Jump to content

Anti-imperialism: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Content deleted Content added
No edit summary
Tags: Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
 
(580 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{short description|Political stance in opposition to interventionist or expansionist policies}}[[File:Antiimperialismo caracas.jpg|thumb|350px|Anti-imperialist [[Bolivarian propaganda]] mural in [[Caracas]], [[Venezuela]], specifically targeting [[American imperialism]]. Written in Spanish "Out with imperialism, only the people save the people"]]
{{histinfo}}
[[File:Anti-Russian graffiti in Tbilisi.jpg|thumb|Graffiti in [[Tbilisi]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] opposing [[Russian neo-imperialism|Russian imperialism]]]]


'''Anti-imperialism''', strictly speaking, is a term that may be applied to a movement opposed to any form of [[colonialism]] or [[imperialism]].{{Cn|date=November 2011}} Anti-imperialism includes opposition to wars of conquest, particularly of non-contiguous territory or people with a different language or culture; it also includes people opposing the expansion of a country beyond earlier borders.<ref>Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, ''Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840-1960'' (2010)</ref>
'''Anti-imperialism''' in [[political science]] and [[international relations]] is opposition to [[imperialism]] or [[neocolonialism]]. Anti-imperialist sentiment typically manifests as a political principle in [[independence]] struggles against [[Interventionism (politics)|intervention]] or influence from a [[Superpower|global superpower]], as well as in opposition to [[Colonialism|colonial rule]]. Anti-imperialism can also arise from a specific economic theory, such as in the [[Leninist]] interpretation of imperialism ([[Vladimir Lenin]]'s theory of [[surplus value]] being [[Export|exported]] to less developed nations in search of higher [[Profit (economics)|profits]], eventually leading to imperialism), which is derived from Lenin's 1917 work ''[[Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism]]''. People who categorize themselves as anti-imperialists often state that they are opposed to [[colonialism]], colonial empires, [[hegemony]], [[imperialism]] and the territorial expansion of a country beyond its established borders.<ref>Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, ''Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960'' (2010).</ref>


An influential movement independent of the [[Western world|Western]] [[Left-wing politics|left]] that advocated religious imperialism was [[pan-Islamism]]; which challenged the [[Western civilisation]]al model and rose to prominence across various parts of the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]] during the 19th and 20th centuries. Its most influential ideologue was the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] theologian [[Rashid Rida|Muhammad Rashid Rida]], a fierce opponent of Western ideas, who called upon [[Muslims]] to rise up in armed resistance by waging [[jihad]] against [[imperialism]] and re-establish an [[Caliphate|Islamic caliphate]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34731 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9780190087470 |editor-last=Salvatore |editor-first=Armando |location=New York |pages=13, 860, 861 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190087470.001.0001 |editor-last2=Hanafi |editor-first2=Sari |editor-last3=Obuse |editor-first3=Kieko |access-date=2023-01-04 |archive-date=2023-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104174722/https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34731 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=M. Landau |first=Jacob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wxk-CgAAQBAJ |title=Pan-Islam: History and Politics |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-138-83939-7 |location=New York |pages=9 |access-date=2023-01-04 |archive-date=2023-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102222/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Pan_Islam/wxk-CgAAQBAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Olivier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyE9DAAAQBAJ |title=The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations |publisher=New York University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8147-7609-4 |location=New York |page=39 |chapter=3: Reform Movements among the Muslims of the Empire |access-date=2023-01-04 |archive-date=2023-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102223/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_New_Central_Asia/FyE9DAAAQBAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahmoud Abdelnasser |first=Walid |title=The Islamic Movement in Egypt: Perceptions of International Relations 1967–81 |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7103-0469-8 |location=New York |pages=31, 32 |chapter=1: A Historical Background}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kapila |first=Shruti |title=Violent Fraternity: Indian Political Thought in the Global Age |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-691-19522-3 |location=Princeton, New Jersey, USA |pages=58 |chapter=2: Ghadar! Violence and the Political Potential of the Planet}}</ref> Through his resolution in the [[2nd World Congress of the Communist International|Second World Congress]] of [[Communist International|Comintern]] (1920), Lenin accused the anti-imperialism of [[Pan-Islamism|pan-Islamists]] of favouring the interests of the [[bourgeoisie]], feudal landlords and [[Ulama|religious clerics]]; and incited [[Communism|communists]] to compulsorily fight pan-Islamism. Since then, [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] authorities regularly employed the charge of pan-Islamism to target Islamic dissidents for [[Anti-Soviet sentiment|anti-Soviet]] activities and fomenting [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] rebellions.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Calvin Ricklefs |first=Merle |title=Polarising Javanese Society: Islamic and Other Visions, c. 1830–1930 |publisher=NUS Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-9971-69-359-6 |location=Singapore |pages=235, 236 |chapter=8: Polarities Politicised, c. 1908-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=M. Landau · |first=Jacob |title=Pan-Islam: History and Politics |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-138-83939-7 |location=New York |pages=167, 168 |chapter=III: Pan-Islam clashes with the Russian and Soviet authorities}}</ref>
FARTS

The phrase gained a wide currency after the [[Second World War]] and at the onset of the [[Cold War]] as political movements in colonies of European powers promoted national sovereignty. Some anti-imperialist groups who opposed the [[American imperialism|United States]] supported the power of the [[Soviet Union]], while in some Marxist schools, such as [[Maoism]], this was criticized as [[social imperialism]]. [[Islamism|Islamist]] movements traditionally view [[Russia]] and [[China]] as imperial and [[Neocolonialism|neo-colonial]] forces engaged in persecution and oppression of Muslim communities domestically and abroad, in addition to the U.S. and its allies like [[Israel]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=E. Fuller |first=Graham |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781403978608 |title=The Future of Political Islam |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-4039-6556-1 |location=New York |pages=40 |doi=10.1057/9781403978608 |url-access=subscription |access-date=2023-01-04 |archive-date=2023-01-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104175056/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/9781403978608 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Theory ==
In the late 1870s, the term "imperialism" was introduced to the English language by opponents of the aggressively imperial policies of British Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] (1874–1880).<ref name="auto1">Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, ''Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960'' (2010)</ref> It was shortly appropriated by supporters of "imperialism" such as [[Joseph Chamberlain]]. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest; and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed. [[John A. Hobson]] and [[Vladimir Lenin]] added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to the term. Many theoreticians on the left have followed either or both in emphasizing the structural or systemic character of "imperialism". Such writers have expanded the time period associated with the term so that it now designates neither a policy, nor a short space of decades in the late 19th century, but a global system extending over a period of centuries, often going back to [[Christopher Columbus]]. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease with the fact of power, specifically Western power.<ref>Mark F. Proudman, "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". ''Journal of the Historical Society'', September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433</ref><ref>D. K. Fieldhouse, "Imperialism": An Historiographical Revision", ''South African Journal of Economic History'', March 1992, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp 45–72</ref>

The relationships among [[capitalism]], [[aristocracy]] and [[imperialism]] have been discussed and analysed by theoreticians, historians, political scientists such as [[John A. Hobson]] and [[Thorstein Veblen]], [[Joseph Schumpeter]] and [[Norman Angell]].<ref>G.K. Peatling, “Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered”, ''History'', July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp. 381–98</ref> Those intellectuals produced much of their works about imperialism before the [[World War I]] (1914–1918), yet their combined work informed the study of the impact of imperialism upon Europe and contributed to the political and ideologic reflections on the rise of the [[military–industrial complex]] in the United States from the 1950s onwards.{{Cn|date=March 2023}}

===Hobson===
{{Main|Imperialism (Hobson)}}

[[John A. Hobson]] strongly influenced the anti-imperialism of both Marxists and liberals, worldwide through his 1902 book on ''Imperialism.'' He argued that the "taproot of imperialism" is not in [[nationalism|nationalist pride]], but in Capitalism. As a form of economic organization, imperialism is unnecessary and immoral, the result of the mis-distribution of wealth in a capitalist society. That created an irresistible desire to extend the national markets into foreign lands, in search of profits greater than those available in the Mother Country. In the capitalist economy, rich capitalists received a disproportionately higher income than did the working class. If the owners invested their incomes to their factories, the greatly increased productive capacity would exceed the growth in demand for the products and services of said factories. Lenin adopted Hobson's ideas to argue that capitalism was doomed and would eventually be replaced by socialism, the sooner the better.{{Cn|date=March 2023}}

Hobson was also influential in liberal circles, especially the British Liberal Party.<ref>David Long, ''Towards a new liberal internationalism: the international theory of JA Hobson'' (1996).</ref> Historians Peter Duignan and [[Lewis H. Gann]] argue that Hobson had an enormous influence in the early 20th century that caused widespread distrust of imperialism:

{{blockquote|Hobson's ideas were not entirely original; however his hatred of moneyed men and monopolies, his loathing of secret compacts and public bluster, fused all existing indictments of imperialism into one coherent system....His ideas influenced German nationalist opponents of the British Empire as well as French Anglophobes and Marxists; they colored the thoughts of American liberals and isolationist critics of colonialism. In days to come they were to contribute to American distrust of Western Europe and of the British Empire. Hobson helped make the British averse to the exercise of colonial rule; he provided indigenous nationalists in Asia and Africa with the ammunition to resist rule from Europe.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book|author1=Peter Duignan|author2=Lewis H. Gann|title=Burden of Empire: An Appraisal of Western Colonialism in Africa South of the Sahara|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RY642QAhLVwC&pg=PT59|year=2013|publisher=Hoover Press|page=59|isbn=9780817916930|access-date=2018-05-01|archive-date=2023-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102208/https://books.google.com/books?id=RY642QAhLVwC&pg=PT59|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

On the positive side, Hobson argued that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth and encourage a peaceful multilateral world order. Conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers (people who earn income from property or securities) would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism.<ref>P. J. Cain, "Capitalism, Aristocracy and Empire: Some 'Classical' Theories of Imperialism Revisited", ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'', March 2007, Vol. 35 Issue 1, pp 25–47</ref><ref>G.K. Peatling, "Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered", ''History'', July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp 381–398</ref>


== Political movement ==
== Political movement ==
As a self-conscious political movement, anti-imperialism originated in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in opposition to the growing European [[colonialism|colonial empires]] and the US control of the Philippines after 1898.<ref> Harrington, 1935</ref> However, it reached its highest level of popular support in the colonies themselves, where it formed the basis for a wide variety of [[national liberation movements]] during the mid-20th century and later. These movements, and their anti-imperialist ideas, were instrumental in the [[decolonization]] process of the 1950s and 1960s, which saw most European colonies in Asia and Africa achieving their independence.<ref>Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, ''Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840-1960'' (2010)</ref>


As a self-conscious political movement, anti-imperialism originated in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in opposition to the growing European [[colonialism|colonial empires]] and the United States control of the Philippines after 1898.<ref>Harrington, 1935</ref> However, it reached its highest level of popular support in the colonies themselves, where it formed the basis for a wide variety of [[national liberation movements]] during the mid-20th century and later. These movements, and their anti-imperialist ideas, were instrumental in the [[decolonization]] process of the 1950s and 1960s, which saw most European colonies in Asia and Africa achieving their independence.<ref name="auto1" />
== Anti-Imperialist League ==
An early use of the term "anti-imperialist" occurred after the United States entered the [[Spanish-American War]] in 1898.<ref>Robert L. Beisner, ''Twelve against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898—1900'' (1968)</ref> Most activists supported the war itself but opposed the annexation of new territory, especially the Philippines.<ref>Julius Pratt, ''Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands'' (1936) pp 266—78</ref> The [[Anti-Imperialist League]] was founded on June 15, 1898 in Boston, in opposition of the acquisition of the Philippines, which happened anyway.The anti-imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed imperialism violated [[Republicanism in the United States|the credo of republicanism]], especially the need for "consent of the governed." Fred Harrington states, "the anti-imperialist's did not oppose expansion because of commercial, religious, constitutional, or humanitarian reasons but instead because they thought that an imperialist policy ran counter to the political doctrines of the Declaration of Independence, Washington's Farewell Address, and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address".<ref>Harrington, 1935, pp 211-12</ref><ref>Richard E. Welch, Jr., ''Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899—1902'' (1978)</ref><ref>E. Berkeley Tompkins, ''Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890—1920.'' (1970)</ref>


== International context ==
==[[Dervish State|Dervish State of Somalia]]==
The '''Dervish State''' ({{lang-so|''Daraawiish''}}, {{lang-ar|دولة الدراويش}}) was an early 20th century [[Somali people|Somali]] [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Islamic state|Muslim state]] that was established by [[Muhammad Abdullah Hassan]], a religious leader who gathered Somali soldiers from across the [[Horn of Africa]] and united them into a loyal army known as the ''Dervishes''.{{Cn|date=November 2011}} This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a powerful state through conquest of lands claimed by the Somali [[Sultan]]s, the [[Ethiopians]] and the [[Europe]]an [[powers]].{{Cn|date=November 2011}} The [[Dervish]] State acquired renown in the [[Islamic world|Islamic]] and [[West world|Western]] worlds due to its resistance against the European empires of [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Italy]]. The Dervish forces successfully repulsed the [[British Empire]] in four [[military]] [[expeditions]], and forced it to retreat to the coastal region.<ref>Encyclopedia of African history‎ - Page 1406</ref> . It is at that time the only African state that fought against the colonizing Europeans. It became the symbol of the African struggle against Europe.<ref>The Failure of The Daraawiish State: The Clash Between Somali Clanship and State System Abdisalam M. Issa-Salwe - the 5th International Congress of Somali Studies December 1993</ref>


=== United States ===
== [[Marxism]], [[Leninism]] and anti-imperialism ==
{{main|American Anti-Imperialist League}}
{{Marxism}}
An early use of the term "anti-imperialist" occurred after the United States entered the [[Spanish–American War]] in 1898.<ref>[[Robert L. Beisner]], ''Twelve against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898–1900'' (1968)</ref> Most activists supported the war itself, but opposed the annexation of new territory, especially the Philippines.<ref>Julius Pratt, ''Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands'' (1936) pp 266–78</ref> The [[American Anti-Imperialist League|Anti-Imperialist League]] was founded on June 15, 1898, in Boston in opposition of the acquisition of the Philippines, which would happen anyway. The anti-imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed imperialism violated the [[Republicanism in the United States|credo of republicanism]], especially the need for "[[consent of the governed]]". Appalled by American imperialism, the Anti-Imperialist League, which included famous citizens such as [[Andrew Carnegie]], [[Henry James]], [[William James]] and [[Mark Twain]], formed a platform which stated:<!-- This quote can be cut down/ expanded based on the whims of any reader looking. -->
<!-- At the document cited. -->
{{blockquote|We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. We insist that the subjugation of any people is "criminal aggression" and open disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Government...


We cordially invite the cooperation of all men and women who remain loyal to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1899antiimp.asp|title=Platform of the American Antilmperialist League, 1899|publisher=Fordham University|access-date=2 February 2013|archive-date=24 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324044614/http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/mod/1899antiimp.asp|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
{{Cquote2|We must bear in mind that imperialism is a world system, the last stage of capitalism — and it must be defeated in a world confrontation. The strategic end of this struggle should be the destruction of imperialism. Our share, the responsibility of the exploited and underdeveloped of the world is to eliminate the foundations of imperialism: our oppressed nations, from where they extract capitals, raw materials, technicians and cheap labor, and to which they export new capitals — instruments of domination — arms and all kinds of articles; thus submerging us in an absolute dependance|[[Che Guevara]], Message to the Tricontinental, 1967 <ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1967/04/16.htm Che Guevara: Message to the Tricontinental] Spring of 1967.</ref>}}


Fred Harrington states that "the anti-imperialist's did not oppose expansion because of commercial, religious, constitutional, or humanitarian reasons but instead because they thought that an imperialist policy ran counter to the political doctrines of the Declaration of Independence, Washington's Farewell Address, and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address".<ref>Harrington, 1935, pp 211–12</ref><ref>Richard E. Welch, Jr., ''Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902'' (1978)</ref><ref>E. Berkeley Tompkins, ''Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920''. (1970)</ref>
In [[Das Kapital]], [[Karl Marx]] considered imperialism to be part of the prehistory of the [[capitalist mode of production]]. Conversely, [[Lenin]] defined imperialism as "the highest stage of capitalism", the era in which monopoly finance capital becomes dominant, forcing nations and corporations to compete for control over resources and markets all over the world. Lenin's theory of imperialism has since been adopted by a majority of Marxists.


An important influence on American intellectuals was the work of British writer [[John A. Hobson]]. especially [[Imperialism (Hobson)|''Imperialism: A Study'' (1902).]] Historians Peter Duignan and Lewis H. Gann argue that Hobson had an enormous influence in the early 20th century that caused widespread distrust of imperialism:
The Marxist and Leninist views of imperialism, and related theories such as [[dependency theory]], mostly look at the ''economic'' rather than military or political (though these are related) dominance of certain countries over others. Imperialism thus consists not necessarily in the direct control of one country by another, but in the economic [[exploitation]] of one region by another, or of a group by another. This usage differs from a popular conception of 'imperialism', as ''directly'' controlled colonial or [[neocolonialism|neocolonial]] empires.


{{blockquote|Hobson's ...hatred of moneyed men and monopolies, his loathing of secret compacts and public bluster, fused all existing indictments of imperialism into one coherent system....His ideas influenced German nationalist opponents of the British Empire as well as French Anglophobes and Marxists; they colored the thoughts of American liberals and isolationist critics of colonialism. In days to come they were to contribute to American distrust of Western Europe and of the British Empire. Hobson helped make the British averse to the exercise of colonial rule; he provided indigenous nationalists in Asia and Africa with the ammunition to resist rule from Europe.<ref name="auto2"/>}}
Lenin held that imperialism was a stage of capitalist development, with five simultaneous features:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/|accessdate=2011-02-13|title=Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism}}</ref>

The American rejection of the League of Nations in 1919 was accompanied with a sharp American reaction against European imperialism. American textbooks denounced imperialism as a major cause of the World War. The uglier aspects of British colonial rule were emphasized, recalling the long-standing anti-British sentiments in the United States.<ref>{{cite book|author=Cornell University|title=The Impact of the war on America: six lectures by members of the faculty of Cornell university|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTlnAAAAMAAJ|year=1942|publisher=Cornell University Press|page=50|isbn=9780801400971|access-date=2018-05-01|archive-date=2023-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102205/https://books.google.com/books?id=MTlnAAAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== In Britain and Canada ===
Anti-imperialism within Britain emerged in the 1890s, especially from within the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. For over a century, back to the days of [[Adam Smith]] in 1776, economists had been hostile to imperialism on the grounds that it is a violation of the principles of free trade; they never formed a popular movement. Indeed, imperialism seems to have been generally popular before the 1890s.<ref>Robert Livingston Schuyler, "The rise of anti-imperialism in England." Political science quarterly 37.3 (1922): 440–471. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2142146 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116230313/http://www.jstor.org/stable/2142146 |date=2016-11-16 }}</ref> The key impetus around 1900 came from strong public disapproval with the British actions during with the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902). The war was fought against the [[Afrikaners]], who were [[Dutch Empire|Dutch colonists]] who had built new homelands in South Africa. [[Opposition to the Second Boer War]] was modest when the war began and was generally less widespread than support for it. However, influential groups formed immediately against the war, including the [[South African Conciliation Committee]] and [[William Thomas Stead|W. T. Stead]]'s [[Stop the War Committee]]. Much of the opposition in Britain came from the Liberal Party. Intellectuals and activists Britain based in the socialist, labour and Fabian movements generally oppose imperialism and [[John A. Hobson]], a Liberal, took many of his ideas from their writings.<ref>Gregory Claeys, ''Imperial Sceptics: British Critics of Empire, 1850–1920'' (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=EkSU5kUscOMC excerpt]</ref> After the Boer war, opponents of imperialism turned their attention to the British crown colonies in Africa and Asia.<ref>Bernard Porter, ''Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes to Colonialism in Africa 1895–1914'' (1968).</ref> By the 1920s, the government was sponsoring large-scale exhibits promoting imperialism, notably the 1924 [[British Empire Exhibition]] in London and the 1938 [[Glasgow Empire Exhibition]]. Some intellectuals used the opportunity to criticise imperialism as a policy.<ref>Sarah Britton, "‘Come and See the Empire by the All Red Route!’: Anti-Imperialism and Exhibitions in Interwar Britain." ''History Workshop Journal'' 69#1 (2010).</ref>

Moderately active anti-imperial movements emerged in Canada and Australia. The French Canadians were hostile to British expansion whilst in Australia, it was the Irish Catholics who were opposed.<ref>C. N. Connolly, "Class, birthplace, loyalty: Australian attitudes to the Boer War." ''Australian Historical Studies'' 18.71 (1978): 210–232.</ref> French Canadians argue that Canadian nationalism was the proper and true goal and it sometimes conflicted with loyalty to the British Empire. Many French Canadians claimed that they would fight for Canada but would not fight for the Empire.<ref>Carl Berger, ed. ''Imperialism and Nationalism, 1884–1914: a conflict in Canadian thought'' (1969).</ref>

Protestant Canadians, typically of British descent, generally supported British imperialism enthusiastically. They sent thousands of volunteers to fight alongside British and imperial forces against the Boers and in the process identified themselves even more strongly with the British Empire.<ref>Gordon L. Heath, ''War with a Silver Lining: Canadian Protestant Churches and the South African War, 1899–1902'' (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2009).</ref> A little opposition also came from some English immigrants such as the intellectual leader [[Goldwin Smith]].<ref>R. Craig Brown, "Goldwin Smith and Anti-imperialism." ''Canadian Historical Review'' 43.2 (1962): 93–105.</ref> In Canada, the Irish Catholics were fighting the French Canadians for control of the Catholic Church, so the Irish generally supported the pro-British position.<ref>Mark G. McGowan, "The De-Greening of the Irish: Toronto’s Irish‑Catholic Press, Imperialism, and the Forging of a New Identity, 1887–1914." ''Historical Papers/Communications historiques'' 24.1 (1989): 118–145.</ref> Anti-imperialism also grew rapidly in India and formed a core element of the demand by Congress for independence.{{Cn|date=March 2023}}

== Leninism and Marxism–Leninism ==
[[File:Lenin 1920.jpg|thumb|200px|To the Russian revolutionary [[Vladimir Lenin]], imperialism was the highest, but degenerate, stage of capitalism.]]
[[File:Che Guevara June 2, 1959.jpg|thumb|200px|To the Latin American revolutionary [[Che Guevara]], imperialism was a capitalistic geopolitical system of control and repression which must be understood as such in order to be defeated.]]
In the mid-19th century, [[Karl Marx]] mentioned imperialism to be part of the prehistory of the [[capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]] in ''[[Das Kapital]]'' (1867–1894). [[Vladimir Lenin]] defined imperialism as "the highest stage of capitalism", the economic stage in which [[monopoly]] finance capital becomes the dominant application of capital.<ref>"Imperialism", ''The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations'' (1998), by Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham. p. 244.</ref> As such, said financial and economic circumstances impelled national governments and private business corporations to worldwide competition for control of natural resources and human labour by means of [[colonialism]].<ref name="auto">"Colonialism", ''The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations'' (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.</ref>

The [[Leninism|Leninist]] views of imperialism and related theories, such as [[dependency theory]], address the economic [[dominance (ethology)|dominance]] and [[Exploitation of labour|exploitation]] of a country, rather than the military and the political dominance of a people, their country and its natural resources. Hence, the primary purpose of imperialism is economic exploitation, rather than mere control of either a country or of a region. The Marxist and the Leninist denotation thus differs from the usual political science denotation of imperialism as the direct control (intervention, occupation and rule) characteristic of colonial and [[neocolonialism|neo-colonial]] empires as used in the realm of [[international relations]].<ref>"Imperialism", ''The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations'' (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.</ref><ref name="auto" />

In ''[[Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism]]'' (1917), Lenin outlined the five features of capitalist development that lead to imperialism:
# Concentration of production and capital leading to the dominance of national and multinational monopolies and cartels.
# Concentration of production and capital leading to the dominance of national and multinational monopolies and cartels.
# Industrial capital as the dominant form of capital has been replaced by [[finance capitalism|finance capital]], with the industrial capitalists increasingly reliant on capital provided by monopolistic financial institutions; "''Again and again, the final word in the development of banking is monopoly''".
# Industrial capital as the dominant form of capital has been replaced by [[finance capitalism|finance capital]], with the industrial capitalists increasingly reliant on capital provided by monopolistic financial institutions. "Again and again, the final word in the development of banking is monopoly".
# The export of the aforementioned finance capital is emphasized over the export of goods;
# The export of the aforementioned finance capital is emphasized over the export of goods.
# The economic division of the world by between multinational cartels;
# The economic division of the world by multinational cartels.
# The political division of the world into colonies by the great powers, in which the great powers monopolise investment.
# The political division of the world into colonies by the great powers, in which the great powers monopolise investment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/|access-date=2011-02-13|title=Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism|archive-date=2008-01-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110012717/http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/|url-status=live}}</ref>


[[War]] is generally seen as a method of furthering imperialist interests, which is why Marxists generally see [[antimilitarism]] and opposition to 'capitalist wars' as an integral part of anti-imperialism. The relationship of Marxists and other radical left-wing groups with [[anti-war]] movements often involves them trying to convince other activists to turn pacifism into anti-imperialism - that is, to move from a general opposition to war towards a condemnation of the economic system that is seen as driving wars (or from pacifism to specific anti-imperialist antimilitarism). [http://www.cpgb.org.uk/worker/403/pacifism_disarms.html]
Generally, the relationship among Marxist-Leninists and radical, left-wing organisations who are [[anti-war]], often involves persuading such political activists to progress from [[pacifism]] to anti-imperialism—that is, to progress from the opposition of war, in general, to the condemnation of the capitalist economic system, in particular.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cpgb.org.uk/worker/403/pacifism_disarms.html |title=Weekly Worker 403 Thursday October 11 2001 |website=www.cpgb.org.uk |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020711081333/http://www.cpgb.org.uk/worker/403/pacifism_disarms.html |archive-date=11 July 2002 |url-status=dead}}</ref>


In the 20th century, the [[Soviet Union]] represented themselves as the foremost enemy of imperialism and thus politically and financially supported [[Third World]] revolutionary organisations who fought for national independence. This was accomplished through the export of both financial capital and Soviet military apparatuses, with the Soviet Union sending military advisors to [[Ethiopia]], [[Angola]], [[Egypt]] and [[Afghanistan]].
The Soviet Union also claimed to be the foremost enemy of imperialism and supported many independence movements throughout the [[Third World]]. However, at the same time, it can also be argued that it was imperialist, as it asserted its dominance over the countries of [[Eastern Europe]] and the Caucasus. This has led many to accuse the Soviet Union of hypocrisy, and it is often used as an argument for the idea that the Soviet Union did not, in fact, follow Marxist principles, or alternatively, for example by [[anarchism|anarchists]], as an argument for the failure of Marxism as a solution to imperialism. Notably, [[Mao Zedong]] developed the theory that the Soviet Union was a "[[Social-imperialism|social-imperialist]]" nation, a socialist nation that had imperialist tendencies. However, Mao presided over the imperialist occupation of Tibet. This is an important aspect of Maoist analysis of the Soviet Union's history.<ref>Michael M. Sheng, ''Battling Western imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States'' (1997)</ref>


However, [[anarchism|anarchists]] as well as many other Marxist organizations, have characterized Soviet foreign policy as imperialism and cited it as evidence that the philosophy of Marxism would not resolve and eliminate imperialism. [[Mao Zedong]] developed the theory that the Soviet Union was a [[Social imperialism|social imperialist]] nation, a socialist people with tendencies to imperialism, an important aspect of Maoist analysis of the history of the Soviet Union.<ref>''Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States'' (1997), by Michael M. Sheng. p.00.</ref> Contemporarily, the term "anti-imperialism" is most commonly applied by Marxist-Leninists, and political organisations of like ideological persuasion who oppose capitalism, present a [[Class struggle|class analysis]] of society and the like.<ref>''Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical Survey'' (1990), by Anthony Brewer. p. 293.</ref>
The term "anti-imperialism" is today most commonly used by Marxists and those with closely similar ideas (anti-capitalism, a class analysis of society). Others who might be accurately described as anti-imperialists, and who would probably accept the description, nevertheless tend to use different terminology.<ref>Anthony Brewer, ''Marxist theories of imperialism: a critical survey'' (1990) p 293</ref>


About the nature of imperialism and how to oppose and defeat it, [[Che Guevara]] said:
== Feminism and anti-imperialism ==


{{blockquote|imperialism is a world system, the last stage of capitalism—and it must be defeated in a world confrontation. The strategic end of this struggle should be the destruction of imperialism. Our share, the responsibility of the exploited and underdeveloped of the world, is to eliminate the foundations of imperialism: our oppressed nations, from where they extract capitals, raw materials, technicians, and cheap labor, and to which they export new capitals—instruments of domination—arms and all kinds of articles; thus submerging us in an absolute dependence.|Che Guevara, Message to the Tricontinental, 1967<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1967/04/16.htm Che Guevara: Message to the Tricontinental] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127152906/https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1967/04/16.htm |date=2018-01-27 }} Spring of 1967.</ref>}}
[[Feminist]] theories of [[international relations]] often fall under the category of anti-imperialism. They may draw a connection between [[sexism]] or [[patriarchy]] and war and hegemony in any of several ways, for example: a link between the idea of masculinity and the drive towards war; a theory of the way the self and the other are constructed which ties allegedly sexist modern Western notions of male and female to allegedly [[racism|racist]], colonialist modern Western notions of the nation-state and the alien; a location of the cause of the alleged failure of government officials to attempt seriously to resolve conflicts peacefully or consider others' perspectives in an ideology which derides the supposedly feminine qualities of love, empathy, and surrender. [[J. Ann Tickner]] and [[Cynthia Enloe]] are well-known writers in this field. [[bell hooks]] also discusses this philosophy, especially in its relation to the lives and stereotypes of black males.


== Trotskyism ==
== Right-wing anti-imperialism ==


The concept of '''permanent war economy''' originated in 1945 with an article by [[Trotskyist]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Linden |first1=Marcel |title=Edward L. Sard (1913–99), Theorist of the Permanent War Economy |journal=Critique |date=2 January 2018 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=117–130 |doi=10.1080/03017605.2017.1412629 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03017605.2017.1412629 |language=en |issn=0301-7605}}</ref> Ed Sard (alias Frank Demby, Walter S. Oakes and T.N. Vance), a [[Theoretician (Marxism)|theoretician]] who predicted a post-war [[arms race]]. He argued at the time that the United States would retain the character of a [[war economy]]; even in peacetime, [[US military expenditure]] would remain large, reducing the percentage of unemployed compared to the 1930s. He extended this analysis in 1950 and 1951.<ref>See Peter Drucker, ''Max Schachtman and his Left. A Socialist Odyssey through the 'American Century','' Humanities Press 1994, p. xv, 218; Paul Hampton, "Trotskyism after Trotsky? C'est moi!", in ''Workers Liberty'', vol 55, April 1999, p. 38</ref>
There is a fairly strict division between "[[right-wing politics|right-wing]]" anti-imperialism within powerful countries and that within their weaker clients or opponents, resulting from the fact that most right-leaning opponents of imperialism remain ideologically attached to their own nation or people.


The concept has been a core tenet of the British [[Socialist Workers Party (UK)|Socialist Workers Party]] with founder, [[Tony Cliff]], examining its application to the [[First World War]], [[American imperialism]] and colonial empires including Britain, France and Germany.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tony Cliff: Permanent War Economy (May 1957) |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1957/05/permwar.htm |website=www.marxists.org}}</ref>
Modern lines of thought within allegedly imperialist powers that are arguably both "right-wing" and "anti-imperialist" tend to divide into two general strains, [[Libertarianism]] and [[Paleoconservatism]]. The latter, prominently represented by [[Andrew Bacevich]] and [[Patrick Buchanan]], is differentiated from the former, prominently represented by [[Justin Raimondo]] and [[Ron Paul]], by an association with [[social conservatism]]. Both are more influential within the United States than outside it, and both tend to see imperialism as in neither the best interests nor the real traditions of their country, giving them an ideological continuity with [[isolationism]].


== Opposition to Soviet imperialism ==
Right-wing [[nationalist]]s and religious fundamentalist movements that have emerged in reaction to alleged imperialism might also fall within this category; for example, [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Khomeinism]] historically derived much of its popularity from its appeal to widespread anger at American intervention or influence in [[Iran]] and the Middle East.
{{see also|Soviet empire|Anti-Sovietism|Social imperialism}}
[[File:First Sting.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of the first shoot-down of Soviet helicopter gunships by the [[Afghan mujahideen]] using Western-supplied [[FIM-92 Stinger|Stinger Missiles]], widely regarded as the turning point in the Soviet-Afghan War]]


The nations which were part of the Soviet sphere of influence were nominally independent countries with separate governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to stay within certain limits decided by the Soviet Union. These limits were enforced by the threat of intervention by Soviet forces, and later the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Major military invasions took place in [[East German uprising of 1953|East Germany in 1953]], [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Hungary in 1956]], [[Prague Spring|Czechoslovakia in 1968]] and [[Soviet–Afghan War|Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989]]. Countries in the [[Eastern Bloc]] were considered [[satellite state]]s.
The Indian [[Jamaat-e-Islami Hind]] launched a 10-day Nation-wide campaign titled Anti-Imperialism Campaign in December 2009.<ref>http://www.zeenews.com/news586298.html</ref>


The Soviet Union exhibited tendencies common to historic empires.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Beissinger |first1=Mark R. |title=Soviet Empire as "Family Resemblance" |journal=Slavic Review |date=2006 |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=294–303 |doi=10.2307/4148594|jstor=4148594 |s2cid=156553569 }}<br />Dave, Bhavna (2007). ''Kazakhstan: Ethnicity, Language and Power''. Abingdon, New York: Routledge.</ref><ref name="Caroe_1953" /> The notion of "Soviet empire" often refers to a form of "classic" or "colonial" empire with communism only replacing conventional imperial ideologies such as Christianity or monarchy, rather than creating a revolutionary state. Academically the idea is seen as emerging with [[Richard Pipes]]' 1957 book ''The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923,'' but it has been reinforced, along with several other views, in continuing scholarship.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Bekus |first=Nelly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DiwPRpRYt2kC |title=Struggle Over Identity: The Official and the Alternative "Belarusianness" |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-9776-68-5 |pages=4, 41–50 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=41}} Several scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elements common to both multinational empires and [[nation state]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> The Soviet Union practiced colonialism similar to conventional imperial powers.<ref name="Caroe_1953">{{cite journal |year=1953 |title=Soviet Colonialism in Central Asia |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=135–144 |jstor=20031013 |last=Caroe |first=O. |doi=10.2307/20031013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Annus |first=Epp |authorlink=Epp Annus |title=Soviet Postcolonial Studies: A View from the Western Borderlands |publisher= [[Routledge]] |date=2019 |location= |isbn=978-0367-2345-4-6 |pages=43–48}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Cucciolla |first=Riccardo |date=23 March 2019 |url=https://thecessblog.com/2019/03/the-cotton-republic-colonial-practices-in-soviet-uzbekistan-by-riccardo-mario-cucciolla-higher-school-of-economics-hse |title=The Cotton Republic: Colonial Practices in Soviet Uzbekistan? |publisher=[[Central Eurasian Studies Society]] |access-date=22 April 2019 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115001141/https://thecessblog.com/2019/03/the-cotton-republic-colonial-practices-in-soviet-uzbekistan-by-riccardo-mario-cucciolla-higher-school-of-economics-hse/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalnačs |first=Benedikts |title=20th Century Baltic Drama: Postcolonial Narratives, Decolonial Options |publisher= Aisthesis Verlag |date=2016 |location= |isbn=978-3849-8114-7-1 |page=14}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |year=2014 |title="Colonizers with Party Cards" Soviet Internal Colonialism in Central Asia, 1917–39 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/538640/pdf |publisher=Slavica Publishers |journal=Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History |issue=1 |volume=15 |last=Loring |first=Benjamin|pages=77–102 |doi=10.1353/kri.2014.0012 |s2cid=159664992 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |year=2014 |title=It is Colonialism After All: Some Epistemological Remarks. |url=https://rcin.org.pl/ibl/Content/51834/WA248_71045_P-I-2524_thompson-it-is.pdf#page=9 |publisher=Institute of Literary Research of the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]] |journal=Teksty Drugie |issue=1 |page=74 |last=Thompson |first=Ewa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vardys |first=Vytas Stanley |title=Soviet Colonialism in the Baltic States: A Note on the Nature of Modern Colonialism |url=https://www.lituanus.org/1964/64_2_01_Vardys.html |journal=[[Lituanus]] |volume=10 |issue=2 |date=Summer 1964 |issn=0024-5089 |access-date=2023-03-23 |archive-date=2021-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109162257/https://www.lituanus.org/1964/64_2_01_Vardys.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Criticism ==


== Islamic imperialism ==
Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt assert that traditional anti-imperialism is no longer relevant. In the book ''Empire'',<ref>Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt, ''Empire'', Harvard University Press (2001) ISBN 0-674-00671-2</ref> Negri and Hardt argue that imperialism is no longer the practice or domain of any one nation or state. Rather, they claim, the "Empire" is a conglomeration of all states, nations, corporations, media, popular and intellectual culture and so forth, and thus, traditional anti-imperialist methods and strategies can no longer be applied against them.
{{See also|Pan-Islamism|Islamism}}
[[File:Штурм_аула_Салта.jpg|thumb|260x260px|[[Resistance movement|Resistance]] fighters of [[Caucasian Imamate|Caucasian]] ''[[Mujahideen|Mujahidin]]'' defend the village of [[Salta, Republic of Dagestan|Salta]] from the invading [[Russian Imperial Army]] during the [[Caucasian War]].|left]]
The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the rise of numerous [[colonial]] and imperial Islamic resistance movements across various parts of the Muslim World. These included the ''[[jihad]]'' movement led by the [[Caucasian Imamate|Imamate of Caucasus]] and the [[Circassia|Circassian Confederacy]] against [[Russian imperialism]] during the [[Caucasian War|Caucasus Wars]] (1763–1864 CE). Prominent leaders in this resistance campaign included [[Ghazi Muhammad|Ghazi Mullah]], [[Hamzat Bek]], [[Imam Shamil|Shamil]], [[Qerandiqo Berzeg|Hajji Qerandiqo Berzeg]], [[Jembulat Boletoqo]], etc. Other major anti-imperial movements included the [[Padri War]], [[Java War]], and the [[Aceh War]] against the [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch colonisation of Indonesia]], [[Moro Rebellion]] against the [[United States]], the [[Ahl-i Hadith#Indian Jihad Movement|South Asian Jihad]] movement of [[Sayyid Ahmad Shahid]], [[Mahdist State]] in [[Sudan]] and the Arabian ''[[Muwahhidun (Wahhabi)|Muwahhidun]]'' that fought [[British colonialism]], [[Emir Abdelkader|Emir Abd al-Qadir's]] military insurgency against [[French colonial empire|French]] in Algeria, [[Military history of the North-West Frontier|North-West Frontier Uprisings]] of the [[Pashtun tribes]] against the [[British Raj]], [[Omar al-Mukhtar|Omar Mukhtar]]'s Jihad against [[Italian fascism|Italian Fascists]] in [[Libya]], etc. The establishment and defense of [[Islamic state]]hood that enforces ''[[Sharia]]'' (Islamic law) based on ''[[Quran|Qur'an]]'' and ''[[Sunnah]]'', elimination of [[Superstitions in Muslim societies|superstitions]] and heterodox local practices and folk rituals, etc. were key objectives of these [[Islah|reform]] movements.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Motadel |first=David |title=Islam and the European Empires |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-966831-1 |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |pages=15–42, 201–300 |chapter=Introduction, Chapters 7: Islam and Resistance in the British Empire, 8: Religious Revolts in Colonial North Africa, 9: Muslim Mobilization in Imperial Russia’s Caucasus, 10: Islamic Resistance in the Dutch Colonial Empire}}</ref>
[[File:MuhammadRashidRida.jpg|thumb|[[Imam]] [[Muhammad Rashid Rida]] was an ardent advocate of [[Pan-Islamist]] insurgency against [[imperialism]]. His teachings inspired figures like [[Hasan al-Banna]], [[Sayyid Qutb]] and [[Abdullah Azzam]].]]
These anti-colonial movements inspired the rise of [[Pan-Islamism]] during the late 19th century; which gave birth to numerous [[Islamism|Islamist]] organisations advocating anti-imperialism across the [[Muslim world|Muslim World]]; such as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (''Ikhwan al-Muslimeen'') and [[Jamaat-e-Islami]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=M. Lüthi |first=Lorenz |title=Cold Wars: Asia, the Middle East, Europe |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-108-41833-1 |location=New York, NY |pages=264–265}}</ref> Syro-Egyptian [[Islamism|Islamist]] theoretician [[Rashid Rida|Muhammad Rashid Rida]] (1865 CE/1282 AH–1935 CE/1354 AH), a Salafi theologian greatly influenced by preceding militant [[Islamic revival]]ist movements, was an ardent opponent of European imperial powers; and he called for armed ''jihad'' to defend the Islamic World from encroaching colonialism, complemented by a political programme to establish Islamic states which would implement ''Sharia'' (Islamic laws). He extended this anti-imperialist campaign to the theological level through the Arab [[Salafi movement|Salafiyya]] movement; which professed the key theme of returning to the values of ''[[Salaf as salih|Salaf al-Salih]]''. This encompassed a theological assault on Western ideological currents emanating from the principles of [[secularism]] and [[nationalism]] as well as denunciation of [[Western culture|Western]] [[cultural imperialism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Choi |title=The 20th Century: A Retrospective |publisher=Routledge |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-8133-2691-7 |location=New York, NY |pages=253 |chapter=10: Islamic Fundamentalism in Critical Perspective}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Milton-Edwards |first=Beverley |title=Islamic Fundamentalism Since 1945 |publisher=Routledg |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-415-63988-0 |edition=2nd |location=New York, NY |pages=24–25 |chapter=1: A diverse tradition from past to present}}</ref>


After Rashid Rida, the mantle of Islamist anti-imperialism was spearheaded by the [[Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood]] founder [[Hassan al-Banna|Hasan al-Banna]], [[South Asia]]n revolutionary Islamist leader [[Abul A'la Maududi|Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi]] and [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] Jihadist theoretician [[Sayyid Qutb]]. Mawdudi held the belief that West was in decline and that restoration of Islamic prowess was inevitable. Openly equating Western colonialism with [[atheism]], Mawdudi called upon Muslims to rally in ''[[jihad]]'' against the imperialist forces to regain their spiritual, cultural, economic and military sovereignty and self-sufficiency. Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian scholar influenced by both Mawdudi and Rashid Rida, took their ideas to its logical culmination; proclaiming the necessity of a permanent, un-ending Islamist revolution not only against the imperialists but also its allied regimes in the [[Muslim world|Muslim World]]. This revolution against the apostate regimes has to be waged as an armed ''jihad'' by an ideological vanguard committed to establish the Islamic state and uphold ''[[Tawhid]]'' (Islamic monotheism). These ideas gained prominence and arose in influence across the Islamic World during the [[post-World War II]] era. During the [[Cold War]] period, the [[Islamism|Islamist]] intellectuals from the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamaat-e Islami also launched fervent [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] campaigns, ideologically critiquing [[socialism]] and [[Marxism]] and chiding [[leftists]] as agents of [[Soviet Imperialism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=K. Gani |first=Jasmine |date=21 October 2022 |title=Anti-colonial connectivity between Islamicate movements in the Middle East and South Asia: the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamati Islam |journal=Post Colonial Studies |volume=26 |publisher=Routledge |pages=55–76 |doi=10.1080/13688790.2023.2127660 |s2cid=253068552 |doi-access=free |hdl=10023/26238 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>[[File:Omar_Mukhtar_with_the_Libyan_Mujahideen.jpg|thumb|257x257px|[[Islamist|Islamic]] commander [[Omar Mukhtar]], popularly known as the "''Lion of the Desert''", led the Libyan ''[[Mujahideen|Mujahidin]]'' against the [[Italian imperialism under fascism|imperialist forces]] of [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]] during the [[Interwar Period]].]]In his book "[[Al Jihad fil Islam|''Al Jihad Fil Islam'']]", South Asian revolutionary Islamist scholar Abul A'la Mawdudi made a comprehensive religious refutation of [[imperialism]]. He argued that oppressive rulers justify imperialism in the name of progress and socio-political reforms. Describing the main features of imperialism, Mawdudi wrote:
French philosopher and author [[Bernard-Henri Lévy]] also argues in his book ''Left in Dark Times'' <ref>Bernard Henri Levy, ''Left in Dark Times, A Stand Against the New Barbarism'', Random House; Tra edition. (2008) ISBN 140006435X</ref> that modern anti-imperialism is nothing more than thinly disguised [[anti-Americanism]] and has been too commonly evoked by Third World dictators and extremist movements to distract their audiences from their own crimes and abuses of power.

{{Blockquote|text="the basic quality of imperialism is the dominance of one particular nation or country... Thus, the doors of imperialism remain closed to people of other nationalities and for this reason, they can play no major role in running its affairs. This gives rise to the development of other faults in the system and characters of the subject nation. They develop a weakness of character, lose self-esteem and the sense of righteousness. Even if the ruling nation does not treat the subjects with outright cruelty and arrogance, their (the subject nation’s) character sinks to such a low ebb of ignobility that they become quite incapable of striving for attaining and maintaining self-rule for a very long time."|author=[[Abul A'la Maududi]]|title=''[[Al Jihad fil Islam]]''|source=<ref>{{Cite book |last=A'la Maududi |first=Abul |url=http://www.islamicstudies.info/literature/Jihad-in-Islam.pdf |title=Al Jihad Fil Islam |publisher=Syed Khalid Farooq Maududi |location=Lahore |pages=63–65 |language=Urdu |translator-last=Rafatullah Shah |translator-first=Syed |trans-title=Jihad in Islam |access-date=2022-11-29 |archive-date=2023-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124111625/http://www.islamicstudies.info/literature/Jihad-in-Islam.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
[[File:Sayed Qotb in jail.jpg|thumb|According to the Egyptian Jihadist theoretician [[Sayyid Qutb]], the imperialism of secular Western powers was a by-product of their historical [[Crusades|Crusading spirit]] and driven by ideological differences.]]
The Indian [[Jamaat-e-Islami Hind]] launched a ten-day nationwide campaign titled Anti-Imperialism Campaign in December 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/jamaat-to-launch-nation-wide-anti-imperialism-campaign_586298.html|title=Jamaat to launch nation-wide 'anti-imperialism' campaign|date=December 10, 2009|website=Zee News|access-date=October 7, 2019|archive-date=October 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007074206/https://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/jamaat-to-launch-nation-wide-anti-imperialism-campaign_586298.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Contemporary [[Jihadism|Jihadist]] movements such as [[Al-Qaeda]], influenced by Sayyid Qutb's thought, declares itself as a "global revolutionary vanguard" waging ''jihad'' to defend [[Muslims]] from atrocities committed by the forces of [[Western imperialism]] and its allies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Borowski |first=Audrey |date=2015 |title=Al Qaeda and ISIS: From Revolution to Apocalypse |url=https://philosophynow.org/issues/111/Al_Qaeda_and_ISIS_From_Revolution_to_Apocalypse |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526012524/https://philosophynow.org/issues/111/Al_Qaeda_and_ISIS_From_Revolution_to_Apocalypse |archive-date=26 May 2022 |website=Philosophy Now}}</ref>

In the worldview of [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] Jihadist theoretician [[Sayyid Qutb]], imperialist policies of the [[Secularity|secular]] Western regimes were a continuation of their historical "Crusading Spirit".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Qutb |first=Sayyid |title=Milestones: Special Edition |publisher=Maktabah Booksellers and Publications |year=2006 |isbn=0-9548665-1-7 |editor-last=al-Mehri |editor-first=A.B. |location=Birmingham |pages=177}}</ref> In his commentary of the [[Quran|Qur'anic]] [[Āyah|verse]] 2:120 "{''Never will the Jews be pleased with you, (O Prophet), nor the Christians until you follow their way..''}", Sayyid Qutb writes:

{{Blockquote|text="The conflict between the [[Judeo-Christian]] world on the one side, and the [[Ummah|Muslim community]] on the other, remains in essence one of ideology, although over the years it has appeared in various guises and has grown more sophisticated and, at times, more insidious. We have seen the original ideological conflict succeeded by economic, political and military confrontation, on the basis that 'religious' or 'ideological' conflicts are outdated and are usually prosecuted by 'fanatics' and backward people. Unfortunately, some naïve and confused Muslims have fallen for this stratagem and persuaded themselves that the religious and ideological aspects of the conflict are no longer relevant. But in reality [[Zionism|world Zionism]] and Christian [[Imperialism]], as well as [[communism|world Communism]], are conducting the fight against [[Islam]] and the Muslim community, first and foremost, on ideological grounds... The confrontation is not over control of territory or economic resources, or for military domination. If we believe that, we would play into our enemies’ hands and would have no one but ourselves to blame for the consequences."|author=[[Sayyid Qutb]]|title=''[[Fi Zilal al-Quran]]''|source=<ref>{{Cite book |last=Qutb|first=Sayyid|url=https://archive.org/details/QuranTafsirInTheShadeOfTheQuranSayyidQutbEngAllVolIn1Pdf/page/n145/mode/2up?view=theater|title=Fi Zilal al-Quran |date=7 December 2016 |pages=123–124 |language=Arabic |trans-title=In the Shade of the Qur'an}}</ref>}}

== Liberal anti-imperialism ==
There have also been many examples of liberal anti-imperialism. However, liberal anti-imperialists are distinct from socialist anti-imperialists because they do not support [[anti-capitalism]].<ref name="자유무역"/>

[[Liberalism in South Korea|South Korean liberals]] have opposed [[China|Chinese]] and [[Japan]]ese imperialism. "[[No Japan Movement]]" is related to anti-imperialist sentiment in South Korea. On August 14, 2019, seven politicians of the DPK's descendants of [[Korean independence movement|independence activists]] said at a press conference, "In the spirit of Great Korean Independence 100 years ago, let's overcome the economic invasion of [[Shinzo Abe]]'s government." (100년 전 대한독립의 정신으로 아베 정부 경제침략을 이겨내자.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/politics/assembly/905688.html|title=독립운동가 후손 민주당 의원 7명 "아베는 새로운 한반도 장애물"|date=14 August 2019|website=[[한겨레]]|accessdate=11 March 2023}}</ref> South Korean liberals, unlike protectionist anti-imperialists, believing that the Japanese government's actions that undermined the "[[free trade]] principle" (자유무역 원칙 or 자유무역 철칙) during the [[Japan–South Korea trade dispute]] were [[Japanese nationalism|far-right imperialist 'economic invasion']]. (South Korean liberals argue that the Japanese government caused unfair damage to the South Korean economy to avoid compensation for Korean victims of [[Japanese war crimes]] during the past [[Empire of Japan|imperialist Japan]].)<ref name="자유무역">{{Cite web|url=https://www.yonhapnewstv.co.kr/news/MYH20190710000500038 |title=정부, '日경제보복' WTO 긴급 상정…"자유무역 원칙 위배" |date=10 July 2019|website=연합뉴스 TV|accessdate=12 March 2023}}</ref> South Korean liberals also oppose the [[Cultural appropriation|appropriation of Korean culture]] of the [[Chinese people]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.chosun.com/politics/election2022/2022/02/05/4PCQ4NLITNC47CYGMGDWZEJL3Y/ | title=이재명 측 "한복 넘보는 중국 문화공정, 이대로 방치하지 않겠다" | date=5 February 2022 }}</ref>

Some [[Modern liberalism in the United States|modern liberals in the United States]], including [[Dennis Kucinich]], support [[non-interventionism]].{{Cn|date=March 2023}}

== Criticism ==
[[Antonio Negri]] and [[Michael Hardt]] assert that traditional anti-imperialism is no longer relevant. In the book ''[[Empire (Hardt and Negri book)|Empire]]'',<ref>Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt, ''Empire'', Harvard University Press (2001) {{ISBN|0-674-00671-2}}</ref> Negri and Hardt argue that imperialism is no longer the practice or domain of any one nation or state. Rather, they claim, the "Empire" is a conglomeration of all states, nations, corporations, media, popular and intellectual culture and so forth; and thus, traditional anti-imperialist methods and strategies can no longer be applied against them.{{Cn|date=March 2023}}

The [[Estonia|Estonian]] political scientist Maria Mälksoo argues that "one of many blind spots" in [[postcolonial studies]] linked to anti-imperialist movements is that they often ignore [[Russian imperialism]] and colonialism.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2022.2074947 | doi=10.1080/14623528.2022.2074947 | title=The Postcolonial Moment in Russia's War Against Ukraine | date=2023 | last1=Mälksoo | first1=Maria | journal=Journal of Genocide Research | volume=25 | issue=3–4 | pages=471–481 }}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
{{Portal|Politics}}
{{Portal|Politics}}
* [[Anti-Americanism]]
*[[Historiography of the British Empire]]
* [[Anti-British sentiment]]
*[[Nationalism]]
* [[Anti-French sentiment]]
*[[National self-determination]]
* [[Anti-Western sentiment]]
*[[National liberation wars]]
*[[Colonialism]]
* [[Colonialism]]
* [[Decentralization]]
*[[Christian radicalism]]
* [[Historiography of the British Empire]]
*[[Antimilitarism]]
* [[Indigenism]]
*[[Anti-imperialist Camp]]
** [[Indigenismo]]
*[[League Against Imperialism]]
* [[Internationalism (politics)]]
* [[Irish nationalism]] ([[Irish republicanism]])
* [[Korean nationalism]]
** [[Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea]]
** [[Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea]]
* [[League against Imperialism]]
* [[Left-wing nationalism]]
* [[Localism (politics)]]
* [[National liberation wars]]
* [[National self-determination]]
* [[Postcolonialism]]


==Notes==
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|3}}
* Griffiths, Martin, and Terry O'Callaghan, and Steven C. Roach 2008. ''International Relations: The Key Concepts''. Second Edition. New York: Routledge.
* Heywood, C. 2004. ''Political Theory: An Introduction'' New York: Palgrave MacMillan
* Harrington, Fred H. "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898-1900", ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', Vol. 22, No. 2 (Sep., 1935), pp.&nbsp;211–230 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1898467 in JSTOR]
* Proudman, Mark F.. "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". ''Journal of the Historical Society'', September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433


== Further reading ==
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* Boittin, Jennifer Anne. ''Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris'' (2010)
* Ali, Tariq et al. ''Anti-Imperialism: A Guide for the Movement'' {{ISBN|1-898876-96-7}}.
* Brendon, Piers. "A Moral Audit of the British Empire." ''History Today'', (Oct 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 10, pp 44–47, online at [[EBSCO]]
* Boittin, Jennifer Anne. ''Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris'' (2010).
* Brendon, Piers. ''The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781-1997'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0307388417 excerpt and text search]
* Brendon, Piers. "A Moral Audit of the British Empire." ''History Today'', (Oct 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 10, pp 44–47, online at [[EBSCO]].
* Cain, P. J. and A.G. Hopkins. ''British Imperialism, 1688-2000'' (2nd ed. 2001), 739pp, detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis [http://www.amazon.com/dp/058220965X excerpt and text search]
* Brendon, Piers. ''The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0307388417 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102209/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0307388417 |date=2023-02-05 }}.
* Castro, Daniel, Walter D.Mignolo, and Irene Silverblatt. ''Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0822339307 excerpt and text search], Spanish colonies
* Cain, P. J. and A.G. Hopkins. ''British Imperialism, 1688–2000'' (2nd ed. 2001), 739pp, detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis [https://www.amazon.com/dp/058220965X excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102207/https://www.amazon.com/dp/058220965X |date=2023-02-05 }}.
* Ferguson, Niall. ''Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power'' (2002), [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0465023290 excerpt and text search]
* Castro, Daniel, Walter D.Mignolo, and Irene Silverblatt. ''Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0822339307 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102210/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0822339307 |date=2023-02-05 }}, Spanish colonies.
* Cullinane, Michael Patrick. ''Liberty and American Anti-Imperialism, 1898–1909.'' New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
* Ferguson, Niall. ''Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power'' (2002), [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0465023290 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122150424/http://www.amazon.com/dp/0465023290/ |date=2020-11-22 }}.
* Friedman, Jeremy, and Peter Rutland. "Anti-imperialism: The Leninist Legacy and the Fate of World Revolution." ''Slavic Review'' 76.3 (2017): 591–599.
* Griffiths, Martin, and Terry O'Callaghan, and [[Steven C. Roach]] 2008. ''International Relations: The Key Concepts''. Second Edition. New Millan.

* Hamilton, Richard. ''President McKinley, War, and Empire'' (2006).
* Hamilton, Richard. ''President McKinley, War, and Empire'' (2006).
* Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. ''Empire'' (2001), influential statement from the left
* Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. ''Empire'' (2001), influential statement from the left.

* Herman, Arthur. ''Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age'' (2009) [excerpt and text search]
* Harrington, Fred H. "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898–1900", ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'', Vol. 22, No. 2 (Sep., 1935), pp.&nbsp;211–230 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1898467 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180930060421/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1898467 |date=2018-09-30 }}.
* Hobson, J.A. ''Imperialism: A Study''(1905) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1143086198 except and text search 2010 edition]
* James, Lawrence. ''The Rise and Fall of the British Empire'' (1997).
* Karsh, Efraim. ''Islamic Imperialism: A History'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0300122632 excerpt and text search]
* Olson, James S. et al., eds. ''Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism'' (1991) [http://www.questia.com/read/23315236?title=Historical%20Dictionary%20of%20European%20Imperialism online edition]
* Owen, Nicholas. ''The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885-1947'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0199233012 excerpt and text search]
* Polsgrove, Carol. ''Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause'' (2009)
* Sagromoso, Domitilla, James Gow, and Rachel Kerr. ''Russian Imperialism Revisited: Neo-Empire, State Interests and Hegemonic Power'' (2010)
* ''Anti-Imperialism: A Guide for the Movement'', [[Tariq Ali]], [[George Monbiot]], [[Tony Benn]], [[Louise Christian]] et al., ISBN 1-898876-96-7
* ''Globalisation Unmasked: Imperialism in the 21st Century'', [[James Petras]], [[Henry Veltmeyer]], ISBN 1-85649-939-1


* Herman, Arthur. ''Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age'' (2009) [excerpt and text search].
''The Anti-Imperialists'', [http://www.antiimperialist.com A Web based guide to American Anti-Imperialism]
* Hobson, J.A. ''Imperialism: A Study'' (1905) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1143086198 except and text search 2010 edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102145/https://www.amazon.com/dp/1143086198 |date=2023-02-05 }}.
* James, Lawrence. ''The Rise and Fall of the British Empire'' (1997).
* Karsh, Efraim. ''Islamic Imperialism: A History'' (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0300122632 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102157/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0300122632 |date=2023-02-05 }}.
* Ness, Immanuel, and Zak Cope, eds. ''The Palgrave encyclopedia of imperialism and anti-imperialism'' (2 vol. 2016). 1456pp
* Olson, James S. et al., eds. ''Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism'' (1991) [https://www.questia.com/read/23315236?title=Historical%20Dictionary%20of%20European%20Imperialism online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605093405/http://www.questia.com/read/23315236?title=Historical%20Dictionary%20of%20European%20Imperialism |date=2011-06-05 }}.
* Owen, Nicholas. ''The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885–1947'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199233012 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205102216/https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199233012 |date=2023-02-05 }}.
* Polsgrove, Carol. ''Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause'' (2009).
* Porter, Bernard. ''The Lion's Share: A History of British Imperialism 1850–2011'' (4th ed. 2012), Wide-ranging general history; strong on anti-imperialism.
* Proudman, Mark F.. "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". ''Journal of the Historical Society'', September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, pp. 395–433.
* Sagromoso, Domitilla, James Gow, and Rachel Kerr. ''Russian Imperialism Revisited: Neo-Empire, State Interests and Hegemonic Power'' (2010).
* Thornton, A.P. ''The Imperial Idea and its Enemies'' (2nd ed. 1985)
* Tompkins, E. Berkeley, ed. ''Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920.'' (1970) excerpts from primary and secondary sources.
* Tyrell, Ian and Jay Sexton, eds. ''Empire's Twin: U.S. anti-imperialism from the founding era to the age of terrorism'' (2015).
* Wang, Jianwei. "The Chinese interpretation of the concept of imperialism in the anti-imperialist context of the 1920s.," ''Journal of Modern Chinese History'' (2012) 6#2 pp 164–181.
{{refend}}


== External links ==
==External links==
* ''The Anti-Imperialists'', [https://web.archive.org/web/20150801062242/http://antiimperialist.com/ A Web based guide to American Anti-Imperialism].
*[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.browse&sort=Collection&item=Anti-Colonialism%20in%20the%20Cold%20War CWIHP at the Wilson Center for Scholars: Primary Document Collection on Anti-Imperialism in the Cold War]
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.browse&sort=Collection&item=Anti-Colonialism%20in%20the%20Cold%20War CWIHP at the Wilson Center for Scholars: Primary Document Collection on Anti-Imperialism in the Cold War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605133345/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.browse&sort=Collection&item=Anti-Colonialism%20in%20the%20Cold%20War |date=2011-06-05 }}.
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism by V.I. Lenin] Full text at marxists.org
* [https://depts.washington.edu/antiwar/ Pacific Northwest Antiwar and Radical History Project], multimedia collection of photographs, video, oral histories and essays.
*[http://www.themilitant.com/2009/7314/731449.html How Imperialist 'Aid' Blocks Development in Africa] by [[Thomas Sankara]], ''The Militant'', April 13, 2009
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/ Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism by V.I. Lenin] Full text at marxists.org.
*[http://www.cc-ds.org/discussion/CONFRONTING_US_IMPERIALISM.pdf Dan Jakopovich, ''In the Belly of the Beast: Challenging US Imperialism and the Politics of the Offensive'']
* [https://www.themilitant.com/2009/7314/731449.html How Imperialist 'Aid' Blocks Development in Africa] by [[Thomas Sankara]], ''The Militant'', April 13, 2009.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100518045623/http://www.cc-ds.org/discussion/CONFRONTING_US_IMPERIALISM.pdf Daniel Jakopovich, ''In the Belly of the Beast: Challenging US Imperialism and the Politics of the Offensive''].


{{anti-war}}
{{anti-war}}
{{Authority control}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Anti-Imperialism}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anti-Imperialism}}
[[Category:Anti-imperialism]]
[[Category:Anti-imperialism| ]]
[[Category:Anti-globalization]]
[[Category:Anti-war movement]]
[[Category:History of social movements]]
[[Category:History of social movements]]
[[Category:Social theories]]


[[ca:Antiimperialisme]]
[[cy:Gwrth-imperialaeth]]
[[de:Antiimperialismus]]
[[es:Antiimperialismo]]
[[fr:Anti-impérialisme]]
[[ru:Антиимпериализм]]
[[sv:Imperialism#Antiimperialism]]
[[sv:Imperialism#Antiimperialism]]
[[tr:Anti emperyalizm]]
[[zh:反帝國主義]]

Latest revision as of 10:20, 10 December 2024

Anti-imperialist Bolivarian propaganda mural in Caracas, Venezuela, specifically targeting American imperialism. Written in Spanish "Out with imperialism, only the people save the people"
Graffiti in Tbilisi, Georgia opposing Russian imperialism

Anti-imperialism in political science and international relations is opposition to imperialism or neocolonialism. Anti-imperialist sentiment typically manifests as a political principle in independence struggles against intervention or influence from a global superpower, as well as in opposition to colonial rule. Anti-imperialism can also arise from a specific economic theory, such as in the Leninist interpretation of imperialism (Vladimir Lenin's theory of surplus value being exported to less developed nations in search of higher profits, eventually leading to imperialism), which is derived from Lenin's 1917 work Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. People who categorize themselves as anti-imperialists often state that they are opposed to colonialism, colonial empires, hegemony, imperialism and the territorial expansion of a country beyond its established borders.[1]

An influential movement independent of the Western left that advocated religious imperialism was pan-Islamism; which challenged the Western civilisational model and rose to prominence across various parts of the Islamic world during the 19th and 20th centuries. Its most influential ideologue was the Sunni theologian Muhammad Rashid Rida, a fierce opponent of Western ideas, who called upon Muslims to rise up in armed resistance by waging jihad against imperialism and re-establish an Islamic caliphate.[2][3][4][5][6] Through his resolution in the Second World Congress of Comintern (1920), Lenin accused the anti-imperialism of pan-Islamists of favouring the interests of the bourgeoisie, feudal landlords and religious clerics; and incited communists to compulsorily fight pan-Islamism. Since then, Soviet authorities regularly employed the charge of pan-Islamism to target Islamic dissidents for anti-Soviet activities and fomenting anti-communist rebellions.[7][8]

The phrase gained a wide currency after the Second World War and at the onset of the Cold War as political movements in colonies of European powers promoted national sovereignty. Some anti-imperialist groups who opposed the United States supported the power of the Soviet Union, while in some Marxist schools, such as Maoism, this was criticized as social imperialism. Islamist movements traditionally view Russia and China as imperial and neo-colonial forces engaged in persecution and oppression of Muslim communities domestically and abroad, in addition to the U.S. and its allies like Israel.[9]

Theory

[edit]

In the late 1870s, the term "imperialism" was introduced to the English language by opponents of the aggressively imperial policies of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli (1874–1880).[10] It was shortly appropriated by supporters of "imperialism" such as Joseph Chamberlain. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest; and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed. John A. Hobson and Vladimir Lenin added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to the term. Many theoreticians on the left have followed either or both in emphasizing the structural or systemic character of "imperialism". Such writers have expanded the time period associated with the term so that it now designates neither a policy, nor a short space of decades in the late 19th century, but a global system extending over a period of centuries, often going back to Christopher Columbus. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease with the fact of power, specifically Western power.[11][12]

The relationships among capitalism, aristocracy and imperialism have been discussed and analysed by theoreticians, historians, political scientists such as John A. Hobson and Thorstein Veblen, Joseph Schumpeter and Norman Angell.[13] Those intellectuals produced much of their works about imperialism before the World War I (1914–1918), yet their combined work informed the study of the impact of imperialism upon Europe and contributed to the political and ideologic reflections on the rise of the military–industrial complex in the United States from the 1950s onwards.[citation needed]

Hobson

[edit]

John A. Hobson strongly influenced the anti-imperialism of both Marxists and liberals, worldwide through his 1902 book on Imperialism. He argued that the "taproot of imperialism" is not in nationalist pride, but in Capitalism. As a form of economic organization, imperialism is unnecessary and immoral, the result of the mis-distribution of wealth in a capitalist society. That created an irresistible desire to extend the national markets into foreign lands, in search of profits greater than those available in the Mother Country. In the capitalist economy, rich capitalists received a disproportionately higher income than did the working class. If the owners invested their incomes to their factories, the greatly increased productive capacity would exceed the growth in demand for the products and services of said factories. Lenin adopted Hobson's ideas to argue that capitalism was doomed and would eventually be replaced by socialism, the sooner the better.[citation needed]

Hobson was also influential in liberal circles, especially the British Liberal Party.[14] Historians Peter Duignan and Lewis H. Gann argue that Hobson had an enormous influence in the early 20th century that caused widespread distrust of imperialism:

Hobson's ideas were not entirely original; however his hatred of moneyed men and monopolies, his loathing of secret compacts and public bluster, fused all existing indictments of imperialism into one coherent system....His ideas influenced German nationalist opponents of the British Empire as well as French Anglophobes and Marxists; they colored the thoughts of American liberals and isolationist critics of colonialism. In days to come they were to contribute to American distrust of Western Europe and of the British Empire. Hobson helped make the British averse to the exercise of colonial rule; he provided indigenous nationalists in Asia and Africa with the ammunition to resist rule from Europe.[15]

On the positive side, Hobson argued that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth and encourage a peaceful multilateral world order. Conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers (people who earn income from property or securities) would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism.[16][17]

Political movement

[edit]

As a self-conscious political movement, anti-imperialism originated in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in opposition to the growing European colonial empires and the United States control of the Philippines after 1898.[18] However, it reached its highest level of popular support in the colonies themselves, where it formed the basis for a wide variety of national liberation movements during the mid-20th century and later. These movements, and their anti-imperialist ideas, were instrumental in the decolonization process of the 1950s and 1960s, which saw most European colonies in Asia and Africa achieving their independence.[10]

International context

[edit]

United States

[edit]

An early use of the term "anti-imperialist" occurred after the United States entered the Spanish–American War in 1898.[19] Most activists supported the war itself, but opposed the annexation of new territory, especially the Philippines.[20] The Anti-Imperialist League was founded on June 15, 1898, in Boston in opposition of the acquisition of the Philippines, which would happen anyway. The anti-imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed imperialism violated the credo of republicanism, especially the need for "consent of the governed". Appalled by American imperialism, the Anti-Imperialist League, which included famous citizens such as Andrew Carnegie, Henry James, William James and Mark Twain, formed a platform which stated:

We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. We insist that the subjugation of any people is "criminal aggression" and open disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Government... We cordially invite the cooperation of all men and women who remain loyal to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.[21]

Fred Harrington states that "the anti-imperialist's did not oppose expansion because of commercial, religious, constitutional, or humanitarian reasons but instead because they thought that an imperialist policy ran counter to the political doctrines of the Declaration of Independence, Washington's Farewell Address, and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address".[22][23][24]

An important influence on American intellectuals was the work of British writer John A. Hobson. especially Imperialism: A Study (1902). Historians Peter Duignan and Lewis H. Gann argue that Hobson had an enormous influence in the early 20th century that caused widespread distrust of imperialism:

Hobson's ...hatred of moneyed men and monopolies, his loathing of secret compacts and public bluster, fused all existing indictments of imperialism into one coherent system....His ideas influenced German nationalist opponents of the British Empire as well as French Anglophobes and Marxists; they colored the thoughts of American liberals and isolationist critics of colonialism. In days to come they were to contribute to American distrust of Western Europe and of the British Empire. Hobson helped make the British averse to the exercise of colonial rule; he provided indigenous nationalists in Asia and Africa with the ammunition to resist rule from Europe.[15]

The American rejection of the League of Nations in 1919 was accompanied with a sharp American reaction against European imperialism. American textbooks denounced imperialism as a major cause of the World War. The uglier aspects of British colonial rule were emphasized, recalling the long-standing anti-British sentiments in the United States.[25]

In Britain and Canada

[edit]

Anti-imperialism within Britain emerged in the 1890s, especially from within the Liberal Party. For over a century, back to the days of Adam Smith in 1776, economists had been hostile to imperialism on the grounds that it is a violation of the principles of free trade; they never formed a popular movement. Indeed, imperialism seems to have been generally popular before the 1890s.[26] The key impetus around 1900 came from strong public disapproval with the British actions during with the Second Boer War (1899–1902). The war was fought against the Afrikaners, who were Dutch colonists who had built new homelands in South Africa. Opposition to the Second Boer War was modest when the war began and was generally less widespread than support for it. However, influential groups formed immediately against the war, including the South African Conciliation Committee and W. T. Stead's Stop the War Committee. Much of the opposition in Britain came from the Liberal Party. Intellectuals and activists Britain based in the socialist, labour and Fabian movements generally oppose imperialism and John A. Hobson, a Liberal, took many of his ideas from their writings.[27] After the Boer war, opponents of imperialism turned their attention to the British crown colonies in Africa and Asia.[28] By the 1920s, the government was sponsoring large-scale exhibits promoting imperialism, notably the 1924 British Empire Exhibition in London and the 1938 Glasgow Empire Exhibition. Some intellectuals used the opportunity to criticise imperialism as a policy.[29]

Moderately active anti-imperial movements emerged in Canada and Australia. The French Canadians were hostile to British expansion whilst in Australia, it was the Irish Catholics who were opposed.[30] French Canadians argue that Canadian nationalism was the proper and true goal and it sometimes conflicted with loyalty to the British Empire. Many French Canadians claimed that they would fight for Canada but would not fight for the Empire.[31]

Protestant Canadians, typically of British descent, generally supported British imperialism enthusiastically. They sent thousands of volunteers to fight alongside British and imperial forces against the Boers and in the process identified themselves even more strongly with the British Empire.[32] A little opposition also came from some English immigrants such as the intellectual leader Goldwin Smith.[33] In Canada, the Irish Catholics were fighting the French Canadians for control of the Catholic Church, so the Irish generally supported the pro-British position.[34] Anti-imperialism also grew rapidly in India and formed a core element of the demand by Congress for independence.[citation needed]

Leninism and Marxism–Leninism

[edit]
To the Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, imperialism was the highest, but degenerate, stage of capitalism.
To the Latin American revolutionary Che Guevara, imperialism was a capitalistic geopolitical system of control and repression which must be understood as such in order to be defeated.

In the mid-19th century, Karl Marx mentioned imperialism to be part of the prehistory of the capitalist mode of production in Das Kapital (1867–1894). Vladimir Lenin defined imperialism as "the highest stage of capitalism", the economic stage in which monopoly finance capital becomes the dominant application of capital.[35] As such, said financial and economic circumstances impelled national governments and private business corporations to worldwide competition for control of natural resources and human labour by means of colonialism.[36]

The Leninist views of imperialism and related theories, such as dependency theory, address the economic dominance and exploitation of a country, rather than the military and the political dominance of a people, their country and its natural resources. Hence, the primary purpose of imperialism is economic exploitation, rather than mere control of either a country or of a region. The Marxist and the Leninist denotation thus differs from the usual political science denotation of imperialism as the direct control (intervention, occupation and rule) characteristic of colonial and neo-colonial empires as used in the realm of international relations.[37][36]

In Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917), Lenin outlined the five features of capitalist development that lead to imperialism:

  1. Concentration of production and capital leading to the dominance of national and multinational monopolies and cartels.
  2. Industrial capital as the dominant form of capital has been replaced by finance capital, with the industrial capitalists increasingly reliant on capital provided by monopolistic financial institutions. "Again and again, the final word in the development of banking is monopoly".
  3. The export of the aforementioned finance capital is emphasized over the export of goods.
  4. The economic division of the world by multinational cartels.
  5. The political division of the world into colonies by the great powers, in which the great powers monopolise investment.[38]

Generally, the relationship among Marxist-Leninists and radical, left-wing organisations who are anti-war, often involves persuading such political activists to progress from pacifism to anti-imperialism—that is, to progress from the opposition of war, in general, to the condemnation of the capitalist economic system, in particular.[39]

In the 20th century, the Soviet Union represented themselves as the foremost enemy of imperialism and thus politically and financially supported Third World revolutionary organisations who fought for national independence. This was accomplished through the export of both financial capital and Soviet military apparatuses, with the Soviet Union sending military advisors to Ethiopia, Angola, Egypt and Afghanistan.

However, anarchists as well as many other Marxist organizations, have characterized Soviet foreign policy as imperialism and cited it as evidence that the philosophy of Marxism would not resolve and eliminate imperialism. Mao Zedong developed the theory that the Soviet Union was a social imperialist nation, a socialist people with tendencies to imperialism, an important aspect of Maoist analysis of the history of the Soviet Union.[40] Contemporarily, the term "anti-imperialism" is most commonly applied by Marxist-Leninists, and political organisations of like ideological persuasion who oppose capitalism, present a class analysis of society and the like.[41]

About the nature of imperialism and how to oppose and defeat it, Che Guevara said:

imperialism is a world system, the last stage of capitalism—and it must be defeated in a world confrontation. The strategic end of this struggle should be the destruction of imperialism. Our share, the responsibility of the exploited and underdeveloped of the world, is to eliminate the foundations of imperialism: our oppressed nations, from where they extract capitals, raw materials, technicians, and cheap labor, and to which they export new capitals—instruments of domination—arms and all kinds of articles; thus submerging us in an absolute dependence.

— Che Guevara, Message to the Tricontinental, 1967[42]

Trotskyism

[edit]

The concept of permanent war economy originated in 1945 with an article by Trotskyist[43] Ed Sard (alias Frank Demby, Walter S. Oakes and T.N. Vance), a theoretician who predicted a post-war arms race. He argued at the time that the United States would retain the character of a war economy; even in peacetime, US military expenditure would remain large, reducing the percentage of unemployed compared to the 1930s. He extended this analysis in 1950 and 1951.[44]

The concept has been a core tenet of the British Socialist Workers Party with founder, Tony Cliff, examining its application to the First World War, American imperialism and colonial empires including Britain, France and Germany.[45]

Opposition to Soviet imperialism

[edit]
Depiction of the first shoot-down of Soviet helicopter gunships by the Afghan mujahideen using Western-supplied Stinger Missiles, widely regarded as the turning point in the Soviet-Afghan War

The nations which were part of the Soviet sphere of influence were nominally independent countries with separate governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to stay within certain limits decided by the Soviet Union. These limits were enforced by the threat of intervention by Soviet forces, and later the Warsaw Pact. Major military invasions took place in East Germany in 1953, Hungary in 1956, Czechoslovakia in 1968 and Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989. Countries in the Eastern Bloc were considered satellite states.

The Soviet Union exhibited tendencies common to historic empires.[46][47] The notion of "Soviet empire" often refers to a form of "classic" or "colonial" empire with communism only replacing conventional imperial ideologies such as Christianity or monarchy, rather than creating a revolutionary state. Academically the idea is seen as emerging with Richard Pipes' 1957 book The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923, but it has been reinforced, along with several other views, in continuing scholarship.[48]: 41  Several scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elements common to both multinational empires and nation states.[46] The Soviet Union practiced colonialism similar to conventional imperial powers.[47][49][50][51][52][53][54]

Islamic imperialism

[edit]
Resistance fighters of Caucasian Mujahidin defend the village of Salta from the invading Russian Imperial Army during the Caucasian War.

The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the rise of numerous colonial and imperial Islamic resistance movements across various parts of the Muslim World. These included the jihad movement led by the Imamate of Caucasus and the Circassian Confederacy against Russian imperialism during the Caucasus Wars (1763–1864 CE). Prominent leaders in this resistance campaign included Ghazi Mullah, Hamzat Bek, Shamil, Hajji Qerandiqo Berzeg, Jembulat Boletoqo, etc. Other major anti-imperial movements included the Padri War, Java War, and the Aceh War against the Dutch colonisation of Indonesia, Moro Rebellion against the United States, the South Asian Jihad movement of Sayyid Ahmad Shahid, Mahdist State in Sudan and the Arabian Muwahhidun that fought British colonialism, Emir Abd al-Qadir's military insurgency against French in Algeria, North-West Frontier Uprisings of the Pashtun tribes against the British Raj, Omar Mukhtar's Jihad against Italian Fascists in Libya, etc. The establishment and defense of Islamic statehood that enforces Sharia (Islamic law) based on Qur'an and Sunnah, elimination of superstitions and heterodox local practices and folk rituals, etc. were key objectives of these reform movements.[55]

Imam Muhammad Rashid Rida was an ardent advocate of Pan-Islamist insurgency against imperialism. His teachings inspired figures like Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb and Abdullah Azzam.

These anti-colonial movements inspired the rise of Pan-Islamism during the late 19th century; which gave birth to numerous Islamist organisations advocating anti-imperialism across the Muslim World; such as the Muslim Brotherhood (Ikhwan al-Muslimeen) and Jamaat-e-Islami.[56] Syro-Egyptian Islamist theoretician Muhammad Rashid Rida (1865 CE/1282 AH–1935 CE/1354 AH), a Salafi theologian greatly influenced by preceding militant Islamic revivalist movements, was an ardent opponent of European imperial powers; and he called for armed jihad to defend the Islamic World from encroaching colonialism, complemented by a political programme to establish Islamic states which would implement Sharia (Islamic laws). He extended this anti-imperialist campaign to the theological level through the Arab Salafiyya movement; which professed the key theme of returning to the values of Salaf al-Salih. This encompassed a theological assault on Western ideological currents emanating from the principles of secularism and nationalism as well as denunciation of Western cultural imperialism.[57][58]

After Rashid Rida, the mantle of Islamist anti-imperialism was spearheaded by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood founder Hasan al-Banna, South Asian revolutionary Islamist leader Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi and Egyptian Jihadist theoretician Sayyid Qutb. Mawdudi held the belief that West was in decline and that restoration of Islamic prowess was inevitable. Openly equating Western colonialism with atheism, Mawdudi called upon Muslims to rally in jihad against the imperialist forces to regain their spiritual, cultural, economic and military sovereignty and self-sufficiency. Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian scholar influenced by both Mawdudi and Rashid Rida, took their ideas to its logical culmination; proclaiming the necessity of a permanent, un-ending Islamist revolution not only against the imperialists but also its allied regimes in the Muslim World. This revolution against the apostate regimes has to be waged as an armed jihad by an ideological vanguard committed to establish the Islamic state and uphold Tawhid (Islamic monotheism). These ideas gained prominence and arose in influence across the Islamic World during the post-World War II era. During the Cold War period, the Islamist intellectuals from the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamaat-e Islami also launched fervent anti-communist campaigns, ideologically critiquing socialism and Marxism and chiding leftists as agents of Soviet Imperialism.[59]

Islamic commander Omar Mukhtar, popularly known as the "Lion of the Desert", led the Libyan Mujahidin against the imperialist forces of Fascist Italy during the Interwar Period.

In his book "Al Jihad Fil Islam", South Asian revolutionary Islamist scholar Abul A'la Mawdudi made a comprehensive religious refutation of imperialism. He argued that oppressive rulers justify imperialism in the name of progress and socio-political reforms. Describing the main features of imperialism, Mawdudi wrote:

"the basic quality of imperialism is the dominance of one particular nation or country... Thus, the doors of imperialism remain closed to people of other nationalities and for this reason, they can play no major role in running its affairs. This gives rise to the development of other faults in the system and characters of the subject nation. They develop a weakness of character, lose self-esteem and the sense of righteousness. Even if the ruling nation does not treat the subjects with outright cruelty and arrogance, their (the subject nation’s) character sinks to such a low ebb of ignobility that they become quite incapable of striving for attaining and maintaining self-rule for a very long time."

According to the Egyptian Jihadist theoretician Sayyid Qutb, the imperialism of secular Western powers was a by-product of their historical Crusading spirit and driven by ideological differences.

The Indian Jamaat-e-Islami Hind launched a ten-day nationwide campaign titled Anti-Imperialism Campaign in December 2009.[61] Contemporary Jihadist movements such as Al-Qaeda, influenced by Sayyid Qutb's thought, declares itself as a "global revolutionary vanguard" waging jihad to defend Muslims from atrocities committed by the forces of Western imperialism and its allies.[62]

In the worldview of Egyptian Jihadist theoretician Sayyid Qutb, imperialist policies of the secular Western regimes were a continuation of their historical "Crusading Spirit".[63] In his commentary of the Qur'anic verse 2:120 "{Never will the Jews be pleased with you, (O Prophet), nor the Christians until you follow their way..}", Sayyid Qutb writes:

"The conflict between the Judeo-Christian world on the one side, and the Muslim community on the other, remains in essence one of ideology, although over the years it has appeared in various guises and has grown more sophisticated and, at times, more insidious. We have seen the original ideological conflict succeeded by economic, political and military confrontation, on the basis that 'religious' or 'ideological' conflicts are outdated and are usually prosecuted by 'fanatics' and backward people. Unfortunately, some naïve and confused Muslims have fallen for this stratagem and persuaded themselves that the religious and ideological aspects of the conflict are no longer relevant. But in reality world Zionism and Christian Imperialism, as well as world Communism, are conducting the fight against Islam and the Muslim community, first and foremost, on ideological grounds... The confrontation is not over control of territory or economic resources, or for military domination. If we believe that, we would play into our enemies’ hands and would have no one but ourselves to blame for the consequences."

Liberal anti-imperialism

[edit]

There have also been many examples of liberal anti-imperialism. However, liberal anti-imperialists are distinct from socialist anti-imperialists because they do not support anti-capitalism.[65]

South Korean liberals have opposed Chinese and Japanese imperialism. "No Japan Movement" is related to anti-imperialist sentiment in South Korea. On August 14, 2019, seven politicians of the DPK's descendants of independence activists said at a press conference, "In the spirit of Great Korean Independence 100 years ago, let's overcome the economic invasion of Shinzo Abe's government." (100년 전 대한독립의 정신으로 아베 정부 경제침략을 이겨내자.)[66] South Korean liberals, unlike protectionist anti-imperialists, believing that the Japanese government's actions that undermined the "free trade principle" (자유무역 원칙 or 자유무역 철칙) during the Japan–South Korea trade dispute were far-right imperialist 'economic invasion'. (South Korean liberals argue that the Japanese government caused unfair damage to the South Korean economy to avoid compensation for Korean victims of Japanese war crimes during the past imperialist Japan.)[65] South Korean liberals also oppose the appropriation of Korean culture of the Chinese people.[67]

Some modern liberals in the United States, including Dennis Kucinich, support non-interventionism.[citation needed]

Criticism

[edit]

Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt assert that traditional anti-imperialism is no longer relevant. In the book Empire,[68] Negri and Hardt argue that imperialism is no longer the practice or domain of any one nation or state. Rather, they claim, the "Empire" is a conglomeration of all states, nations, corporations, media, popular and intellectual culture and so forth; and thus, traditional anti-imperialist methods and strategies can no longer be applied against them.[citation needed]

The Estonian political scientist Maria Mälksoo argues that "one of many blind spots" in postcolonial studies linked to anti-imperialist movements is that they often ignore Russian imperialism and colonialism.[69]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960 (2010).
  2. ^ Salvatore, Armando; Hanafi, Sari; Obuse, Kieko, eds. (2022). The Oxford Handbook of the Sociology of the Middle East. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 13, 860, 861. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190087470.001.0001. ISBN 9780190087470. Archived from the original on 2023-01-04. Retrieved 2023-01-04.
  3. ^ M. Landau, Jacob (2016). Pan-Islam: History and Politics. New York: Routledge. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-138-83939-7. Archived from the original on 2023-02-05. Retrieved 2023-01-04.
  4. ^ Roy, Olivier (2007). "3: Reform Movements among the Muslims of the Empire". The New Central Asia: The Creation of Nations. New York: New York University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8147-7609-4. Archived from the original on 2023-02-05. Retrieved 2023-01-04.
  5. ^ Mahmoud Abdelnasser, Walid (2011). "1: A Historical Background". The Islamic Movement in Egypt: Perceptions of International Relations 1967–81. New York: Routledge. pp. 31, 32. ISBN 978-0-7103-0469-8.
  6. ^ Kapila, Shruti (2021). "2: Ghadar! Violence and the Political Potential of the Planet". Violent Fraternity: Indian Political Thought in the Global Age. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-691-19522-3.
  7. ^ Calvin Ricklefs, Merle (2007). "8: Polarities Politicised, c. 1908-30". Polarising Javanese Society: Islamic and Other Visions, c. 1830–1930. Singapore: NUS Press. pp. 235, 236. ISBN 978-9971-69-359-6.
  8. ^ M. Landau ·, Jacob (2015). "III: Pan-Islam clashes with the Russian and Soviet authorities". Pan-Islam: History and Politics. New York: Routledge. pp. 167, 168. ISBN 978-1-138-83939-7.
  9. ^ E. Fuller, Graham (2003). The Future of Political Islam. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 40. doi:10.1057/9781403978608. ISBN 978-1-4039-6556-1. Archived from the original on 2023-01-04. Retrieved 2023-01-04.
  10. ^ a b Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960 (2010)
  11. ^ Mark F. Proudman, "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". Journal of the Historical Society, September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433
  12. ^ D. K. Fieldhouse, "Imperialism": An Historiographical Revision", South African Journal of Economic History, March 1992, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp 45–72
  13. ^ G.K. Peatling, “Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered”, History, July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp. 381–98
  14. ^ David Long, Towards a new liberal internationalism: the international theory of JA Hobson (1996).
  15. ^ a b Peter Duignan; Lewis H. Gann (2013). Burden of Empire: An Appraisal of Western Colonialism in Africa South of the Sahara. Hoover Press. p. 59. ISBN 9780817916930. Archived from the original on 2023-02-05. Retrieved 2018-05-01.
  16. ^ P. J. Cain, "Capitalism, Aristocracy and Empire: Some 'Classical' Theories of Imperialism Revisited", Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, March 2007, Vol. 35 Issue 1, pp 25–47
  17. ^ G.K. Peatling, "Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered", History, July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp 381–398
  18. ^ Harrington, 1935
  19. ^ Robert L. Beisner, Twelve against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898–1900 (1968)
  20. ^ Julius Pratt, Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands (1936) pp 266–78
  21. ^ "Platform of the American Antilmperialist League, 1899". Fordham University. Archived from the original on 24 March 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2013.
  22. ^ Harrington, 1935, pp 211–12
  23. ^ Richard E. Welch, Jr., Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902 (1978)
  24. ^ E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920. (1970)
  25. ^ Cornell University (1942). The Impact of the war on America: six lectures by members of the faculty of Cornell university. Cornell University Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780801400971. Archived from the original on 2023-02-05. Retrieved 2018-05-01.
  26. ^ Robert Livingston Schuyler, "The rise of anti-imperialism in England." Political science quarterly 37.3 (1922): 440–471. in JSTOR Archived 2016-11-16 at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ Gregory Claeys, Imperial Sceptics: British Critics of Empire, 1850–1920 (2010) excerpt
  28. ^ Bernard Porter, Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes to Colonialism in Africa 1895–1914 (1968).
  29. ^ Sarah Britton, "‘Come and See the Empire by the All Red Route!’: Anti-Imperialism and Exhibitions in Interwar Britain." History Workshop Journal 69#1 (2010).
  30. ^ C. N. Connolly, "Class, birthplace, loyalty: Australian attitudes to the Boer War." Australian Historical Studies 18.71 (1978): 210–232.
  31. ^ Carl Berger, ed. Imperialism and Nationalism, 1884–1914: a conflict in Canadian thought (1969).
  32. ^ Gordon L. Heath, War with a Silver Lining: Canadian Protestant Churches and the South African War, 1899–1902 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2009).
  33. ^ R. Craig Brown, "Goldwin Smith and Anti-imperialism." Canadian Historical Review 43.2 (1962): 93–105.
  34. ^ Mark G. McGowan, "The De-Greening of the Irish: Toronto’s Irish‑Catholic Press, Imperialism, and the Forging of a New Identity, 1887–1914." Historical Papers/Communications historiques 24.1 (1989): 118–145.
  35. ^ "Imperialism", The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (1998), by Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham. p. 244.
  36. ^ a b "Colonialism", The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.
  37. ^ "Imperialism", The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.
  38. ^ "Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism". Archived from the original on 2008-01-10. Retrieved 2011-02-13.
  39. ^ "Weekly Worker 403 Thursday October 11 2001". www.cpgb.org.uk. Archived from the original on 11 July 2002. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
  40. ^ Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States (1997), by Michael M. Sheng. p.00.
  41. ^ Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical Survey (1990), by Anthony Brewer. p. 293.
  42. ^ Che Guevara: Message to the Tricontinental Archived 2018-01-27 at the Wayback Machine Spring of 1967.
  43. ^ van der Linden, Marcel (2 January 2018). "Edward L. Sard (1913–99), Theorist of the Permanent War Economy". Critique. 46 (1): 117–130. doi:10.1080/03017605.2017.1412629. ISSN 0301-7605.
  44. ^ See Peter Drucker, Max Schachtman and his Left. A Socialist Odyssey through the 'American Century', Humanities Press 1994, p. xv, 218; Paul Hampton, "Trotskyism after Trotsky? C'est moi!", in Workers Liberty, vol 55, April 1999, p. 38
  45. ^ "Tony Cliff: Permanent War Economy (May 1957)". www.marxists.org.
  46. ^ a b Beissinger, Mark R. (2006). "Soviet Empire as "Family Resemblance"". Slavic Review. 65 (2): 294–303. doi:10.2307/4148594. JSTOR 4148594. S2CID 156553569.
    Dave, Bhavna (2007). Kazakhstan: Ethnicity, Language and Power. Abingdon, New York: Routledge.
  47. ^ a b Caroe, O. (1953). "Soviet Colonialism in Central Asia". Foreign Affairs. 32 (1): 135–144. doi:10.2307/20031013. JSTOR 20031013.
  48. ^ Bekus, Nelly (1 January 2010). Struggle Over Identity: The Official and the Alternative "Belarusianness". Central European University Press. pp. 4, 41–50. ISBN 978-963-9776-68-5.
  49. ^ Annus, Epp (2019). Soviet Postcolonial Studies: A View from the Western Borderlands. Routledge. pp. 43–48. ISBN 978-0367-2345-4-6.
  50. ^ Cucciolla, Riccardo (23 March 2019). "The Cotton Republic: Colonial Practices in Soviet Uzbekistan?". Central Eurasian Studies Society. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
  51. ^ Kalnačs, Benedikts (2016). 20th Century Baltic Drama: Postcolonial Narratives, Decolonial Options. Aisthesis Verlag. p. 14. ISBN 978-3849-8114-7-1.
  52. ^ Loring, Benjamin (2014). ""Colonizers with Party Cards" Soviet Internal Colonialism in Central Asia, 1917–39". Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History. 15 (1). Slavica Publishers: 77–102. doi:10.1353/kri.2014.0012. S2CID 159664992.
  53. ^ Thompson, Ewa (2014). "It is Colonialism After All: Some Epistemological Remarks" (PDF). Teksty Drugie (1). Institute of Literary Research of the Polish Academy of Sciences: 74.
  54. ^ Vardys, Vytas Stanley (Summer 1964). "Soviet Colonialism in the Baltic States: A Note on the Nature of Modern Colonialism". Lituanus. 10 (2). ISSN 0024-5089. Archived from the original on 2021-11-09. Retrieved 2023-03-23.
  55. ^ Motadel, David (2014). "Introduction, Chapters 7: Islam and Resistance in the British Empire, 8: Religious Revolts in Colonial North Africa, 9: Muslim Mobilization in Imperial Russia's Caucasus, 10: Islamic Resistance in the Dutch Colonial Empire". Islam and the European Empires. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 15–42, 201–300. ISBN 978-0-19-966831-1.
  56. ^ M. Lüthi, Lorenz (2020). Cold Wars: Asia, the Middle East, Europe. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 264–265. ISBN 978-1-108-41833-1.
  57. ^ Chatterjee, Choi (2018). "10: Islamic Fundamentalism in Critical Perspective". The 20th Century: A Retrospective. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8133-2691-7.
  58. ^ Milton-Edwards, Beverley (2014). "1: A diverse tradition from past to present". Islamic Fundamentalism Since 1945 (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledg. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-415-63988-0.
  59. ^ K. Gani, Jasmine (21 October 2022). "Anti-colonial connectivity between Islamicate movements in the Middle East and South Asia: the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamati Islam". Post Colonial Studies. 26. Routledge: 55–76. doi:10.1080/13688790.2023.2127660. hdl:10023/26238. S2CID 253068552.
  60. ^ A'la Maududi, Abul. Al Jihad Fil Islam [Jihad in Islam] (PDF) (in Urdu). Translated by Rafatullah Shah, Syed. Lahore: Syed Khalid Farooq Maududi. pp. 63–65. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-01-24. Retrieved 2022-11-29.
  61. ^ "Jamaat to launch nation-wide 'anti-imperialism' campaign". Zee News. December 10, 2009. Archived from the original on October 7, 2019. Retrieved October 7, 2019.
  62. ^ Borowski, Audrey (2015). "Al Qaeda and ISIS: From Revolution to Apocalypse". Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 26 May 2022.
  63. ^ Qutb, Sayyid (2006). al-Mehri, A.B. (ed.). Milestones: Special Edition. Birmingham: Maktabah Booksellers and Publications. p. 177. ISBN 0-9548665-1-7.
  64. ^ Qutb, Sayyid (7 December 2016). Fi Zilal al-Quran [In the Shade of the Qur'an] (in Arabic). pp. 123–124.
  65. ^ a b "정부, '日경제보복' WTO 긴급 상정…"자유무역 원칙 위배"". 연합뉴스 TV. 10 July 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
  66. ^ "독립운동가 후손 민주당 의원 7명 "아베는 새로운 한반도 장애물"". 한겨레. 14 August 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  67. ^ "이재명 측 "한복 넘보는 중국 문화공정, 이대로 방치하지 않겠다"". 5 February 2022.
  68. ^ Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt, Empire, Harvard University Press (2001) ISBN 0-674-00671-2
  69. ^ Mälksoo, Maria (2023). "The Postcolonial Moment in Russia's War Against Ukraine". Journal of Genocide Research. 25 (3–4): 471–481. doi:10.1080/14623528.2022.2074947.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Ali, Tariq et al. Anti-Imperialism: A Guide for the Movement ISBN 1-898876-96-7.
  • Boittin, Jennifer Anne. Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris (2010).
  • Brendon, Piers. "A Moral Audit of the British Empire." History Today, (Oct 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 10, pp 44–47, online at EBSCO.
  • Brendon, Piers. The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997 (2008) excerpt and text search Archived 2023-02-05 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Cain, P. J. and A.G. Hopkins. British Imperialism, 1688–2000 (2nd ed. 2001), 739pp, detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis excerpt and text search Archived 2023-02-05 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Castro, Daniel, Walter D.Mignolo, and Irene Silverblatt. Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism (2007) excerpt and text search Archived 2023-02-05 at the Wayback Machine, Spanish colonies.
  • Cullinane, Michael Patrick. Liberty and American Anti-Imperialism, 1898–1909. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
  • Ferguson, Niall. Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (2002), excerpt and text search Archived 2020-11-22 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Friedman, Jeremy, and Peter Rutland. "Anti-imperialism: The Leninist Legacy and the Fate of World Revolution." Slavic Review 76.3 (2017): 591–599.
  • Griffiths, Martin, and Terry O'Callaghan, and Steven C. Roach 2008. International Relations: The Key Concepts. Second Edition. New Millan.
  • Hamilton, Richard. President McKinley, War, and Empire (2006).
  • Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire (2001), influential statement from the left.
  • Harrington, Fred H. "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898–1900", Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Sep., 1935), pp. 211–230 in JSTOR Archived 2018-09-30 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Herman, Arthur. Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age (2009) [excerpt and text search].
  • Hobson, J.A. Imperialism: A Study (1905) except and text search 2010 edition Archived 2023-02-05 at the Wayback Machine.
  • James, Lawrence. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1997).
  • Karsh, Efraim. Islamic Imperialism: A History (2007) excerpt and text search Archived 2023-02-05 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Ness, Immanuel, and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave encyclopedia of imperialism and anti-imperialism (2 vol. 2016). 1456pp
  • Olson, James S. et al., eds. Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism (1991) online edition Archived 2011-06-05 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Owen, Nicholas. The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885–1947 (2008) excerpt and text search Archived 2023-02-05 at the Wayback Machine.
  • Polsgrove, Carol. Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause (2009).
  • Porter, Bernard. The Lion's Share: A History of British Imperialism 1850–2011 (4th ed. 2012), Wide-ranging general history; strong on anti-imperialism.
  • Proudman, Mark F.. "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". Journal of the Historical Society, September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, pp. 395–433.
  • Sagromoso, Domitilla, James Gow, and Rachel Kerr. Russian Imperialism Revisited: Neo-Empire, State Interests and Hegemonic Power (2010).
  • Thornton, A.P. The Imperial Idea and its Enemies (2nd ed. 1985)
  • Tompkins, E. Berkeley, ed. Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920. (1970) excerpts from primary and secondary sources.
  • Tyrell, Ian and Jay Sexton, eds. Empire's Twin: U.S. anti-imperialism from the founding era to the age of terrorism (2015).
  • Wang, Jianwei. "The Chinese interpretation of the concept of imperialism in the anti-imperialist context of the 1920s.," Journal of Modern Chinese History (2012) 6#2 pp 164–181.
[edit]