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{{short description|Technology-assisted citizen participation in government processes}}
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{{short description|ICT-supported participation in processes involving government and citizens}}
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'''Electronic participation''' ('''e-participation''') refers to the use of [[Information and communication technologies|ICT]] in facilitating citizen participation in government-related processes, encompassing areas such as administration, service delivery, decision-making, and policy-making. As such, e-participation shares close ties with [[e-government]] and [[e-governance]] participation.<ref>H. Jafarkarimi; A. T. H. Sim; R. Saadatdoost and J. M. Hee (2014). The Impact of ICT on Reinforcing Citizens’ Role in Government Decision Making, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, Vol.4 (1)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adnan |first1=Mohammed |last2=Ghazali |first2=Masitah |last3=Othman |first3=Nur Zuraifah Syazrah |title=E-participation within the context of e-government initiatives: A comprehensive systematic review |journal=Telematics and Informatics Reports |date=2022 |volume=8 |pages=100015 |doi=10.1016/j.teler.2022.100015 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The term's emergence aligns with the digitization of citizen interests and interactions with political service providers, primarily due to the proliferation of e-government.
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'''Electronic participation''' ('''e-participation''') is the term referring to [[Information and communication technologies|ICT]]-supported participation in processes involving government and citizens. Processes may concern administration, service delivery, decision making and policy making. E-participation is hence closely related to [[e-government]] and [[e-governance]] [[participation (decision making)|participation]].<ref>H. Jafarkarimi; A. T. H. Sim; R. Saadatdoost and J. M. Hee (2014). The Impact of ICT on Reinforcing Citizens’ Role in Government Decision Making, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, Vol.4 (1)</ref> The need for the term has emerged as citizen interests and interaction with political service providers have increasingly become digitized due to the rise of e-government.


A more detailed definition sees e-participation as a process that enhances and deepens political participation and allows citizens to interact with one another as well as their elected representative through the use of [[Information and communications technology|information and communication technologies (ICTs)]]. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Macintosh|first=Ann|date=2004|title=Characterizing E-Participation in Policy-Making|journal=In the Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences|citeseerx=10.1.1.98.6150}}</ref> This definition includes all stakeholders in a democratic decision-making processes and not only citizen related top-down government initiatives. E-participation is largely a part of [[e-democracy]], and heavily involves the use of ICT by governments, media, political parties and interest groups, civil society organizations, international governmental organizations, or citizens and voters within any of the political processes of regions, nations, and local and global communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.publicus.net/articles/edempublicnetwork.html|title=E-Democracy, E-Governance and Public Net-Work|last=Clift|first=Steven|date=2003}}</ref>
E-participation can be further defined as a mechanism that augments and intensifies political participation, enabling citizens to connect with each other and their elected representatives through [[Information and communications technology|information and communication technologies (ICTs)]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Macintosh|first=Ann|date=2004|title=Characterizing E-Participation in Policy-Making|journal=In the Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences|pages=5–8|citeseerx=10.1.1.98.6150}}</ref> This comprehensive definition encompasses all stakeholders in democratic decision-making processes, not merely top-down government initiatives centered on citizens. E-participation is a significant component of [[e-democracy]], involving various entities such as governments, media, political parties, interest groups, civil society organizations, international governmental organizations, as well as citizens and voters in the political processes at the local, national, and global levels.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.publicus.net/articles/edempublicnetwork.html|title=E-Democracy, E-Governance and Public Net-Work|last=Clift|first=Steven|date=2003}}</ref>


The complexity of e-participation processes results from the large number of different participation areas, involved stakeholders, levels of engagement, and stages in policy making.
The intricacies of e-participation processes arise from the diversity of participation domains, the variety of involved stakeholders, differing levels of engagement, and the various stages in policy making.


== History ==
== History ==
The term "e-participation" originated in the early 2000s and stems from the concept of enhancing civic participation in public policies through the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). E-participation generally draws on three developments: development of ICTs, increase in e-democracy, and growth of e-government. <ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Le Blanc|first=David|date=January 2020|title=E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2020/wp163_2020.pdf}}</ref>
Originating in the early 2000s, the term "e-participation" emerged from the idea of promoting civic involvement in public policies via [[Information and communication technologies|information and communication technologies (ICTs)]]. The evolution of e-participation generally hinges on three factors: the progression of ICTs, the expansion of e-democracy, and the advancement of e-government.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Le Blanc|first=David|date=January 2020|title=E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2020/wp163_2020.pdf}}</ref>


The development of information and communication technologies (ICTs) is the greatest element that propelled the growth of e-participation by enabling and easing better collaboration between the public and the government. Development of [[CSCW]] (Computer Supported Cooperative Work) and [[groupware]] directed towards collaborative environments better supports human ICT-mediated interaction, both in work and social environments. Through enhanced ICT support, e-participation has evolved as a social activity involving the collaboration between politicians, administrative figures, and the public.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|last=Le Blanc|first=David|date=January 2020|title=E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2020/wp163_2020.pdf}}</ref>
The greatest catalyst for the surge in e-participation is the advancement of ICTs, which have facilitated improved collaboration between the public and the government. The development of [[CSCW]] (Computer Supported Cooperative Work) and [[groupware]], designed to foster collaborative environments, has significantly enhanced human interaction mediated by ICTs in both professional and social settings. Consequently, e-participation has emerged as a societal activity, involving collaboration among politicians, administrative figures, and the public.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|last=Le Blanc|first=David|date=January 2020|title=E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2020/wp163_2020.pdf}}</ref>


Developments in [[e-democracy]] since the late 1990s has also contributed to the origination of e-participation. Interest rapidly evolved from e-voting to several forms of ICT-supported and ICT-enabled interaction between governments and citizens, including not only direct ones (such as consultations, lobbying, [[Internet petition|petitioning]] and polling) but also ones pursued outside of government itself, including electioneering, campaigning, and community informatics. To a large extent, the institutional framework conditions of the chosen democratic model define at which part of the democratic processes participation is permitted (such as direct or representative democracy, or any intermediate forms).<ref>Hilbert, Martin (2007). [http://www.martinhilbert.net/democracy.html "Digital Processes and Democratic Theory: Dynamics, risks and opportunities that arise when democratic institutions meet digital information and communication technologies]." open-access online book.</ref>
The evolution of [[e-democracy]] since the late 1990s has significantly influenced the advent of e-participation. This interest quickly expanded from e-voting to various forms of ICT-assisted and ICT-enabled interactions between governments and citizens. These interactions encompass both direct methods like consultations, lobbying, [[Internet petition|petitioning]], and polling, as well as indirect ones, such as campaigning and community informatics conducted outside the direct government purview. The extent of participation allowed in democratic processes is often determined by the institutional conditions of the chosen democratic model, such as direct or representative democracy or any hybrid forms.<ref>Hilbert, Martin (2007). [http://www.martinhilbert.net/democracy.html "Digital Processes and Democratic Theory: Dynamics, risks and opportunities that arise when democratic institutions meet digital information and communication technologies]." open-access online book.</ref>


The development in [[e-government]] towards increasingly complex service-delivery is another factor that contributed to the growth of e-participation. Complex services require considerable interaction including searching, selecting options based on multiple criteria, calculating outcomes, notifications, inquiries, complaints, and many other activities. There are several ICT tools for such tasks, ranging from FAQs to call centers, but there is a need to coordinate all these into user-friendly but powerful toolsets for client-organization encounters. Because interaction in such contexts is complex, and because goals have to be reached, the arenas where it takes places become social arenas for ICT-supported participation
The progression in [[e-government]] towards increasingly intricate service-delivery is another factor contributing to the rise of e-participation. Complex services necessitate extensive interaction, including searching, option selection based on various criteria, outcome calculations, notifications, inquiries, and complaints. While numerous ICT tools exist for these tasks, ranging from FAQs to call centers, there remains a need for their coordination into user-friendly yet robust toolsets for client-organization encounters. Given the complexity of interactions in such contexts, and the goals to be achieved, these arenas become social spaces for ICT-supported participation.


== On the Definition ==
== On the Definition ==
Participation is a goal-oriented process that involves decision making and control. E-participation, which encompasses participation in [[political science]] and theory of [[management]], refers to direct public participation in political, economical, or management decisions. When participation becomes complicated, decision making becomes necessary and any participatory process is potentially important for the rule system governing the activities. In this sense, when service processes become complex, the implementation of them will not be in all details based on political decisions but also on what is found to be practical.
Participation is a goal-oriented process involving decision-making and control. In the contexts of [[political science]] and management theory, e-participation refers to the direct public involvement in political, economic, or management decisions. As participation grows complex, decision-making becomes essential, with every participatory process potentially influencing the rule system governing the activities. In cases where service processes become intricate, their implementation relies not only on political decisions but also on practical solutions.


Instead of taking in and accepting knowledge as is disseminated by the media and government, by participating, one becomes an active citizen and further contributes to a [[democratic society]]. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Attention, and Other 21st-Century Social Media Literacies|url=http://er.educause.edu/articles/2010/10/attention-and-other-21stcentury-social-media-literacies|access-date=2015-12-16|website=er.educause.edu}}</ref> When such practical doings become implemented in government [[E-services|e-service systems]], they will affect decision making, as later changes will be difficult to make after existing procedures have been implemented in [[Information technology|ICT systems]] and [[government agencies]]’ procedures. There are many theories dealing with institutionalization, for example [[structuration theory]], [[institutional theory]], and [[actor-network theory]]. These different theories all deal with how methods of operation becomes established or rejected, and how those that become established increasingly affect the ways society habitually accomplish tasks. Alternatively, when viewed from the citizen's perspective, the [[capability approach]] is being applied to understand the behaviors of individuals. This approach allows institutions to identify normative capabilities that can improve citizen's opportunities to participate in the governance process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huffman|first=Benjamin David|date=2017-12-18|title=E-Participation in the Philippines: A Capabilities Approach to Socially Inclusive Governance|url=https://www.jedem.org/index.php/jedem/article/view/461|journal=JeDEM - eJournal of EDemocracy and Open Government|volume=9|issue=2|pages=24–46|doi=10.29379/jedem.v9i2.461|issn=2075-9517|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Instead of passively absorbing information disseminated by the media and government, engaging in participation transforms an individual into an active citizen, contributing to a [[democratic society]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Attention, and Other 21st-Century Social Media Literacies|url=http://er.educause.edu/articles/2010/10/attention-and-other-21stcentury-social-media-literacies|access-date=2015-12-16|website=er.educause.edu}}</ref> When these practical actions are integrated into government [[E-services|e-service systems]], they influence decision-making, as later changes become challenging once existing procedures have been implemented in [[Information technology|ICT systems]] and [[government agencies]]' procedures. Several theories, such as [[structuration theory]], [[institutional theory]], and [[actor-network theory]], examine institutionalization, exploring how operational methods become established or rejected, and how established methods increasingly influence societal norms for task completion. From a citizen's perspective, the [[capability approach]] is employed to understand individual behaviors. This method enables institutions to identify normative capabilities that can enhance citizens' opportunities to participate in the governance process.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Huffman|first=Benjamin David|date=2017-12-18|title=E-Participation in the Philippines: A Capabilities Approach to Socially Inclusive Governance|url=https://www.jedem.org/index.php/jedem/article/view/461|journal=JeDEM - eJournal of EDemocracy and Open Government|volume=9|issue=2|pages=24–46|doi=10.29379/jedem.v9i2.461|issn=2075-9517|doi-access=free}}</ref>


== E-participation Index ==
== E-participation Index ==
The e-participation index (EPI) was designed by the [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs]] as "a supplementary index to the UN E-Government Survey".<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|title=E-participation Index|url=https://publicadministration.un.org/egovkb/en-us/About/Overview/E-Participation-Index|website=UN E-Government Knowledgebase}}</ref> The EPI is used to evaluate the effectiveness of online services that propels the interaction and exchange of information between government and individuals, as well as the engagement of citizens in policy and decision-making. It is evaluated on the bases of how well a government relays information to its constituents, how engaged citizens are in the designing of policies, and how empowered citizens feel in the decision-making process, together these factors make up the framework of "e-information", "e-consultation", and "e-decision making". Specifically, the index is calculated by subtracting the lowest e-participation score from the e-participation score of the country, then divided by the range of scores for all countries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-11-06|title=5 Indices & Frameworks to Evaluate E-participation|url=https://www.citizenlab.co/blog/e-government/5-ways-to-measure-evaluate-e-participation/|access-date=2020-10-07|website=CitizenLab's Blog|language=en-US}}</ref> The resulting index score is a foundation measure that captures how inclusive a government is.<ref name=":02" />
The E-Participation Index (EPI) is a tool developed by the [[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs|UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs]]. It serves as a supplementary index to the UN E-Government Survey and is used to assess the effectiveness of online services that facilitate information exchange and interaction between government and citizens, and citizen involvement in policy and decision-making.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|title=E-participation Index|url=https://publicadministration.un.org/egovkb/en-us/About/Overview/E-Participation-Index|website=UN E-Government Knowledgebase}}</ref> The EPI evaluates the extent to which a government provides information to its constituents, involves citizens in policy design, and empowers citizens in decision-making processes, forming the framework of "e-information", "e-consultation", and "e-decision making". The index is calculated by subtracting the lowest e-participation score from the e-participation score of the country in question, and then dividing this by the range of scores for all countries.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-11-06|title=5 Indices & Frameworks to Evaluate E-participation|url=https://www.citizenlab.co/blog/e-government/5-ways-to-measure-evaluate-e-participation/|access-date=2020-10-07|website=CitizenLab's Blog|language=en-US}}</ref> The resulting index score serves as a foundational measure of a government's inclusivity.<ref name=":02" />


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A range of tools and models linked to [[Web 2.0]] have emerged that can either be used directly or inspire the creation of architectures for e-participation. Notably, "the rise of online communities focused on the creation of valuable products suggests the feasibility of designing socially mediating technologies to support collaborations between the public and government".{{Harv|Kriplean|Beschastnikh|Borning|McDonald|Zachry|2009}}.
== Models and tools ==
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A number of tools and models have emerged as part of [[Web 2.0]] that can be used or inspire the design of architecture for e-participation. In particular, "the emergence of online communities oriented toward the creation of useful products suggests that it may be possible to design socially mediating technology that support public-government collaborations" {{Harv|Kriplean|Beschastnikh|Borning|McDonald|Zachry|2009}}.


=== Participation tools ===
=== Tools for Participation ===
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* [[Social networking service]]s, such as popular media platforms and blogs, have built online platforms that makes it possible for people to connect with others and participate in interactive activities. Social activities such as the engagement between citizens and government agencies have been facilitated by online platforms and social networking has been increasingly used by the government to keep up with public trends and identify political issues people are most passionate about. Popular platforms such as [[Twitter]] and [[Facebook]] has allowed users to actively engage in politics online by expressing their political stand points and opinions as well as organize movements to bring attention to issues of importance.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Engagement (PACE)|first=Philanthropy for Active Civic|date=2018-06-22|title=Social Media: Driving or Diminishing Civic Engagement?|url=https://medium.com/infogagement/https-medium-com-infogagement-social-media-driving-or-diminishing-civic-engagement-9850954910ed|access-date=2020-10-07|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref> The instantaneous sharing and response mechanisms social networking platforms generate has become an important tool of e-participation that enables citizens to engage in decision-making and government agencies to take initiative in addressing public concerns.
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*[[Wiki]]s are another way people can participate collaboratively online with others, although not directly with politicians and government administrators. The evolving and collaborative nature of wikis allows citizens to contribute to topics they are knowledgeable about and share that knowledge with others who want to learn about it. At the same time, it allows for debate about the topic and interaction between different contributors. The ease of updating articles allows each topic to be up to date and present viewers with the most recent and comprehensive understanding of each topic.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hasan|first=Heather|url=http://archive.org/details/wikipedia35milli0000hasa|title=Wikipedia, 3.5 million articles & counting : using and assessing the people's encyclopedia|date=2012|publisher=New York : Rosen Central|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-1-4488-5557-5}}</ref> Wikis can be tools to facilitate and inspire e-participation by allowing people to bring attention to certain movements and issues and informing others of the impact of potential issues.


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[[Social networking service|Social networking services]], including popular media platforms and blogs, have established online platforms that enable people to connect and engage in interactive activities. These online platforms have facilitated social activities such as interactions between citizens and government agencies. Governments have increasingly utilized social networking to keep abreast of public trends and identify political issues of significant interest to the public. Widely used platforms such as [[Twitter]] and [[Facebook]] have empowered users to actively participate in politics online by expressing their political perspectives and organizing movements to highlight key issues.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Engagement (PACE)|first=Philanthropy for Active Civic|date=2018-06-22|title=Social Media: Driving or Diminishing Civic Engagement?|url=https://medium.com/infogagement/https-medium-com-infogagement-social-media-driving-or-diminishing-civic-engagement-9850954910ed|access-date=2020-10-07|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref> The rapid sharing and response mechanisms enabled by social networking platforms have emerged as a crucial tool for e-participation, facilitating citizen involvement in decision-making and encouraging government agencies to address public concerns proactively.
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=== Mechanisms ===
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* [[Electronic voting]] generally comes in two different forms: e-voting physically such as electronic voting machines at polling stations,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Voting Equipment|url=https://verifiedvoting.org/votingequipment/|access-date=2020-10-28|website=Verified Voting|language=en-US}}</ref> or remote e-voting through the Internet. Remote e-voting is a powerful tool that contributes to e-participation by offering the ability to vote from anywhere at anytime, which reduces the time and cost of voting. This can lead to an increase in voter turnout and civic engagement as it increases citizen's accessibility to offer their support for different policies and political figures.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-14|title=How Electronic Voting Works: Pros and Cons vs. Paper Voting|url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/how-electronic-voting-works/|access-date=2020-10-06|website=MakeUseOf|language=en-US}}</ref> Especially with the rise of blockchain technology, the security and transparency of electronic voting has been drastically improved and the decentralized nature of [[blockchain]] technologies can transform the model of electronic voting in the future.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-05|title=The Future of Voting Is Blockchain|url=https://digitalchamber.org/the-future-of-voting-is-blockchain/|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Chamber of Digital Commerce|language=en-US}}</ref> However, there are obvious drawbacks with e-voting, most clearly seen in the digital inequality of the country. Electronic voting can emphasize and enhance the digital divide between people of different socioeconomic backgrounds and age groups, and the technology may not be accessible to all.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Alomari|first=Mohammad Kamel|date=December 2016|title=Digital divide impact on e-voting adoption in middle eastern country|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7856741|journal=2016 11th International Conference for Internet Technology and Secured Transactions (ICITST)|location=Barcelona, Spain|publisher=IEEE|pages=409–412|doi=10.1109/ICITST.2016.7856741|isbn=978-1-908320-73-5|s2cid=17187274}}</ref> In this sense, e-voting can alienate those without access to technology and stable internet access, and in fact hinder citizen engagement rather than facilitate it.
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* [[Online petition|Internet petitions]] have become a popular platform for citizens to engage in policy reviewing and issue petitioning. Internet petitions allow for flexibility and ease to achieve political impact and to voice concerns about urging issues both socially and politically. It increases citizen engagement while also allowing administration to be more responsive to the opinions and needs of the population. Petitioning platforms created by the government such as [[We the People (petitioning system)|We The People]] is directly linked to administration officials who can provide response and propel important movements.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-28|title=The background of the 'We the People' website|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/12/28/the-background-of-the-we-the-people-website/|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech|language=en-US}}</ref> Internet petitions contributes a greater citizen participation and in return, a more inclusive relationship between government and society.
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*[[Quadratic voting]] is another emerging technology that uses blockchain technology to facilitate e-participation. Quadratic voting allows citizens to express how strongly they feel about a policy by assigning individuals with a set amount of tokens, then allowing them to vote multiple times with the tokens to express urgency or passion for the policy they feel most strongly about.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Meet the Man With a Radical Plan for Blockchain Voting|language=en-us|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/santiago-siri-radical-plan-for-blockchain-voting/|access-date=2020-10-28|issn=1059-1028}}</ref> Quadratic voting enables more flexibility and interactivity in the voting process. The idea of expressing the "strength" of voter's voices and opinions more clearly in the voting process increases the engagement of citizens and shows more feedback about certain issues and policies than a traditional voting system can.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Eximchain|date=2018-08-17|title=What makes Quadratic Voting an effective Democratic Voting Mechanism|url=https://medium.com/eximchain/what-makes-quadratic-voting-an-effective-democratic-voting-mechanism-d7a555de8f6b|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Meet the Man With a Radical Plan for Blockchain Voting|language=en-us|work=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/santiago-siri-radical-plan-for-blockchain-voting/|access-date=2020-10-06|issn=1059-1028}}</ref>
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*[[Reputation system]]s
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* Transparency tools ([[social translucence]] mechanisms)


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[[Wiki]]s offer another online collaborative platform for individuals to participate, albeit not directly with politicians or government administrators. The dynamic and collaborative nature of wikis allows citizens to contribute their expertise on various topics and share that knowledge with others. This platform promotes debates and interactions among contributors, ensuring that the content is regularly updated to provide the most recent and comprehensive understanding of each subject.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hasan|first=Heather|url=https://archive.org/details/wikipedia35milli0000hasa|title=Wikipedia, 3.5 million articles & counting : using and assessing the people's encyclopedia|date=2012|publisher=New York : Rosen Central|others=Internet Archive|isbn=978-1-4488-5557-5}}</ref> Wikis can serve as tools that facilitate and inspire e-participation, enabling people to highlight various movements and issues and educating others about potential impacts.
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=== Tracking and analysis ===


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=== Mechanisms ===
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* [[Electronic voting]] typically takes two forms: physical e-voting, such as electronic voting machines at polling stations,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Voting Equipment|url=https://verifiedvoting.org/votingequipment/|access-date=2020-10-28|website=Verified Voting|language=en-US}}</ref> and remote e-voting via the Internet. Remote e-voting is a potent tool for e-participation as it provides the convenience of voting from any location at any time, thereby reducing the time and cost associated with voting. This convenience can increase voter turnout and civic engagement by making it easier for citizens to express their support for various policies and political figures.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-14|title=How Electronic Voting Works: Pros and Cons vs. Paper Voting|url=https://www.makeuseof.com/tag/how-electronic-voting-works/|access-date=2020-10-06|website=MakeUseOf|language=en-US}}</ref> The advent of blockchain technology has significantly improved the security and transparency of electronic voting. The decentralized nature of [[blockchain]] technologies holds potential for transforming future electronic voting models.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-05|title=The Future of Voting Is Blockchain|url=https://digitalchamber.org/the-future-of-voting-is-blockchain/|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Chamber of Digital Commerce|language=en-US}}</ref> However, e-voting is not without drawbacks. Most notably, it can exacerbate the digital divide between individuals of different socioeconomic backgrounds and age groups, as the technology may not be universally accessible.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Alomari|first=Mohammad Kamel|title=2016 11th International Conference for Internet Technology and Secured Transactions (ICITST) |chapter=Digital divide impact on e-voting adoption in middle eastern country |date=December 2016|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7856741|location=Barcelona, Spain|publisher=IEEE|pages=409–412|doi=10.1109/ICITST.2016.7856741|isbn=978-1-908320-73-5|s2cid=17187274}}</ref> Thus, e-voting could potentially alienate those lacking access to technology or stable internet connections, possibly hindering rather than promoting citizen engagement.
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* [[Online petition|Internet petitions]] have emerged as a popular platform for citizens to engage in policy review and issue petitioning. These petitions offer a flexible and easy means to voice concerns on pressing social and political issues, enhancing citizen engagement and enabling administrations to respond more effectively to the population's needs. Government-created petitioning platforms like [[We the People (petitioning system)|We The People]] are directly linked to administrative officials who can address and advance important movements.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-12-28|title=The background of the 'We the People' website|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/12/28/the-background-of-the-we-the-people-website/|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech|language=en-US}}</ref> Internet petitions foster increased citizen participation, contributing to a more inclusive relationship between the government and society.
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* [[Quadratic voting]] is a burgeoning technology that utilizes blockchain technology to enhance e-participation. This method allows citizens to express the intensity of their feelings about a policy. It works by assigning individuals a set number of tokens, which they can then use to vote multiple times on policies they feel strongly about, thereby expressing urgency or passion.<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Meet the Man With a Radical Plan for Blockchain Voting|language=en-us|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/santiago-siri-radical-plan-for-blockchain-voting/|access-date=2020-10-28|issn=1059-1028}}</ref> Quadratic voting introduces greater flexibility and interactivity into the voting process. The potential to express the "strength" of voters' voices and opinions more distinctly in the voting process enhances citizen engagement and provides more nuanced feedback on particular issues and policies than a traditional voting system.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Eximchain|date=2018-08-17|title=What makes Quadratic Voting an effective Democratic Voting Mechanism|url=https://medium.com/eximchain/what-makes-quadratic-voting-an-effective-democratic-voting-mechanism-d7a555de8f6b|access-date=2020-10-06|website=Medium|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Meet the Man With a Radical Plan for Blockchain Voting|language=en-us|magazine=Wired|url=https://www.wired.com/story/santiago-siri-radical-plan-for-blockchain-voting/|access-date=2020-10-06|issn=1059-1028}}</ref>
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* [[Reputation system]]s
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* Transparency tools ([[social translucence]] mechanisms)
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=== Tracking and Analysis Tools ===
* [[Digital traces]]
* [[Digital traces]]
* [[Data mining]]
* [[Data mining]]
* [[Data visualization]]
* [[Data visualization]]
* [[Simulations]] such as [[agent-based social simulation]]
* [[Simulations]], such as [[agent-based social simulation]]


=== Crowdsourcing ===
=== Crowdsourcing ===
To demonstrate e-participation at work, one can turn to one of its types - [[Government crowdsourcing|crowdsourcing]]. This is generally defined as the enlisting of a group of humans to solve problems via the [[World Wide Web]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Electronic Government and Electronic Participation: Joint Proceedings of Ongoing Research, PhD Papers, Posters and Workshops of IFIP EGOV and EPart 2016|last1=Scholl|first1=H.J.|last2=Glassey|first2=O.|last3=Janssen|first3=M.F.W.H.A.|publisher=IOS Press|year=2016|isbn=9781614996699|location=Amsterdam|pages=218}}</ref> The idea is that this platform is able to collect human resources from the most unlikely and remotest places, contributing to the general store of [[intellectual capital]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Crowdsourcing: Why the Power of the Crowd Is Driving the Future of Business|last=Howe|first=Jeff|publisher=Crown Publishing Group|year=2008|isbn=9780307396204|location=New York|pages=16}}</ref> Crowdsourcing can be applied in different stages of the [[Policy|policy-making]] process and these could transpire on the information, consultation, and active participation levels.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Citizen E-Participation in Urban Governance: Crowdsourcing and Collaborative Creativity|last=Silva|first=Carlos|publisher=IGI Global|year=2013|isbn=9781466641709|location=Hershey, PA|pages=6}}</ref> At the information level, there is a one-way relationship, wherein the participants receive information from the government. The consultation process entails a two-way interaction where citizens already provide their inputs, feedback, and reactions. Finally, active participation can refer to the deeper participatory involvement where citizens directly contribute in the formulation of policy content.<ref name=":0" /> This level of e-participation is increasingly being practiced through tools such as [[online petition]], e-referendum, e-panels, citizen e-juries, and [[participatory GIS]], among others.
Crowdsourcing exemplifies e-participation in action. Generally defined as soliciting a group of individuals via the [[World Wide Web]] to solve problems,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Electronic Government and Electronic Participation: Joint Proceedings of Ongoing Research, PhD Papers, Posters and Workshops of IFIP EGOV and EPart 2016|last1=Scholl|first1=H.J.|last2=Glassey|first2=O.|last3=Janssen|first3=M.F.W.H.A.|publisher=IOS Press|year=2016|isbn=9781614996699|location=Amsterdam|pages=218}}</ref> this platform can gather human resources from the furthest and most unexpected places, contributing to the overall pool of [[intellectual capital]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Crowdsourcing: Why the Power of the Crowd Is Driving the Future of Business|last=Howe|first=Jeff|publisher=Crown Publishing Group|year=2008|isbn=9780307396204|location=New York|pages=16}}</ref> Crowdsourcing can be incorporated into various stages of the [[Policy|policy-making]] process, unfolding at the information, consultation, and active participation levels.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Citizen E-Participation in Urban Governance: Crowdsourcing and Collaborative Creativity|last=Silva|first=Carlos|publisher=IGI Global|year=2013|isbn=9781466641709|location=Hershey, PA|pages=6}}</ref>


At the information level, a one-way relationship exists where participants receive information from the government. The consultation level facilitates a two-way interaction, allowing citizens to provide their inputs, feedback, and reactions. Active participation refers to deeper involvement, with citizens directly contributing to policy content formulation.<ref name=":0" /> This degree of e-participation is increasingly facilitated through tools such as [[online petition]]s, e-referendums, e-panels, citizen e-juries, and [[participatory GIS]], among others.
⚫
== Challenges of e-participation ==
⚫
One of the biggest challenges to e-participation is the existence of a [[digital divide]], as e-participation highly relies on access to new technologies as well as access to stable Internet connections. Oftentimes, e-participation also requires a higher digital literacy such as skills to digitally analyze policy proposals and provide input in a digital sphere. In addition, Internet safety and collaboration are also abilities and knowledge needed to better navigate tools for e-participation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Le Blanc|first=David|date=January 2020|title=E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2020/wp163_2020.pdf}}</ref> These, along with physical access to technology, exist as barriers to people of different socioeconomic levels and those who lack or can not afford access to these technologies. The digital divide hinders and limits the ability for certain groups to voice their opinions, which in return excludes them from participation, backfiring the initial goal of e-participation.<ref name=":1" />


⚫
== Challenges of E-participation ==
⚫
== European eParticipation actions ==
⚫
The primary challenge to e-participation is the prevailing [[digital divide]]. E-participation heavily depends on access to modern technologies and stable internet connections. Often, it necessitates advanced digital literacy, such as the skills to digitally scrutinize policy proposals and contribute input in a digital environment. Moreover, knowledge of internet safety and effective online collaboration are crucial for successfully navigating e-participation tools.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Le Blanc|first=David|date=January 2020|title=E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends|url=https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2020/wp163_2020.pdf}}</ref> These requirements, together with physical access to technology, present barriers to individuals of varying socioeconomic levels, and particularly those unable to afford access to these technologies. Consequently, the digital divide impedes and restricts the ability of certain groups to express their views, excluding them from participation, and ultimately contradicting the intended purpose of e-participation.<ref name=":1" />
⚫
=== European eParticipation Preparatory Action ===
'''eParticipation''' is preparatory actions {{Clarify|date=July 2010}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/egovernment/implementation/prep_action/index_en.htm|title=eGovernment & Digital Public Services|access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> have been conducted{{Clarify|date=July 2010}} for three years (2006–2008). The EU is taking the lead in using online tools to improve the legislative process for its citizens. '''eParticipation''' which launched on January 1, 2007 will run as a series of linked projects which each contribute to a greater awareness and involvement by citizens in the legislation process from initial drafting to implementation at a regional and local level.


== European E-participation Initiatives ==
The individual projects will concentrate on ensuring that the legislative language and process is more transparent, understandable and accessible to citizens. In addition the projects emphasis on the communication of legislation will be used to enhance and grow citizens' involvement and contribution in the process of creating and implementing the legislation.
⚫
=== European E-participation Preparatory Actions ===
The '''E-participation Preparatory Actions''' were implemented from 2006 to 2008 to enhance citizens' participation in the legislative process through online tools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/egovernment/implementation/prep_action/index_en.htm|title=eGovernment & Digital Public Services|access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> Initiated by the EU on January 1, 2007, these actions consisted of interconnected projects designed to boost citizens' awareness and engagement in the legislative process, from the initial drafting to regional and local implementation.


Each project was targeted at enhancing the transparency, understandability, and accessibility of legislative language and procedures for citizens. Additionally, they focused on improving the communication of legislation to augment citizens' participation and contribution in formulating and implementing laws.
⚫
So far, 21 projects have been funded.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eu-participation.eu/ |title=European eParticipation web |access-date=2008-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409233802/http://www.eu-participation.eu/ |archive-date=2008-04-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[European Parliament]], national parliaments and local and regional authorities are actively involved. State-of-the-art ICT tools are being tested to facilitate the writing of legal texts, including translation into different languages, and the drafting of amendments as well as making the texts easier for non-specialists to find and understand. New digital technologies are also being used to give citizens easier access to information and more opportunity to influence decisions that affect their lives. A report {{Harv|Charalabidis|Koussouris|Kipenis|2009}}, which was published as a MOMENTUM white paper, highlights the major facts and figures of those projects while providing some initial policy recommendations for future use.


⚫
To date, 21 projects have been initiated and financially supported.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eu-participation.eu/ |title=European eParticipation web |access-date=2008-05-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409233802/http://www.eu-participation.eu/ |archive-date=2008-04-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> These projects actively involve the [[European Parliament]], national parliaments, and local and regional authorities. Cutting-edge ICT tools are utilized to streamline the creation of legal texts, including translation into various languages and drafting of amendments, while making these texts more accessible and comprehensible to non-experts. Innovative digital technologies are also employed to provide citizens with easier access to information and greater opportunities to impact decisions that shape their lives. A MOMENTUM white paper report by {{Harv|Charalabidis|Koussouris|Kipenis|2009}} presents important data and results from these projects, offering preliminary policy suggestions for future application.
=== European eParticipation Actions ===
⚫
The [[European Commission]] has now launched a number of actions aiming at further advancing the work of supporting eParticipation.


⚫
=== European eParticipation Initiatives ===
Examples:
⚫
The [[European Commission]] has initiated several actions aimed at enhancing the support for eParticipation.
⚫
* [[Seventh Framework Programme|FP7]] : ICT Challenge 7 : Objective ICT-2009.7.3 ICT for Governance and Policy Modelling.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/programme/challenge7-governance_en.html|title=Archives - CORDIS - European Commission|website=cordis.europa.eu|access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> The [[European Commission]] has launched some call in this area to finance researches. Currently the Integrated Program Future Policy Modelling (FUPOL) is the largest project in this domain. [http://www.fupol.eu FUPOL]

⚫
* [http://ec.europa.eu/cip/index_en.htm CIP] ICT Policy Support Programme (or ICT PSP). The European project has open a call in the programme CIP (Competitiveness and Innovation Framework) on the Theme 3: ICT for government and governance
These include:

⚫
* [[Seventh Framework Programme|FP7]] : ICT Challenge 7 : Objective ICT-2009.7.3 ICT for Governance and Policy Modelling.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/programme/challenge7-governance_en.html|title=Archives - CORDIS - European Commission|website=cordis.europa.eu|access-date=1 August 2018}}</ref> The Commission has issued calls in this area to fund research. Currently, the Integrated Program Future Policy Modelling (FUPOL) is the most extensive project in this field. [http://www.fupol.eu FUPOL]
⚫
* The ICT Policy Support Programme (or ICT PSP) under the [http://ec.europa.eu/cip/index_en.htm Competitiveness and Innovation Framework (CIP)]. The European project has announced a call in the CIP program on Theme 3: ICT for government and governance.


==See also==
==See also==
{{colbegin}}
{{colbegin|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Collaborative e-democracy]]
*[[Collaborative e-democracy]]
*[[Direct democracy]]
*[[Direct democracy]]
Line 95: Line 97:
*[[Social translucence]]
*[[Social translucence]]
*[[Virtual volunteering]]
*[[Virtual volunteering]]
⚫
* [https://www.yodono.eu YoDono]
⚫
{{colend}}


⚫
[https://www.yodono.eu YoDono]
⚫
{{colend}}
=== Notes ===
=== Notes ===
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}
Line 138: Line 140:
| chapter=Characterizing E-Participation in Policy-Making
| chapter=Characterizing E-Participation in Policy-Making
| title=In the Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-37), January 5 – 8, 2004, Big Island, Hawaii.
| title=In the Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-37), January 5 – 8, 2004, Big Island, Hawaii.
| pages=5–8
| citeseerx = 10.1.1.98.6150
| citeseerx = 10.1.1.98.6150
}}
}}
Line 163: Line 166:
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060712055837/http://www.worldegovforum.com/ World e-Gov Forum]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060712055837/http://www.worldegovforum.com/ World e-Gov Forum]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150628080935/http://metagovernment.org/wiki/Related_projects Detailed list of participatory governance projects]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150628080935/http://metagovernment.org/wiki/Related_projects Detailed list of participatory governance projects]
*[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan028607.pdf E-participation Country Index] -Provides an index on E-participation
*[http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan028607.pdf E-participation Country Index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100928201303/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN028607.pdf |date=2010-09-28 }} - Provides an index on E-participation
*[http://www.icegov.org ICEGOV - International Conference on Electronic Governance]
*[http://www.icegov.org ICEGOV - International Conference on Electronic Governance]
*[http://www.isoc.fr/ Internet Society] Organization home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).
*[http://www.isoc.fr/ Internet Society] - Organization home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).
*[http://itc.napier.ac.uk/ International Teledemocracy Centre, Napier University, Edinburgh]
*[http://itc.napier.ac.uk/ International Teledemocracy Centre, Napier University, Edinburgh]


Line 173: Line 176:
*[http://www.pep-net.eu PEP-NET]: Pan European eParticipation Network
*[http://www.pep-net.eu PEP-NET]: Pan European eParticipation Network
*[http://eparticipation.eu/ European eParticipation Portal]
*[http://eparticipation.eu/ European eParticipation Portal]
*[http://tidplus.net/ TID+]: the software suite developed for the Estonian public participation portal, also used by the Slovenian government
*[http://tidplus.net/ TID+]: The software suite developed for the Estonian public participation portal, also used by the Slovenian government


{{DEFAULTSORT:E-Participation}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:E-Participation}}

Latest revision as of 18:24, 13 December 2024

Electronic participation (e-participation) refers to the use of ICT in facilitating citizen participation in government-related processes, encompassing areas such as administration, service delivery, decision-making, and policy-making. As such, e-participation shares close ties with e-government and e-governance participation.[1][2] The term's emergence aligns with the digitization of citizen interests and interactions with political service providers, primarily due to the proliferation of e-government.

E-participation can be further defined as a mechanism that augments and intensifies political participation, enabling citizens to connect with each other and their elected representatives through information and communication technologies (ICTs).[3] This comprehensive definition encompasses all stakeholders in democratic decision-making processes, not merely top-down government initiatives centered on citizens. E-participation is a significant component of e-democracy, involving various entities such as governments, media, political parties, interest groups, civil society organizations, international governmental organizations, as well as citizens and voters in the political processes at the local, national, and global levels.[4]

The intricacies of e-participation processes arise from the diversity of participation domains, the variety of involved stakeholders, differing levels of engagement, and the various stages in policy making.

History

[edit]

Originating in the early 2000s, the term "e-participation" emerged from the idea of promoting civic involvement in public policies via information and communication technologies (ICTs). The evolution of e-participation generally hinges on three factors: the progression of ICTs, the expansion of e-democracy, and the advancement of e-government.[5]

The greatest catalyst for the surge in e-participation is the advancement of ICTs, which have facilitated improved collaboration between the public and the government. The development of CSCW (Computer Supported Cooperative Work) and groupware, designed to foster collaborative environments, has significantly enhanced human interaction mediated by ICTs in both professional and social settings. Consequently, e-participation has emerged as a societal activity, involving collaboration among politicians, administrative figures, and the public.[6]

The evolution of e-democracy since the late 1990s has significantly influenced the advent of e-participation. This interest quickly expanded from e-voting to various forms of ICT-assisted and ICT-enabled interactions between governments and citizens. These interactions encompass both direct methods like consultations, lobbying, petitioning, and polling, as well as indirect ones, such as campaigning and community informatics conducted outside the direct government purview. The extent of participation allowed in democratic processes is often determined by the institutional conditions of the chosen democratic model, such as direct or representative democracy or any hybrid forms.[7]

The progression in e-government towards increasingly intricate service-delivery is another factor contributing to the rise of e-participation. Complex services necessitate extensive interaction, including searching, option selection based on various criteria, outcome calculations, notifications, inquiries, and complaints. While numerous ICT tools exist for these tasks, ranging from FAQs to call centers, there remains a need for their coordination into user-friendly yet robust toolsets for client-organization encounters. Given the complexity of interactions in such contexts, and the goals to be achieved, these arenas become social spaces for ICT-supported participation.

On the Definition

[edit]

Participation is a goal-oriented process involving decision-making and control. In the contexts of political science and management theory, e-participation refers to the direct public involvement in political, economic, or management decisions. As participation grows complex, decision-making becomes essential, with every participatory process potentially influencing the rule system governing the activities. In cases where service processes become intricate, their implementation relies not only on political decisions but also on practical solutions.

Instead of passively absorbing information disseminated by the media and government, engaging in participation transforms an individual into an active citizen, contributing to a democratic society.[8] When these practical actions are integrated into government e-service systems, they influence decision-making, as later changes become challenging once existing procedures have been implemented in ICT systems and government agencies' procedures. Several theories, such as structuration theory, institutional theory, and actor-network theory, examine institutionalization, exploring how operational methods become established or rejected, and how established methods increasingly influence societal norms for task completion. From a citizen's perspective, the capability approach is employed to understand individual behaviors. This method enables institutions to identify normative capabilities that can enhance citizens' opportunities to participate in the governance process.[9]

E-participation Index

[edit]

The E-Participation Index (EPI) is a tool developed by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. It serves as a supplementary index to the UN E-Government Survey and is used to assess the effectiveness of online services that facilitate information exchange and interaction between government and citizens, and citizen involvement in policy and decision-making.[10] The EPI evaluates the extent to which a government provides information to its constituents, involves citizens in policy design, and empowers citizens in decision-making processes, forming the framework of "e-information", "e-consultation", and "e-decision making". The index is calculated by subtracting the lowest e-participation score from the e-participation score of the country in question, and then dividing this by the range of scores for all countries.[11] The resulting index score serves as a foundational measure of a government's inclusivity.[10]

A range of tools and models linked to Web 2.0 have emerged that can either be used directly or inspire the creation of architectures for e-participation. Notably, "the rise of online communities focused on the creation of valuable products suggests the feasibility of designing socially mediating technologies to support collaborations between the public and government".(Kriplean et al. 2009).

Tools for Participation

[edit]

Social networking services, including popular media platforms and blogs, have established online platforms that enable people to connect and engage in interactive activities. These online platforms have facilitated social activities such as interactions between citizens and government agencies. Governments have increasingly utilized social networking to keep abreast of public trends and identify political issues of significant interest to the public. Widely used platforms such as Twitter and Facebook have empowered users to actively participate in politics online by expressing their political perspectives and organizing movements to highlight key issues.[12] The rapid sharing and response mechanisms enabled by social networking platforms have emerged as a crucial tool for e-participation, facilitating citizen involvement in decision-making and encouraging government agencies to address public concerns proactively.

Wikis offer another online collaborative platform for individuals to participate, albeit not directly with politicians or government administrators. The dynamic and collaborative nature of wikis allows citizens to contribute their expertise on various topics and share that knowledge with others. This platform promotes debates and interactions among contributors, ensuring that the content is regularly updated to provide the most recent and comprehensive understanding of each subject.[13] Wikis can serve as tools that facilitate and inspire e-participation, enabling people to highlight various movements and issues and educating others about potential impacts.

Mechanisms

[edit]
  • Electronic voting typically takes two forms: physical e-voting, such as electronic voting machines at polling stations,[14] and remote e-voting via the Internet. Remote e-voting is a potent tool for e-participation as it provides the convenience of voting from any location at any time, thereby reducing the time and cost associated with voting. This convenience can increase voter turnout and civic engagement by making it easier for citizens to express their support for various policies and political figures.[15] The advent of blockchain technology has significantly improved the security and transparency of electronic voting. The decentralized nature of blockchain technologies holds potential for transforming future electronic voting models.[16] However, e-voting is not without drawbacks. Most notably, it can exacerbate the digital divide between individuals of different socioeconomic backgrounds and age groups, as the technology may not be universally accessible.[17] Thus, e-voting could potentially alienate those lacking access to technology or stable internet connections, possibly hindering rather than promoting citizen engagement.
  • Internet petitions have emerged as a popular platform for citizens to engage in policy review and issue petitioning. These petitions offer a flexible and easy means to voice concerns on pressing social and political issues, enhancing citizen engagement and enabling administrations to respond more effectively to the population's needs. Government-created petitioning platforms like We The People are directly linked to administrative officials who can address and advance important movements.[18] Internet petitions foster increased citizen participation, contributing to a more inclusive relationship between the government and society.
  • Quadratic voting is a burgeoning technology that utilizes blockchain technology to enhance e-participation. This method allows citizens to express the intensity of their feelings about a policy. It works by assigning individuals a set number of tokens, which they can then use to vote multiple times on policies they feel strongly about, thereby expressing urgency or passion.[19] Quadratic voting introduces greater flexibility and interactivity into the voting process. The potential to express the "strength" of voters' voices and opinions more distinctly in the voting process enhances citizen engagement and provides more nuanced feedback on particular issues and policies than a traditional voting system.[20][21]
  • Reputation systems
  • Transparency tools (social translucence mechanisms)

Tracking and Analysis Tools

[edit]

Crowdsourcing

[edit]

Crowdsourcing exemplifies e-participation in action. Generally defined as soliciting a group of individuals via the World Wide Web to solve problems,[22] this platform can gather human resources from the furthest and most unexpected places, contributing to the overall pool of intellectual capital.[23] Crowdsourcing can be incorporated into various stages of the policy-making process, unfolding at the information, consultation, and active participation levels.[24]

At the information level, a one-way relationship exists where participants receive information from the government. The consultation level facilitates a two-way interaction, allowing citizens to provide their inputs, feedback, and reactions. Active participation refers to deeper involvement, with citizens directly contributing to policy content formulation.[24] This degree of e-participation is increasingly facilitated through tools such as online petitions, e-referendums, e-panels, citizen e-juries, and participatory GIS, among others.

Challenges of E-participation

[edit]

The primary challenge to e-participation is the prevailing digital divide. E-participation heavily depends on access to modern technologies and stable internet connections. Often, it necessitates advanced digital literacy, such as the skills to digitally scrutinize policy proposals and contribute input in a digital environment. Moreover, knowledge of internet safety and effective online collaboration are crucial for successfully navigating e-participation tools.[25] These requirements, together with physical access to technology, present barriers to individuals of varying socioeconomic levels, and particularly those unable to afford access to these technologies. Consequently, the digital divide impedes and restricts the ability of certain groups to express their views, excluding them from participation, and ultimately contradicting the intended purpose of e-participation.[25]

European E-participation Initiatives

[edit]

European E-participation Preparatory Actions

[edit]

The E-participation Preparatory Actions were implemented from 2006 to 2008 to enhance citizens' participation in the legislative process through online tools.[26] Initiated by the EU on January 1, 2007, these actions consisted of interconnected projects designed to boost citizens' awareness and engagement in the legislative process, from the initial drafting to regional and local implementation.

Each project was targeted at enhancing the transparency, understandability, and accessibility of legislative language and procedures for citizens. Additionally, they focused on improving the communication of legislation to augment citizens' participation and contribution in formulating and implementing laws.

To date, 21 projects have been initiated and financially supported.[27] These projects actively involve the European Parliament, national parliaments, and local and regional authorities. Cutting-edge ICT tools are utilized to streamline the creation of legal texts, including translation into various languages and drafting of amendments, while making these texts more accessible and comprehensible to non-experts. Innovative digital technologies are also employed to provide citizens with easier access to information and greater opportunities to impact decisions that shape their lives. A MOMENTUM white paper report by (Charalabidis, Koussouris & Kipenis 2009) presents important data and results from these projects, offering preliminary policy suggestions for future application.

European eParticipation Initiatives

[edit]

The European Commission has initiated several actions aimed at enhancing the support for eParticipation.

These include:

  • FP7 : ICT Challenge 7 : Objective ICT-2009.7.3 ICT for Governance and Policy Modelling.[28] The Commission has issued calls in this area to fund research. Currently, the Integrated Program Future Policy Modelling (FUPOL) is the most extensive project in this field. FUPOL
  • The ICT Policy Support Programme (or ICT PSP) under the Competitiveness and Innovation Framework (CIP). The European project has announced a call in the CIP program on Theme 3: ICT for government and governance.

See also

[edit]

YoDono

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ H. Jafarkarimi; A. T. H. Sim; R. Saadatdoost and J. M. Hee (2014). The Impact of ICT on Reinforcing Citizens’ Role in Government Decision Making, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, Vol.4 (1)
  2. ^ Adnan, Mohammed; Ghazali, Masitah; Othman, Nur Zuraifah Syazrah (2022). "E-participation within the context of e-government initiatives: A comprehensive systematic review". Telematics and Informatics Reports. 8: 100015. doi:10.1016/j.teler.2022.100015.
  3. ^ Macintosh, Ann (2004). "Characterizing E-Participation in Policy-Making". In the Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences: 5–8. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.98.6150.
  4. ^ Clift, Steven (2003). "E-Democracy, E-Governance and Public Net-Work".
  5. ^ Le Blanc, David (January 2020). "E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends" (PDF).
  6. ^ Le Blanc, David (January 2020). "E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends" (PDF).
  7. ^ Hilbert, Martin (2007). "Digital Processes and Democratic Theory: Dynamics, risks and opportunities that arise when democratic institutions meet digital information and communication technologies." open-access online book.
  8. ^ "Attention, and Other 21st-Century Social Media Literacies". er.educause.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
  9. ^ Huffman, Benjamin David (2017-12-18). "E-Participation in the Philippines: A Capabilities Approach to Socially Inclusive Governance". JeDEM - eJournal of EDemocracy and Open Government. 9 (2): 24–46. doi:10.29379/jedem.v9i2.461. ISSN 2075-9517.
  10. ^ a b "E-participation Index". UN E-Government Knowledgebase.
  11. ^ "5 Indices & Frameworks to Evaluate E-participation". CitizenLab's Blog. 2017-11-06. Retrieved 2020-10-07.
  12. ^ Engagement (PACE), Philanthropy for Active Civic (2018-06-22). "Social Media: Driving or Diminishing Civic Engagement?". Medium. Retrieved 2020-10-07.
  13. ^ Hasan, Heather (2012). Wikipedia, 3.5 million articles & counting : using and assessing the people's encyclopedia. Internet Archive. New York : Rosen Central. ISBN 978-1-4488-5557-5.
  14. ^ "Voting Equipment". Verified Voting. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  15. ^ "How Electronic Voting Works: Pros and Cons vs. Paper Voting". MakeUseOf. 2019-11-14. Retrieved 2020-10-06.
  16. ^ "The Future of Voting Is Blockchain". Chamber of Digital Commerce. 2018-11-05. Retrieved 2020-10-06.
  17. ^ Alomari, Mohammad Kamel (December 2016). "Digital divide impact on e-voting adoption in middle eastern country". 2016 11th International Conference for Internet Technology and Secured Transactions (ICITST). Barcelona, Spain: IEEE. pp. 409–412. doi:10.1109/ICITST.2016.7856741. ISBN 978-1-908320-73-5. S2CID 17187274.
  18. ^ "The background of the 'We the People' website". Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. 2016-12-28. Retrieved 2020-10-06.
  19. ^ "Meet the Man With a Radical Plan for Blockchain Voting". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
  20. ^ Eximchain (2018-08-17). "What makes Quadratic Voting an effective Democratic Voting Mechanism". Medium. Retrieved 2020-10-06.
  21. ^ "Meet the Man With a Radical Plan for Blockchain Voting". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2020-10-06.
  22. ^ Scholl, H.J.; Glassey, O.; Janssen, M.F.W.H.A. (2016). Electronic Government and Electronic Participation: Joint Proceedings of Ongoing Research, PhD Papers, Posters and Workshops of IFIP EGOV and EPart 2016. Amsterdam: IOS Press. p. 218. ISBN 9781614996699.
  23. ^ Howe, Jeff (2008). Crowdsourcing: Why the Power of the Crowd Is Driving the Future of Business. New York: Crown Publishing Group. p. 16. ISBN 9780307396204.
  24. ^ a b Silva, Carlos (2013). Citizen E-Participation in Urban Governance: Crowdsourcing and Collaborative Creativity. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. p. 6. ISBN 9781466641709.
  25. ^ a b Le Blanc, David (January 2020). "E-participation: a quick overview of recent qualitative trends" (PDF).
  26. ^ "eGovernment & Digital Public Services". Retrieved 1 August 2018.
  27. ^ "European eParticipation web". Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2008-05-15.
  28. ^ "Archives - CORDIS - European Commission". cordis.europa.eu. Retrieved 1 August 2018.

References

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Organizations

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International

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Europe

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  • FUPOL: Future Policy Modelling project
  • MOMENTUM: The European Commission Support Action in eParticipation
  • PEP-NET: Pan European eParticipation Network
  • European eParticipation Portal
  • TID+: The software suite developed for the Estonian public participation portal, also used by the Slovenian government
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