|title=Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia|first1=J. M. M.|last1=Engels|first2=J. G.|last2=Hawkes|first3=M.|last3=Worede|date=21 March 1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> Ethiopian art is renowned for the ancient tradition of [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christian]] iconography stretching back to wall paintings of the 7th century CE.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Gary Vikan |title=Ethiopian Icons by Stansilaw Chojnacki p.20 (2000, Skira)(accessed 22 April 2009) |publisher=Skira |date= |isbn=978-8881186464}}</ref> [[Somali architecture]] includes the [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]], which was built in 1269 by the Fakr ad-Din, the first Sultan of the [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=7810 |title=at archnet.org (accessed 22 April 2009) |publisher=Archnet.org |date=2006-02-01 |accessdate=2013-07-25 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104013318/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=7810 |archivedate=4 November 2012 |df= }}</ref> Ethiopia is renowned for its ancient churches, such as at the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] at [[Lalibela]].<ref>David Buxton, ''The Abyssinians'' (New York: Praeger, 1970), p. 110</ref> |
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For centuries, Somali sheikhs and Sultans used [[wadaad's writing]] (a version of the Arabic alphabet) to write. In the early 20th century, in response to a national campaign to settle on a writing script for the [[Somali language]] (which had long since lost its ancient script<ref>Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somalia, ''The writing of the Somali language'', (Ministry of Information and National Guidance: 1974), p.5</ref>), [[Osman Yusuf Kenadid]], a Somali poet and remote cousin of the [[Sultan]] [[Yusuf Ali Keenadid|Yusuf Ali Kenadid]] of the [[Sultanate of Hobyo]], devised a phonetically sophisticated alphabet called [[Osmanya script|Osmanya]] (also known as ''far soomaali''; Osmanya: 𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘) for representing the sounds of Somali.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of African Biography: Abach – Brand, Volume 1|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0195382075|page=357|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PA357|access-date=9 February 2018|archive-date=18 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818172855/https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PA357|url-status=live}}</ref> Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, the Osmanya script is available in the [[Unicode]] range 10480-104AF [from U+10480 – U+104AF (66688–66735)]. |
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A number of ethnic minority groups in southern Ethiopia and Eritrea also adhere to various [[African traditional religion|traditional faiths]]. Among these belief systems are the Nilo-Saharan [[Surma people]]'s acknowledgment of the [[sky god]] ''[[Tumu (god)|Tumu]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Aparna Rao|author2=Michael Bollig|author3=Monika Böck|title=The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and Communication of Armed Violence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trnATFcxvKwC|year=2007|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-84545-280-3|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141724/https://books.google.com/books?id=trnATFcxvKwC|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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The Horn has produced numerous indigenous writing systems. Among these is [[Ge'ez script]] ({{lang|gez|ግዕዝ}} ''{{transl|sem|Gəʿəz}}'') (also known as ''Ethiopic''), which has been written in for at least 2000 years.<ref>Rodolfo Fattovich, "Akkälä Guzay" in Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. ''Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C''. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz KG, 2003, p. 169.</ref> It is an [[abugida]] script that was originally developed to write the [[Ge'ez language]]. In speech communities that use it, such as the Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called ''{{transl|sem|fidäl}}'' ({{lang|gez|ፊደል}}), which means "script" or "alphabet". |
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[[File:Ciismaniya.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Osmanya]] writing script]] |
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In the early 20th century, in response to a national campaign to settle on a writing script for the [[Somali language]] (which had long since lost its ancient script<ref>Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somalia, ''The writing of the Somali language'', (Ministry of Information and National Guidance: 1974), p.5</ref>), [[Osman Yusuf Kenadid]], a Somali poet and remote cousin of the [[Sultan]] [[Yusuf Ali Keenadid|Yusuf Ali Kenadid]] of the [[Sultanate of Hobyo]], devised a phonetically sophisticated alphabet called [[Osmanya script|Osmanya]] (also known as ''far soomaali''; Osmanya: 𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘) for representing the sounds of Somali.<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of African Biography: Abach - Brand, Volume 1|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0195382072|page=357|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PA357|accessdate=9 February 2018}}</ref> Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, the Osmanya script is available in the [[Unicode]] range 10480-104AF [from U+10480 – U+104AF (66688–66735)]. |
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The Somali writer [[Nuruddin Farah]] has also garnered acclaim as perhaps the most celebrated writer ever to come out of the Horn of Africa. Having published many short stories, novels and essays, Farah's prose has earned him, among other accolades, the [[Premio Cavour]] in Italy, the [[Kurt Tucholsky Prize]] in Sweden, and in 1998, the prestigious [[Neustadt International Prize for Literature]]. In the same year, the French edition of his novel ''Gifts'' also won the St. Malo Literature Festival's prize.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lettre-ulysses-award.org/authors03/farah.html |title=Lettre Ulysses Award for the Art of Reportage – Nuruddin Farah |publisher=Lettre-ulysses-award.org |date=2011-12-09 |accessdate=2013-07-25}}</ref> |
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The [[Music of Ethiopia|music of the Ethiopian]] highlands uses a unique [[musical mode|modal system]] called ''qenet'', of which there are four main modes: ''tezeta'', ''bati'', ''[[Ambassel scale|ambassel]]'', and ''anchihoy''.<ref name=Grove356>{{NewGrove2001|article=Ethiopia|last=Shelemay|first=Kay Kaufman|vol=viii|pages=356}}<!-- This citation is specific to a specific author and page number --></ref> Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor.<ref name="Barihun">[[Abatte Barihun]], liner notes for the album [[Ras Deshen (album)|Ras Deshen]], 2005</ref> Some songs take the name of their qenet, such as tezeta, a song of reminiscence.<ref name=Grove356 /> |
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In the field of technology, the Great Stele of [[Axum]], at over {{convert|100|ft|m}} long, was the largest single stone ever quarried in the [[ancient world]].<ref>[http://www.hp.uab.edu/image_archive/um/umn.html University of Alabama www.hp.uab.edu] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331192826/http://www.hp.uab.edu/image_archive/um/umn.html |date=2009-03-31 }}</ref> |
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==Religion== |
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[[File:Ark of the Covenant church in Axum Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The Chapel of the Tablet at the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]] allegedly houses the original [[Ark of the Covenant]].]] |
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Most inhabitants in the Horn of Africa follow one of the three major [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] faiths. These religions have had a longstanding adherence in the region. |
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The ancient Axumite Kingdom produced coins and stelae associated with the disc and crescent symbols of the deity [[Astar (god)|Ashtar]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Roland Anthony Oliver|author2=Brian M. Fagan|title=Africa in the Iron Age: C.500 BC-1400 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5qYNSRjqacC|year=1975|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-09900-4|page=43}}</ref> The kingdom later became one of the earliest states to adopt [[Christianity]], following the conversion of King [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana II]] in the 4th century. |
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[[File:Fakr Ud Din Mosque.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving of the 13th-century [[Fakr ad-Din Mosque]] built by Fakr ad-Din, the first [[Sultan of Mogadishu]]]] |
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Islam was introduced to the northern Somali coast early on from the [[Arabian peninsula]], shortly after the [[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]. [[Zeila]]'s two-[[mihrab]] [[Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Somalia)|Masjid al-Qiblatayn]] dates to the 7th century, and is the oldest [[mosque]] in [[Africa]].<ref name="Btgpb">{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Phillip|title=Somaliland|year=2012|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=1841623717|page=7|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=M6NI2FejIuwC}}</ref><ref name="Aymar">{{cite web|last=Fauvelle-Aymar|first=François-Xavier|title=Le port de Zeyla et son arrière-pays au Moyen Âge: Investigations archéologiques et retour aux sources écrites|url=https://www.academia.edu/1202629/Le_port_de_Zeyla_et_son_arriere-pays_au_Moyen_Age_Investigations_archeologiques_et_retour_aux_sources_ecrites|publisher=Livre Islam|accessdate=23 January 2014}}</ref> In the late 9th century, [[Al-Yaqubi]] wrote that [[Muslim]]s were living along the northern Somali seaboard.<ref name="Encyamer">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 25|year=1965|publisher=Americana Corporation|pages=255|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OP5LAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city,<ref name="Encyamer"/><ref name="Lewispohoa">{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=I.M.|title=Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho|year=1955|publisher=International African Institute|pages=140|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cd0mAQAAMAAJ}}</ref> suggesting that the Adal Sultanate with Zeila as its headquarters dates back to at least the 9th or 10th century. According to I.M. Lewis, the polity was governed by local [[Somali people|Somali]] [[dynasty|dynasties]], who also ruled over the similarly-established [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] in the littoral [[Benadir]] region to the south. Adal's history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]].<ref name="Lewispohoa"/> |
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[[Islam]] was introduced to the region early on from the [[Arabian peninsula]], shortly after the [[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]. At [[Muhammad]]'s urging, a band of persecuted Muslims had fled across the Red Sea into the Horn. There, the [[Muslim]]s were granted protection by the Aksumite King [[Aṣḥama ibn Abjar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+so0014) |title=A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |date= |accessdate=2013-07-25}}</ref> |
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Additionally, [[Judaism]] has a long presence in the region. The ''[[Kebra Negast]]'' ("Book of the Glory of Kings") relates that Israelite tribes arrived in Ethiopia with [[Menelik I]], purported to be the son of King [[Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]] (Makeda). The legend relates that Menelik as an adult returned to his father in [[Jerusalem]], and then resettled in Ethiopia, and that he took with him the [[Ark of the Covenant]].<ref>''Budge, [http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/kn/ ''Queen of Sheba''], ''Kebra Negast, chap. 61.</ref> The [[Beta Israel]] today primarily follow the Orit (from Aramaic "Oraita" – "[[Torah]]"), which consists of the [[Torah|Five Books of Moses]] and the books [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]] and [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]. |
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A number of ethnic minority groups in southern Ethiopia also adhere to various [[African traditional religion|traditional faiths]]. Among these belief systems are the Nilo-Saharan [[Surma people]]'s acknowledgment of the [[sky god]] ''[[Tumu (god)|Tumu]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Aparna Rao|author2=Michael Bollig|author3=Monika Böck|title=The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and Communication of Armed Violence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trnATFcxvKwC|year=2007|publisher=Berghahn Books|isbn=978-1-84545-280-3}}</ref> |
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==Sports== |
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[[File:Bekele vs Farah.jpg|alt=|thumb|Bekele vs Farah, London 2012, The Olympic Games]] |
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In the modern era, the Horn of Africa has produced several world-famous sports personalities, including long distance runners such as the world-record holder [[Kenenisa Bekele]] and [[Derartu Tulu]], the first Ethiopian woman to win an Olympic gold medal and the only woman to have twice won the 10,000 meter Olympic gold in the short history of the event. |
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One of the most successful runners from the region has been [[Haile Gebrselassie]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Athlete Profile Haile Gebrselassie |url=http://www.iaaf.org/athletes/biographies/letter=0/athcode=8774/index.html |title=Gebrselassie Haile page on www.iaaf.org |publisher=Iaaf.org |date= |accessdate=2013-07-25}}</ref> who was acclaimed as "[[Athlete of the Year]] 1998" by the [[International Association of Athletics Federations]] (IAAF). As well as numerous gold medals in various events, Gebrselassie achieved 15 [[world records]] and world bests in long and middle distance running, including world record [[marathon]] times in 2007 and 2008. Somali athlete [[Abdi Bile]] became a world champion when he won the 1500m for men at the [[1987 World Championships in Athletics]], running the final 800m of the race in 1:46.0, the fastest final 800m of any 1,500 meter track race in history. |
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Eritrea has established the cycling event the [[Tour of Eritrea]]. |
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In recent years, the [[Somali diaspora]] produced a football star in [[Ayub Daud]], a midfielder who plays for [[Juventus]] in Italy's [[Serie A]]. [[Zahra Bani]], a Somali-Italian [[javelin throw]]er, has garnered attention with her performances that so far have earned her adopted Italy a silver medal at the [[2005 Mediterranean Games]], as has [[Mo Farah]], a Somali-British athlete that took gold for his adopted Great Britain in the 3000m at the 2009 [[European Indoor Championships in Athletics|European Indoor Championships]] in [[Turin]] and later golds in both the 10,000m and 5,000m at the 2012 London Olympics. |
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==Economy== |
==Economy== |
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[[File:Coffee beans ethiopia culture africa fabric.jpg|alt=|thumb|Coffee beans from Ethiopia]]<!-- Maryland is not in the Horn --> |
[[File:Coffee beans ethiopia culture africa fabric.jpg|alt=|thumb|Coffee beans from Ethiopia]]<!-- Maryland is not in the Horn --> |
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According to the IMF, in 2010 the Horn of Africa region had a total GDP (PPP) of $106.224 billion and nominal of $35.819 billion. Per capita, the GDP in 2010 was $1061 (PPP) and $358 (nominal).<ref name="imf.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=52&pr.y=2&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=644&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=Imf.org |date=2006- |
According to the IMF, in 2010 the Horn of Africa region had a total GDP (PPP) of $106.224 billion and nominal of $35.819 billion. Per capita, the GDP in 2010 was $1061 (PPP) and $358 (nominal).<ref name="imf.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=52&pr.y=2&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=644&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=Imf.org |date=14 September 2006 |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114072959/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=52&pr.y=2&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=644&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=92&pr.y=15&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=611&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=Imf.org |date=14 September 2006 |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=11 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200811170947/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=92&pr.y=15&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=611&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=29&pr.y=7&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=643&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |publisher=Imf.org |date=14 September 2006 |access-date=25 July 2013 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301022826/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=29&pr.y=7&sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=643&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612204029/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 June 2007 |title=The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=25 July 2013}}</ref> |
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Over 95 percent of cross-border trade within the region is unofficial and undocumented, carried out by pastoralists trading livestock.<ref name="ODI 2010">Pavanello, Sara 2010. [https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/somalia/overview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112224025/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4997&title=working-across-borders-harnessing-potential-cross-border-activities-improve-livelihood-security-horn-africa-drylands|date=12 November 2010}}. London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from [[Ethiopia]] sold to other countries in the Horn and the wider Eastern Africa region, including [[Somalia]] and [[Djibouti]], generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure), with the towns of [[Burao]] and [[Yirowe]] in Somaliland being home to the largest livestock markets in the Horn of Africa, with as many as 10,000 heads of sheep and goats sold daily from all over the Horn of Africa, with many of whom shipped to [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf states]] via the [[Port of Berbera|port]] of [[Berbera]].<ref name="ODI 2010" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDweAQAAIAAJ&q=yirowe|title=Regulating the Livestock Economy of Somaliland|date=2002|publisher=Academy for Peace and Development|language=en|access-date=1 September 2021|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141722/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDweAQAAIAAJ&q=yirowe|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Project|first1=War-torn Societies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cTtyAAAAMAAJ&q=yiroowe|title=Rebuilding Somaliland: Issues and Possibilities|last2=Programme|first2=WSP Transition|date=2005|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=978-1-56902-228-3|language=en|access-date=1 September 2021|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141628/https://books.google.com/books?id=cTtyAAAAMAAJ&q=yiroowe|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d2EwAQAAIAAJ&q=yiroowe|title=A Self-portrait of Somaliland: Rebuilding from the Ruins|date=1999|publisher=Somaliland Centre for Peace and Development|language=en|access-date=1 September 2021|archive-date=22 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141625/https://books.google.com/books?id=d2EwAQAAIAAJ&q=yiroowe|url-status=live}}</ref> This trade helps lower [[food prices]], increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.<ref name="ODI 2010"/> However, the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.<ref name="ODI 2010"/> |
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States of the region depend largely on a few key [[export]]s: |
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* [[Economy of Ethiopia]]: Coffee 80% of total exports. |
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* [[Economy of Somalia]]: [[Banana]]s and [[livestock]] over 50% of total exports. |
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Over 95% of cross-border trade within the region is unofficial and undocumented, carried out by pastoralists trading livestock.<ref name="ODI 2010"/> The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from [[Ethiopia]] sold to other countries in the Horn and the wider Eastern Africa region, including [[Somalia]] and [[Djibouti]], generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).<ref name="ODI 2010">Pavanello, Sara 2010. [http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4997&title=working-across-borders-harnessing-potential-cross-border-activities-improve-livelihood-security-horn-africa-drylands Working across borders – Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101112224025/http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=4997&title=working-across-borders-harnessing-potential-cross-border-activities-improve-livelihood-security-horn-africa-drylands |date=2010-11-12 }}. London: [[Overseas Development Institute]]</ref> This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.<ref name="ODI 2010"/> However, there are also risks as the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allow disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.<ref name="ODI 2010"/> |
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Much of the Horn nations' trade links are with Middle Eastern countries. In 2011, an event hosted by the [[Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies]] in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]] devoted several days of discussion to ways in which countries in the Horn region and the adjacent Arabian peninsula could further strengthen these historically close economic, social, cultural and religious ties.<ref name="Dthoaiopittaw">{{cite web|url=http://english.dohainstitute.org/content/ea5b0af1-d809-4a4b-b651-cdf324125fc8 |title="Arabs and the Horn of Africa" Kicking off November 27, 2011 |location=daho |publisher=English.dohainstitute.org |date=2011-11-21|accessdate=2013-07-31}}</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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{{portal|Geography|Africa}} |
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* [[Incense Route]] |
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* [[Incense trade route]] |
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* [[Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa]] |
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* [[List of peninsulas]] |
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* [[Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa]] |
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* [[Silk Road]] |
* [[Silk Road]] |
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* [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] |
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* [[African Great Lakes|African Great Lakes Region]] |
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'''National history:''' |
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* [[History of Djibouti]] |
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* [[History of Eritrea]] |
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* [[History of Ethiopia]] |
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* [[History of Somalia]] |
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'''Sultanates and kingdoms:''' |
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{{Div col|colwidth=12em}} |
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* [[Ajuran Empire]] |
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* [[Adal Sultanate]] |
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* [[Aksumite Empire]] |
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* [[Ethiopian Empire]] |
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* [[Aussa Sultanate]] |
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* [[Dervish State]] |
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* [[Sultanate of Harar|Harar Sultanate]] |
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* [[Ifat Sultanate]] |
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* [[Kingdom of Gomma]] |
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* [[Kingdom of Gumma]] |
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* [[Kingdom of Jimma]] |
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* [[Kingdom of Kaffa]] |
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* [[Macrobians]] |
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* [[Majeerteen Sultanate]] |
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* [[Mudaito Dynasty]] |
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* [[Land of Punt|Punt]] |
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* [[Sultanate of Hobyo]] |
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* [[Sultanate of Mogadishu]] |
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* [[Sultanate of Shewa]] |
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* [[Sultanate of the Geledi]] |
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* [[Walashma dynasty]] |
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* [[Warsangali Sultanate]] |
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* [[Zagwe dynasty]] |
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{{div col end}} |
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==Notes== |
==Notes== |
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==References== |
==References== |
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==Sources== |
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* {{cite book |last1=Beshah |first1=Girma |first2=Merid Wolde |last2=Aregay |year=1964 |title=The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632) |location=Lisbon |publisher=Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos |ref=Beshah}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Beshah |first1=Girma |first2=Merid Wolde |last2=Aregay |year=1964 |title=The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632) |location=Lisbon |publisher=Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos |ref=Beshah}} |
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* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Somaliland | volume= 25 |last= Cana |first= Frank Richardson |author-link= | pages = 378–384 |short= 1}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Negash |first=Tekeste |year=2005 |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: the Federal Experience |location=Uppsala, Sweden |publisher=Nordiska Afrikainstitutet |ref=Negash}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Negash |first=Tekeste |year=2005 |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Anai%3Adiva-266 |title=Eritrea and Ethiopia: the Federal Experience |location=Uppsala, Sweden |publisher=Nordiska Afrikainstitutet |ref=Negash |access-date=22 April 2022 |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522141829/https://nai.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A272775&dswid=-5535 |url-status=live }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of African History |publisher=CRC Press |ref=Shillington}} |
* {{cite book |last=Shillington |first=Kevin |year=2005 |title=Encyclopedia of African History |publisher=CRC Press |ref=Shillington}} |
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* [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/33/index.html History of the Horn of Africa] |
* [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/33/index.html History of the Horn of Africa] |
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* [http://www.hananews.org/ Horn of Africa News Agency] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051212055709/http://www.hananews.org/ Horn of Africa News Agency] |
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* {{WWF ecoregion|id=at0715|name=Somali Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and thickets}} |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051224010919/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/horn_africa/ Horn of Africa Biodiversity Hotspot] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051224010919/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/horn_africa/ Horn of Africa Biodiversity Hotspot] |
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* [http://www.awdconservancy.org/ African Wild Dog Conservancy's Biodiversity Hotspots Page] |
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* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/dj.html CIA World Factbook: Djibouti] |
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* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/er.html CIA World Factbook: Eritrea] |
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* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/et.html CIA World Factbook: Ethiopia] |
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* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html CIA World Factbook: Somalia] |
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* [http://www.unicef.org/childalert/hornofafrica/ A 'Child Alert' issued by UNICEF for the Horn of Africa] |
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* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090713084834/http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/8-4-2005-74197.asp Yemen Horn of Africa Link] |
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* [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552577 Horn of Africa Concerns] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/549457 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] |
* [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552577 Horn of Africa Concerns] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/549457 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061208133131/http://www.hoa.centcom.mil/ Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa official website] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061208133131/http://www.hoa.centcom.mil/ Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa official website] |
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* [http://www.cfr.org/publication/13389/ CFR.org Interactive Map: Horn of Africa] |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130402205646/http://www.globalgovernance.eu/index.php/p-s-publications/246-new-analysis-the-somali-crisis-and-the-eu-3.html Global Governance Institute Analysis on the Horn of Africa and the EU] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130402205646/http://www.globalgovernance.eu/index.php/p-s-publications/246-new-analysis-the-somali-crisis-and-the-eu-3.html Global Governance Institute Analysis on the Horn of Africa and the EU] |
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*[http://www.wordwebonline.com/en/SOMALIPENINSULA] |
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{{Regions of the world}} |
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{{Medieval Horn of Africa}} |
{{Medieval Horn of Africa}} |
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{{Regions of Africa}} |
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[[Category:Horn of Africa| ]] |
[[Category:Horn of Africa| ]] |
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[[Category:Geography of East Africa]] |
[[Category:Geography of East Africa]] |
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[[Category:Peninsulas of Africa]] |
[[Category:Peninsulas of Africa]] |
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[[Category:Regions of Africa]] |
[[Category:Regions of Africa]] |
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[[Category:Gulf of Aden]] |
[[Category:Gulf of Aden]] |
Latest revision as of 15:16, 9 December 2024
Horn of Africa | |
---|---|
Countries |
2 unrecognised states |
Population | 140,683,144 (2020 est.) |
Area | 1,882,757 km2 |
The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula,[2][3][4] is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.[5] Located on the easternmost part of the African mainland, it is the fourth largest peninsula in the world. It is composed of Somalia (including the de facto independent Somaliland and Puntland), Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Eritrea.[6][7] Although not common, broader definitions include parts or all of Kenya and Sudan.[8][9][10] It has been described as a region of geopolitical and strategic importance, since it is situated along the southern boundary of the Red Sea; extending hundreds of kilometres into the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel, and Indian Ocean, it also shares a maritime border with the Arabian Peninsula.[11][12][13][14]
Names
[edit]This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants found there, or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. In ancient and medieval times, the Horn of Africa was referred to as the Bilad al Barbar ("Land of the Berbers").[15][16][17] It is also known as the Somali Peninsula, or in the Somali language as Geeska Afrika or Jasiiradda Soomaali.[18] In other local languages it is called "Horn of Africa" or the "African Horn", in Amharic የአፍሪካ ቀንድ yäafrika qänd, in Arabic القرن الأفريقي al-qarn al-'afrīqī, in Oromo Gaanfaa Afrikaa, and in Tigrinya ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ q'ärnī afīrīqa.[19][20]
Description
[edit]The Horn of Africa Region consists of the internationally recognized countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.[16][17][21][22]
Geographically the protruding shape that resembles a "Horn" consists of the "Somali peninsula" and eastern part of Ethiopia. But the region encompasses also the rest of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti.[23][24][25][26] Broader definitions include Kenya and Sudan.[27] The term Greater Horn Region (GHR) can additionally include South Sudan and Uganda.[28] The term Greater Horn of Africa is sometimes used to be inclusive of neighbouring southeast African countries to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of the Horn of Africa from narrower peninsular definitions.[20][29][30]
The name Horn of Africa is sometimes shortened to HoA. Quite commonly it is referred to simply as "the Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially termed Horn Africans or Horners.[19][20] Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out in fields of Ethiopian studies and Somali studies. This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory.
History
[edit]Prehistory
[edit]Some of the earliest Homo sapiens fossils, the Omo remains (from ca. 233,000 years ago) and the Herto skull (from ca. 160,000 ago) have been found in the region, both in Ethiopia.[33]
The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift dated to more than 279,000 years ago "in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate East Africa as a source of modern cultures and biology."[34][35][36]
According to the Southern Dispersal scenario, the Southern route of the Out of Africa migration occurred in the Horn of Africa through the Bab el Mandeb. Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea,[37] indicating the diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing.
Ethiopian and Eritrean agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass teff (Poa abyssinica) between 4000 and 1000 BCE.[38] Teff is used to make the flatbread injera/taita. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage.[39]
Historian Christopher Ehret, cited genetic evidence which had identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker "M35/215" Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the Afrasian language family with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago.[40]
Ancient history
[edit]The area comprising Somalia, Djibouti, the Red Sea coast of Eritrea and Sudan is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE.[41]
Dʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia, which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital probably at Yeha, the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and made iron tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the Aksumite Kingdom, which was able to reunite the area.[42]
The Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the Eritrea and Ethiopian highlands, which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India, Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency. The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom. Under Ezana (fl. 320–360), the kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity, and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with Persia, Rome and China.
Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans, Babylonians and Romans.[43][44] The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as Regio Aromatica. In the classical era, several flourishing Somali city-states such as Opone, Mosylon and Malao also competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the rich Indo-Greco-Roman trade.[45]
The birth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on the Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu, Berbera, Zeila, Barawa and Merka, which were part of the Barbara civilization.[46][47] The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam"[48] and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries.[49]
Middle Ages and Early Modern era
[edit]During the Middle Ages, several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the Adal Sultanate, the Ajuran Sultanate, the Ethiopian Empire, the Zagwe dynasty, and the Sultanate of the Geledi.
The Sultanate of Showa, established in 896, was one of the oldest local Islamic states. It was centered in the former Shewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the Sultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at Zeila in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate.[50]
The Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of the historic cities in the region, such as Amud, Maduna, Abasa, Berbera, Zeila and Harar, flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous courtyard houses, mosques, shrines and walled enclosures. Under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II, Mansur ad-Din, Jamal ad-Din II, Shams ad-Din, General Mahfuz and Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, Adalite armies continued the struggle against the Solomonic dynasty, a campaign historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash.
Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Trading routes dating from the ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy. Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers,[51] including a lot of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family, the House of Gareen, also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances.[52]
The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the Cushitic-speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled the Ethiopian Empire.
In 1270, the Amhara nobleman Yekuno Amlak, who claimed descent from the last Aksumite king and ultimately the Queen of Sheba, overthrew the Agaw Zagwe dynasty at the Battle of Ansata, ushering his reign as Emperor of Ethiopia. While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the empire managed to expand significantly during the crusades of Amda Seyon I (1314–1344) and his successors, becoming the dominant force in East Africa.[53][54]
In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives.[55] In 1428, the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon, who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip.[56]
The first continuous relations with a European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel, who had just inherited the throne from his father.[57] This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the Adal Sultanate General and Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called "Gurey" or "Grañ", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule.[58] This Ethiopian–Adal War was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire, and Portugal took sides in the conflict.
When Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths.[59] The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor Fasilides, declared the state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans.[60][61]
During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by Ali I of Yejju several successive descendants of him and Abba Seru Gwangul ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan the Yejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo.[62]
The Sultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier Ibrahim Adeer, who had defeated various vassals of the Ajuran Empire and established the House of Gobroon. The dynasty reached its apex under the successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera wars, and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf, who forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute.
The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of the Banu Hashim clan,[63] in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The sultanate was governed by the Reer Guled branch of the Eidagale sub-clan established by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi. The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Somaliland.[64][65][66]
According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun (Somali: Boqor Haaruun) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century.[67][68] The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar (Somali: Dhuux Baraar) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live.[69][70]
The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on the domestic front.[71][72] Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous Puntland region in northern Somalia.[73]
The Sultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid. Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and was eventually forced into exile in Yemen. A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period.[74]
Modern history
[edit]In the period following the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied Eritrea. On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became a colony of Italy. In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a province of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians.[75] The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941,[76] and took over the area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950.
The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1962. This was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic, the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following a UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993.[77] In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War.[78]
From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura situated in modern-day Djibouti was called Obock and was ruled by Somali and Afar Sultans, local authorities with whom France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region.[79][80][81] In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis (French Somaliland), a name which continued until 1967.
In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia's independence in 1960, a referendum was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans.[82] There was also reports of widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls.[83] The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later.[82] Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977. Hassan Gouled Aptidon, a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999).[82] In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in a series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office.
The Dervish existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. The Turks named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation,[84] and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories the Dervishes were to acquire.[85] After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of aerial bombardment.[86] As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a protectorate of Britain. Italy faced similar opposition from Somali Sultans and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until the Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a British military administration. Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, a trusteeship of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular referendum, the constitution drafted in 1960 was ratified.[87]
Due to its longstanding ties with the Arab world, the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of the Arab League.[88] During the same year, the nation's former socialist administration also chaired the Organization of African Unity, the predecessor of the African Union.[89] In 1991, the Somali Civil War broke out, which saw the dissolving of the union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the Puntland administration in the north.[90] Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular, Islamic or customary law, with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A Transitional Federal Government was subsequently created in 2004.[91] The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate.[92] It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war.[92] The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government's legislative branch.[93]
Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in the north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by Emperor Menelik II and Ras Gobena.[94] From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.'[94][95] He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to the south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today.[96] Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea).[97] In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor.[98] The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians.[98] This conflict erupted in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.[99]
The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I, who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to Italian East Africa.[100] Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the League of Nations, delivering an address that made him a worldwide figure and 1935's Time magazine Man of the Year.[101] Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia during the East African Campaign in 1941.[102]
Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta, the Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, deposed him, and established a one-party communist state, which was called the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the Somalia government of Siad Barre sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia. By September 1977, the Somali army controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from the USSR, Cuba, South Yemen, East Germany[103] and North Korea, including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops.
In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change.[104] Zenawi died in 2012, but his Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains the ruling political coalition in Ethiopia.
Geography
[edit]Geology and climate
[edit]The Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley, a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley.
Geologically, the Horn and Yemen once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the Gulf of Aden rifted and separated the Horn region from the Arabian Peninsula.[105][106] The Somali Plate is bounded on the west by the East African Rift, which stretches south from the triple junction in the Afar Depression, and an undersea continuation of the rift extending southward offshore. The northern boundary is the Aden Ridge along the coast of Saudi Arabia. The eastern boundary is the Central Indian Ridge, the northern portion of which is also known as the Carlsberg Ridge. The southern boundary is the Southwest Indian Ridge.
Extensive glaciers once covered the Simien and Bale Mountains but melted at the beginning of the Holocene.[107] The mountains descend in a huge escarpment to the Red Sea and more steadily to the Indian Ocean. Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 km2 (1,400 sq mi) and it is a territory of Yemen.
The lowlands of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical monsoons that give seasonal rains to the Sahel and the Sudan blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and northern part of Somalia, with the result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season.[108]
In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 mm (79 in) per year, and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm (22 in). This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including Egypt. In the winter, the northeasterly trade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm (20 in). On the eastern coast, a strong upwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2.0 in).[108]
The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At Addis Ababa, which ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 m (7,218 to 8,530 ft), maximum temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and minimum 4 °C (39.2 °F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, but the short (belg) rains occur from February to April and the big (meher) rains from mid-June to mid-September. The Danakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km2 of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has a number of lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among these are Lake Asale (116 m below sea level) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression. The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho, Dabbahu, Afdera and Erta Ale.[109][110]
In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to 43 °C (82 to 109 °F), except at higher elevations along the eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and the Shabele, both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands.[111]
Ecology
[edit]About 220 mammals are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened species of the region, there are several antelopes such as the beira, the dibatag, the silver dikdik and the Speke's gazelle. Other remarkable species include the Somali wild ass, the desert warthog, the hamadryas baboon, the Somali pygmy gerbil, the ammodile, and the Speke's pectinator. The Grevy's zebra is the unique wild equid of the region. There are predators such as spotted hyena, striped hyena and African leopard. The endangered painted hunting dog had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region.[112]
Some important bird species of the Horn are the black boubou, the golden-winged grosbeak, the Warsangli linnet, and the Djibouti spurfowl.
The Horn of Africa holds more endemic reptiles than any other region in Africa, with over 285 species total and about 90 species which are found exclusively in the region. Among endemic reptile genera, there are Haackgreerius, Haemodracon, Ditypophis, Pachycalamus and Aeluroglena. Half of these genera are uniquely found on Socotra. Unlike reptiles, amphibians are poorly represented in the region.
There are about 100 species of freshwater fish in the Horn of Africa, about 10 of which are endemic. Among the endemic, three cavefishes, Somali blind barb, Phreatichthys andruzzii and Uegitglanis zammaranoi can be found.
It is estimated that about 5,000 species of vascular plants are found in the Horn, about half of which are endemic. Endemism is most developed in Socotra and northern Somalia. The region has two endemic plant families: the Barbeyaceae and the Dirachmaceae. Among the other remarkable species, there are the cucumber tree found only on Socotra, the Bankoualé palm, the yeheb nut, and the Somali cyclamen.
Due to the Horn of Africa's semi-arid and arid climate, droughts are not uncommon. They are complicated by climate change and changes in agricultural practices. For centuries, the region's pastoral groups have observed careful rangeland management practices to mitigate the effects of drought, such as avoiding overgrazing or setting aside land only for young or ill animals. However, population growth has put pressure on limited land and led to these practices no longer being maintained. Droughts in 1983–85, 1991–92, 1998–99 and 2011 have disrupted periods of gradual growth in herd numbers, leading to a decrease of between 37 and 62 percent of the cattle population. Initiatives by ECHO and USAID have succeeded in reclaiming hundreds of hectares of pastureland through rangeland management, leading to the establishment of the Dikale Rangeland in 2004.[113]
As of 2023, the Horn of Africa is affected by a severe ongoing drought and famine that has been going on for six consecutive years, especially in Somalia and in the months from March to May during which 60 percent of the annual rainfall occurs. It is estimated that the lives of a number of people ranging from 22[114] to 58 million[115] are at risk.
Demographics, ethnicity and languages
[edit]Besides sharing similar geographic endowments, the countries of the Horn of Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together,[21] evincing a complex pattern of interrelationships among the various groups.[116] The two main macro groups in the Horn are the Cushitic-speaking Cushitic peoples traditionally centered in the lowlands and the Ethiosemitic-speaking Habesha peoples who inhabit the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands.
According to Ethnologue, there are 10 individual languages spoken in Djibouti (two native), 14 in Eritrea, 90 in Ethiopia, 15 in Somalia (Somali being the only native).[117] Most people in the Horn speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic, Semitic, or Omotic branches. The Cushitic branch includes Oromo, spoken by the Oromo people in Ethiopia, and Somali, spoken by the Somali people in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya; the Semitic branch (specifically the Ethiosemitic sub-branch) includes Amharic, spoken by the Amhara people of Ethiopia, and Tigrinya spoken by the Tigrayan people of Ethiopia and the Tigrinya people of Eritrea. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic Afar, Saho, Hadiyya, Sidamo and Agaw languages, the Semitic Tigre, Arabic, Gurage, Harari, Silt'e and Argobba tongues[118] as well as Omotic languages are spoken by Omotic communities inhabiting Ethiopia's southern regions. Among these languages are Aari, Dizi, Gamo, Kafa, Hamer and Wolaytta.[119]
Languages belonging to the Nilo-Saharan language family are also spoken in some areas by Nilotic ethnic minorities mostly in Ethiopia and Eritrea. These tongues include the Nilo-Saharan Me'en and Mursi languages used in southwestern Ethiopia, and Kunama and Nara idioms spoken in parts of southern Eritrea.
Languages belonging to the Niger-Congo language family are also spoken in some areas by Bantu ethnic minorities in Somalia. In the riverine and littoral areas of southern Somalia, Bajuni, Barawani, and Bantu groups also speak variants of the Niger-Congo Swahili and Mushunguli languages.[120][121]
The Horn has produced numerous indigenous writing systems. Among these is Ge'ez script (ግዕዝ Gəʿəz) (also known as Ethiopic), which has been written in for at least 2000 years.[122] It is an abugida script that was originally developed to write the Ge'ez language. In speech communities that use it, such as the Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called fidäl (ፊደል), which means "script" or "alphabet". For centuries, Somali sheikhs and Sultans used wadaad's writing (a version of the Arabic alphabet) to write. In the early 20th century, in response to a national campaign to settle on a writing script for the Somali language (which had long since lost its ancient script[123]), Osman Yusuf Kenadid, a Somali poet and remote cousin of the Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid of the Sultanate of Hobyo, devised a phonetically sophisticated alphabet called Osmanya (also known as far soomaali; Osmanya: 𐒍𐒖𐒇 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘) for representing the sounds of Somali.[124] Though no longer the official writing script in Somalia, the Osmanya script is available in the Unicode range 10480-104AF [from U+10480 – U+104AF (66688–66735)]. A number of ethnic minority groups in southern Ethiopia and Eritrea also adhere to various traditional faiths. Among these belief systems are the Nilo-Saharan Surma people's acknowledgment of the sky god Tumu.[125]
Economy
[edit]According to the IMF, in 2010 the Horn of Africa region had a total GDP (PPP) of $106.224 billion and nominal of $35.819 billion. Per capita, the GDP in 2010 was $1061 (PPP) and $358 (nominal).[126][127][128][129]
Over 95 percent of cross-border trade within the region is unofficial and undocumented, carried out by pastoralists trading livestock.[130] The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep and goats from Ethiopia sold to other countries in the Horn and the wider Eastern Africa region, including Somalia and Djibouti, generates an estimated total value of between US$250 and US$300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure), with the towns of Burao and Yirowe in Somaliland being home to the largest livestock markets in the Horn of Africa, with as many as 10,000 heads of sheep and goats sold daily from all over the Horn of Africa, with many of whom shipped to Gulf states via the port of Berbera.[130][131][132][133] This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions and promote regional integration.[130] However, the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, governments are unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.[130]
See also
[edit]- Incense trade route
- List of peninsulas
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa
- Silk Road
- Sub-Saharan Africa
- African Great Lakes Region
Notes
[edit]References
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External links
[edit]- History of the Horn of Africa
- Horn of Africa News Agency
- Horn of Africa Biodiversity Hotspot
- Horn of Africa Concerns from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
- Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa official website
- Global Governance Institute Analysis on the Horn of Africa and the EU