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{{Short description|Defunct fascist organization in Spain}}
{{distinguish|text=[[Paladin Group (private military contractor)]], an unrelated private military contractor that operates in Southeast Asia and Oceania}}
{{Distinguish|text=[[Paladin Group (security company)]], an unrelated private military contractor that operates in Southeast Asia and Oceania}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2013}}
{{more citations needed|date=February 2013}}


{{Infobox militant organization
The '''Paladin Group''' was a [[far-right]] [[organization]] founded in 1970 in [[Spain]] by former [[Waffen-SS]] [[Colonel]] [[Otto Skorzeny]]. It conceived itself as the military arm of the [[Anti-communism|anti-Communist]] struggle during and after the [[Cold War]]. It was a [[private security contractor]], the group's purpose was to recruit and operate [[security contractors]] to prevent the spread of [[communism]] worldwide.
| name = Paladin Group
| logo = German Cross.svg
| caption = Iron cross, which Otto Skorzeny and his followers wore during his life and, most importantly, during his funeral.<ref>{{cite web |title=Funeral de Otto Skorzeny - España 1975 | website=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xlQYJiNSXpo |date=4 February 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Stuart |title=Otto Skorzeny: The Devil's Disciple |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-YhoDwAAQBAJ&q=otto+skorzeny+knight%27s+cross |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=10 |language=en |date=20 September 2018 |isbn=978-1-4728-2947-4 |quote=– ‘sore throat’ – an allusion to the Ritterkreuz (Knight’s Cross), which was worn around the neck. Glory and romance drove Otto Skorzeny – and an acute sense of his own image.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Otto Skorzeny - Die Nachkriegskarriere von Hitlers Propagandahelden |url=https://www.kriegsreisende.de/relikte/skorzeny.htm |website=www.kriegsreisende.de}}</ref>
| native_name = Paladín
| native_name_lang = Spanish
| other_name = Paladin
| leader = [[Otto Skorzeny]]
| foundation = 1960s
| dates = {{Start date|1970}}–{{End date|1975}}
| dissolved = 1975
| predecessor = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Schutzstaffel.svg}}[[Die Spinne]]
| country = {{flagicon image|Flag of Spain (1945–1977).svg}}[[Francoist Spain]]
| allegiance = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Schutzstaffel.svg}}[[Waffen-SS veterans in post-war Germany|SS veteran networks]] (such as [[ODESSA]])
| motives = [[Anti-communism]], [[Ratlines (World War II)|Cultivating escape routes]], [[Revanchism]].
| area = Europe
| headquarters = [[Madrid, Spain]]
| ideology =
{{Plainlist|
*[[Neo-Nazism]]
*[[Fascism]]
*[[Entryism]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Exploring the Nazi Career of Otto Skorzeny, the 'Devil's Disciple' |url=https://historyatkingston.wordpress.com/2023/07/05/exploring-the-nazi-career-of-otto-skorzeny-the-devils-disciple/ |website=History@Kingston |language=en |date=5 July 2023}}</ref>
}}
| position = [[Far-right politics|Far-right]]
| status = Inactive
| allies =
{{plainlist|
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Socialist Reich Party.svg}}[[Socialist Reich Party]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of the Spanish Circle of Friends of Europe.svg}}[[CEDADE]]
*{{flagicon image|OAS Flag.svg}}[[Organisation de l'armée secrète|OAS]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Free France (1940-1944).svg}}[[Service d’Action Civique|SAC]]
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Portugal.svg}}[[Aginter Press]] ([[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Salazar’s Portugal]])
*{{flagicon image|Flag of Ordine Nuovo.svg}}[[Armed, far-right organizations in Italy|Italian Far-Right Militias]]
}}
| opponents = {{flagicon image|ETA BASQUE.svg}}[[ETA (separatist group)|ETA]]
| battles = [[Basque conflict]], [[Years of Lead (Italy)]]
}}


The '''Paladin Group''' ({{langx|es|Grupo Paladín}}) was a [[far-right]] [[organization]] founded in 1970 in [[Spain]] by former [[Waffen-SS]] [[Colonel]] [[Otto Skorzeny]]. It conceived itself as the military arm of the [[Anti-communism|anti-Communist]] struggle during and after the [[Cold War]]. It was a [[private security contractor]], the group's purpose was to recruit and operate security contractors to protect anticommunist countries. The group had active communications with [[Waffen-SS veterans in post-war Germany|post-war SS veteran networks]] and can be argued to be one of those networks, differing in the fact that they were also providing troops and training to far-right militias, and was a participant of [[Operation Condor]], providing escape routes for former SS-men who were guilty of war-crimes.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wertz, Jr. |first1=William F. |title=Nazis, Operation Condor, and Bush's Privatization Plan |url=https://larouchepub.com/eiw/public/2005/eirv32n12-20050325/eirv32n12-20050325_056-nazis_operation_condor_and_bushs.pdf |website=larouchepub |publisher=EIR Investigation |access-date=12 November 2024 |page=65 |quote=Piñar's New Force (Fuerza Nueva), the Argentine AAA, and Italian fascists including the Italian Ordine Nuovo led by Salvatore Francia and Pierluigi Concutelli, Spain's Guerillas of Christ the King (founded by Blas Piñar), the Associación Anticommunista Ibérica, Alianza Anticommunista Apostól- ica, and the Paladin group, which had been headed by Skor- zeny until his death in 1975. Dr. Gerhard Hartmut von Schu- bert, formerly of Joseph Göbbels' propaganda ministry, was its operating manager.}}</ref>
The French ''[[Nouvel Observateur]]'' [[magazine]], of 23 September 1974, qualifies the group as a "strange temporary work agency of mercenaries" (''étrange agence d’interim-[[barbouzes]]''); in ''The Great Heroin Coup'' (1976), [[Henrik Krüger]] calls it a "[[fascist]] group" or "[[neo-fascist]] group", while [[Stuart Christie]] speaks of it as a "security consultancy group" in ''[[Granny Made me an Anarchist]]''. ''[[Lobster Magazine]]'' describes it as a "small international [[squad]] of [[commando]]s".

== Ideology ==

The French ''[[Nouvel Observateur]]'' [[magazine]], of 23 September 1974, qualifies the group as a "strange temporary work agency of mercenaries" (''étrange agence d’interim-[[barbouzes]]''); in ''The Great Heroin Coup'' (1976), [[Henrik Krüger]] calls it a "[[fascist]] group" or "[[neo-fascist]] group", while [[Stuart Christie]] speaks of it as a "security consultancy group" in ''[[Granny Made me an Anarchist]]''. ''[[Lobster Magazine]]'' describes it as a "small international [[squad]] of [[commando]]s". One of the Skorzeny's goals was entryism, which meant trying to infiltrate different groups around the world to re-establish [[SS]] and [[Nazi Party]]. However soon this goals was seemed to be abandoned as the group became a mercenary contractor by the time. There was no ideological stability within the organization; although the far-right element was a constant motive, the organisation was in active communication with anti-American [[Gaddafi's Libya]] while also being actively siding with pro-American groups such as Italian militias, showing that there was no fixed goal through the group's lifetime and this made the group earn the infamous title of "terrorists."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jenkins |first1=Philip |title=Whose terrorists? |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00728657 |journal=Contemporary Crises |pages=5–24 |language=en |doi=10.1007/BF00728657 |date=1 March 1988|volume=12 }}</ref>


== History ==
== History ==
The Paladin Group was created in 1970 in the [[Albufereta]] neighborhood of [[Alacant]], [[Spain]], by former [[SS]] Colonel Otto Skorzeny and former [[US Colonel]] James Sanders. A former [[special operations]] officer, Skorzeny had become a member of the [[ODESSA]] network after the [[World War II|war]], helping to smuggle Nazi [[war criminal]]s out of Allied Europe to Spain, [[South America]] and other friendly destinations so they could avoid prosecution for war crimes. Skorzeny himself resided after the war in [[Francoist Spain|Spain]], protected by the Spanish government.
The Paladin Group was created in 1970 in the [[Albufereta]] neighborhood of [[Alacant]], [[Spain]], by former [[SS]] Colonel Otto Skorzeny and former [[US Colonel]] James Sanders. A former [[special operations]] officer, Skorzeny had become a member of the [[ODESSA]] network after the [[World War II|war]], helping to smuggle Nazi [[war criminal]]s out of Allied Europe to Spain, [[South America]] and other friendly destinations so they could avoid prosecution for war crimes. Skorzeny himself resided after the war in [[Francoist Spain|Spain]], protected by the Spanish government.


Skorzeny envisioned the Paladin Group as "an international directorship of strategic assault personnel <nowiki>[</nowiki>that would<nowiki>]</nowiki> straddle the watershed between paramilitary operations carried out by troops in uniforms and the political warfare which is conducted by civilian agents".<ref name=lee>{{cite book | last = Lee | first = Martin A. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Beast Reawakens: Fascism's Resurgence from Hitler's Spymasters to Today's Neo-Nazi Groups and Right-Wing Extremists | publisher = Taylor & Francis | date = 1999 | location = | pages = 185–186 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0-415-92546-0}}</ref>
Skorzeny envisioned the Paladin Group as "an international directorship of strategic assault personnel <nowiki>[</nowiki>that would<nowiki>]</nowiki> straddle the watershed between paramilitary operations carried out by troops in uniforms and the political warfare which is conducted by civilian agents".<ref name=lee>{{cite book | last = Lee | first = Martin A. | title = The Beast Reawakens: Fascism's Resurgence from Hitler's Spymasters to Today's Neo-Nazi Groups and Right-Wing Extremists | publisher = Taylor & Francis | date = 1999 | pages = 185–186 | isbn = 0-415-92546-0}}</ref>


In addition to recruiting many former SS members, the Group also recruited from the ranks of various right-wing and nationalist organizations, including the French Nationalist [[Organisation de l'armée secrète|OAS]], the [[Service d’Action Civique|SAC]], and from military units such as the [[French Foreign Legion]]. The hands-on manager of the Group was Dr. [[Gerhard Hartmut von Schubert]], formerly of [[Dr. Joseph Goebbels]]' Propaganda Ministry, who had trained security personnel in [[Argentina]] and [[Egypt]] after [[World War II]]. Under his guidance, Paladin provided support to the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-External Operations|PFLP-EO]] led by [[Wadie Haddad]] at the same time as the Mossad. The Group's other clients included the [[South African Bureau of State Security]]. They also worked for the [[Greek military junta of 1967–1974]] and the Spanish Security Main Direction, who recruited some Paladin operatives to wage clandestine war against [[ETA (separatist group)|ETA]]. The Group also helped Augusto Pinochet’s Regime fight against Communist insurgents after getting the dealing through Stefano Delle Chiaie of The Italian Neo-Fascist Organization known as [[National Vanguard (Italy) ]] and to have provided personnel for [[José López Rega]]'s notorious [[Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance]] death squad, however, this was never confirmed.
In addition to recruiting many former SS members, the Group also recruited from the ranks of various right-wing and nationalist organizations, including the French Nationalist [[Organisation de l'armée secrète|OAS]], the [[Service d’Action Civique|SAC]], and from military units such as the [[French Foreign Legion]]. The hands-on manager of the Group was Dr. [[Gerhard Hartmut von Schubert]], formerly of [[Dr. Joseph Goebbels]]' Propaganda Ministry, who had trained security personnel in [[Argentina]] and [[Egypt]] after [[World War II]]. Under his guidance, Paladin provided support to the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-External Operations|PFLP-EO]] led by [[Wadie Haddad]] at the same time as the Mossad. The Group's other clients included the [[South African Bureau of State Security]]. They also worked for the [[Greek military junta of 1967–1974]] and the Spanish Security Main Direction, who recruited some Paladin operatives to wage clandestine war against [[ETA (separatist group)|ETA]]. The Group also helped [[Augusto Pinochet]]’s Regime fight against Communist insurgents after getting the dealing through Stefano Delle Chiaie of The Italian Neo-Fascist Organization known as [[National Vanguard (Italy)]] and to have provided personnel for [[José López Rega]]'s notorious [[Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance]] death squad, however, this was never confirmed.


The Paladin Group was also allegedly allied with a number of other right-wing governments, including [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Salazar’s Portugal]], and some of the Italian [[neo-fascist]]s involved in the [[Years of Lead (Italy)|years of lead]] era attacks of the 1970s and 1980s. The Paladin Group also held offices in [[Zurich]], Switzerland.<ref>Patrice Chairoff, ''Dossier B... comme barbouze'', 1975, éd. Alain Moreau, p.59 and p.254</ref>
The Paladin Group was also allegedly allied with a number of other right-wing governments, including [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Salazar’s Portugal]], and some of the Italian [[neo-fascist]]s involved in the [[Years of Lead (Italy)|years of lead]] era attacks of the 1970s and 1980s. The Paladin Group also held offices in [[Zurich]], Switzerland.<ref>Patrice Chairoff, ''Dossier B... comme barbouze'', 1975, éd. Alain Moreau, p.59 and p.254</ref>


⚫
=== Following Francisco Franco’s death in 1975 ===
The Soviet news agency [[Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union|TASS]] alleged that Paladin was involved in training US [[United States Army Special Forces|Green Berets]] for Vietnam missions during the 1960s, but this is considered unlikely. This is because Skorzeny's methods were considered somewhat antiquated, and he resented the USA for its role in destroying Germany and promoting communism during World War II.
⚫
Otto Skorzeny died the same year as Francisco Franco, whose death on November 20, 1975 led to the [[Spanish transition to democracy|democratization of Spain]]. [[Third position]] political organizations, including [[Fascists]] and [[National Socialists]], formerly supported by the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist regime]] ceased to be welcome in the new regime and fled to [[South America]], in particular to [[Augusto Pinochet]]’s [[Chile]], and [[History of Argentina|Argentina]], where the return of [[Juan Perón|Perón]] after a 20-year exile in Spain had seen the June 20, 1973, [[Ezeiza massacre]].


=== Legacy ===
Von Schubert became the head of the Paladin Group after Otto Skorzeny’s death in 1975.


Von Schubert became the head of the Paladin Group after Otto Skorzeny’s death in 1975. The group, with the affiliate organisation [[CEDADE]], continued existing even after the death of their leader but ultimately dissolved into far-right groups such as [[National Democracy (Spain)|National Democracy]], [[Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari]] and [[Triple A (Spain)|Triple A]].<ref name="Anti">José L. Rodríguez Jiménez, [http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/15spain.html Antisemitism and the Extreme Right in Spain (1962–1997)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926151250/http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/15spain.html |date=2013-09-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Spanish interlude |url=https://libcom.org/library/spanish-interlude |website=libcom.org |language=en}}</ref> The group's legacy was also can be linked to "stay-behind" networks of [[Operation Gladio]] in which far-right militias similar to the "Paladin Group" participated in, a possible ideological influence or adoption of strategies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matteo |first1=ALBANESE |last2=Pablo |first2=DEL HIERRO |title=Transnational Fascism in the twentieth century : Spain, Italy and the global Neo-Fascist network |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09546553.2021.1883353 |language=en |date=2016|volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=428–429 |doi=10.1080/09546553.2021.1883353 }}</ref>
⚫
=== Following Francisco Franco’s death in 1975 ===
⚫
Otto Skorzeny died the same year as Fransisco Franco, whose death on November 20, 1975 led to the [[Spanish transition to democracy|democratization of Spain]]. [[Third position]] political organizations, including [[Fascists]] and [[National Socialists]], formerly supported by the [[Falange|Falangist]] government ceased to be welcome in the new regime and fled to [[South America]], in particular to [[Augusto Pinochet]]’s [[Chile]], and [[History of Argentina|Argentina]], where the return of [[Juan Perón|Perón]] after a 20-year exile in Spain had seen the June 20, 1973 [[Ezeiza massacre]].


== See also ==
== See also ==
*[[Stefano Delle Chiaie]]
*[[Aginter Press]]
*[[Aginter Press]]
*[[Spain under Franco]]
*[[Francoist Spain]]
*[[Paladin (disambiguation)]]
*[[Paladin (disambiguation)]]


Line 39: Line 81:


== References ==
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Anti-communist organizations]]
[[Category:Neo-fascist organizations]]
[[Category:Far-right politics in Spain]]
[[Category:Far-right politics in Spain]]
[[Category:Neo-fascist parties]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1970]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1970]]

Latest revision as of 18:28, 13 December 2024

Not to be confused with Paladin Group (security company), an unrelated private military contractor that operates in Southeast Asia and Oceania.
Paladin Group
Paladín
Also known asPaladin
LeaderOtto Skorzeny
Foundation1960s
Dates of operation1970 (1970)–1975 (1975)
Dissolved1975
CountryFrancoist Spain
AllegianceSS veteran networks (such as ODESSA)
MotivesAnti-communism, Cultivating escape routes, Revanchism.
HeadquartersMadrid, Spain
Active regionsEurope
Ideology
Political positionFar-right
StatusInactive
Allies
OpponentsETA
Battles and warsBasque conflict, Years of Lead (Italy)
Preceded by
Die Spinne

The Paladin Group (Spanish: Grupo Paladín) was a far-right organization founded in 1970 in Spain by former Waffen-SS Colonel Otto Skorzeny. It conceived itself as the military arm of the anti-Communist struggle during and after the Cold War. It was a private security contractor, the group's purpose was to recruit and operate security contractors to protect anticommunist countries. The group had active communications with post-war SS veteran networks and can be argued to be one of those networks, differing in the fact that they were also providing troops and training to far-right militias, and was a participant of Operation Condor, providing escape routes for former SS-men who were guilty of war-crimes.[5]

Ideology

[edit]

The French Nouvel Observateur magazine, of 23 September 1974, qualifies the group as a "strange temporary work agency of mercenaries" (étrange agence d’interim-barbouzes); in The Great Heroin Coup (1976), Henrik Krüger calls it a "fascist group" or "neo-fascist group", while Stuart Christie speaks of it as a "security consultancy group" in Granny Made me an Anarchist. Lobster Magazine describes it as a "small international squad of commandos". One of the Skorzeny's goals was entryism, which meant trying to infiltrate different groups around the world to re-establish SS and Nazi Party. However soon this goals was seemed to be abandoned as the group became a mercenary contractor by the time. There was no ideological stability within the organization; although the far-right element was a constant motive, the organisation was in active communication with anti-American Gaddafi's Libya while also being actively siding with pro-American groups such as Italian militias, showing that there was no fixed goal through the group's lifetime and this made the group earn the infamous title of "terrorists."[6]

History

[edit]

The Paladin Group was created in 1970 in the Albufereta neighborhood of Alacant, Spain, by former SS Colonel Otto Skorzeny and former US Colonel James Sanders. A former special operations officer, Skorzeny had become a member of the ODESSA network after the war, helping to smuggle Nazi war criminals out of Allied Europe to Spain, South America and other friendly destinations so they could avoid prosecution for war crimes. Skorzeny himself resided after the war in Spain, protected by the Spanish government.

Skorzeny envisioned the Paladin Group as "an international directorship of strategic assault personnel [that would] straddle the watershed between paramilitary operations carried out by troops in uniforms and the political warfare which is conducted by civilian agents".[7]

In addition to recruiting many former SS members, the Group also recruited from the ranks of various right-wing and nationalist organizations, including the French Nationalist OAS, the SAC, and from military units such as the French Foreign Legion. The hands-on manager of the Group was Dr. Gerhard Hartmut von Schubert, formerly of Dr. Joseph Goebbels' Propaganda Ministry, who had trained security personnel in Argentina and Egypt after World War II. Under his guidance, Paladin provided support to the PFLP-EO led by Wadie Haddad at the same time as the Mossad. The Group's other clients included the South African Bureau of State Security. They also worked for the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 and the Spanish Security Main Direction, who recruited some Paladin operatives to wage clandestine war against ETA. The Group also helped Augusto Pinochet’s Regime fight against Communist insurgents after getting the dealing through Stefano Delle Chiaie of The Italian Neo-Fascist Organization known as National Vanguard (Italy) and to have provided personnel for José López Rega's notorious Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance death squad, however, this was never confirmed.

The Paladin Group was also allegedly allied with a number of other right-wing governments, including Salazar’s Portugal, and some of the Italian neo-fascists involved in the years of lead era attacks of the 1970s and 1980s. The Paladin Group also held offices in Zurich, Switzerland.[8]

Following Francisco Franco’s death in 1975

[edit]

Otto Skorzeny died the same year as Francisco Franco, whose death on November 20, 1975 led to the democratization of Spain. Third position political organizations, including Fascists and National Socialists, formerly supported by the Francoist regime ceased to be welcome in the new regime and fled to South America, in particular to Augusto Pinochet’s Chile, and Argentina, where the return of Perón after a 20-year exile in Spain had seen the June 20, 1973, Ezeiza massacre.

Legacy

[edit]

Von Schubert became the head of the Paladin Group after Otto Skorzeny’s death in 1975. The group, with the affiliate organisation CEDADE, continued existing even after the death of their leader but ultimately dissolved into far-right groups such as National Democracy, Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari and Triple A.[9][10] The group's legacy was also can be linked to "stay-behind" networks of Operation Gladio in which far-right militias similar to the "Paladin Group" participated in, a possible ideological influence or adoption of strategies.[11]

See also

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Stuart Christie, Granny Made me an Anarchist
  • L'Express, 13 September 1976
  • Henrik Krüger, The Great Heroin Coup: Drugs, Intelligence, and International Fascism, Boston : South End Press, 1980. 240 pages. (First published in Denmark under the title: Smukke Serge og Heroinen en 1976.) ISBN 0-89608-031-5
  • Martin A. Lee, The Beast Reawakens, 1997. ISBN 0-316-51959-6 - (pages 185–86)
  • Le Nouvel Observateur, 23 September 1974
  • E. Gerdan, Dossier A ... comme Armes, édition Alain Moreau, 1975
  • Le Monde 2, n° 60 - Special issue on Operation Condor
  • Peter Dale Scott, Transnationalised Repression; Parafascism and the U.S., Lobster Magazine, N°12 : 1986.
  • Frederic Laurent, L'Orchestre Noir, Stock, 1978.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Funeral de Otto Skorzeny - España 1975". YouTube. 4 February 2019.
  2. ^ Smith, Stuart (20 September 2018). Otto Skorzeny: The Devil's Disciple. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-4728-2947-4. – 'sore throat' – an allusion to the Ritterkreuz (Knight's Cross), which was worn around the neck. Glory and romance drove Otto Skorzeny – and an acute sense of his own image.
  3. ^ "Otto Skorzeny - Die Nachkriegskarriere von Hitlers Propagandahelden". www.kriegsreisende.de.
  4. ^ "Exploring the Nazi Career of Otto Skorzeny, the 'Devil's Disciple'". History@Kingston. 5 July 2023.
  5. ^ Wertz, Jr., William F. "Nazis, Operation Condor, and Bush's Privatization Plan" (PDF). larouchepub. EIR Investigation. p. 65. Retrieved 12 November 2024. Piñar's New Force (Fuerza Nueva), the Argentine AAA, and Italian fascists including the Italian Ordine Nuovo led by Salvatore Francia and Pierluigi Concutelli, Spain's Guerillas of Christ the King (founded by Blas Piñar), the Associación Anticommunista Ibérica, Alianza Anticommunista Apostól- ica, and the Paladin group, which had been headed by Skor- zeny until his death in 1975. Dr. Gerhard Hartmut von Schu- bert, formerly of Joseph Göbbels' propaganda ministry, was its operating manager.
  6. ^ Jenkins, Philip (1 March 1988). "Whose terrorists?". Contemporary Crises. 12: 5–24. doi:10.1007/BF00728657.
  7. ^ Lee, Martin A. (1999). The Beast Reawakens: Fascism's Resurgence from Hitler's Spymasters to Today's Neo-Nazi Groups and Right-Wing Extremists. Taylor & Francis. pp. 185–186. ISBN 0-415-92546-0.
  8. ^ Patrice Chairoff, Dossier B... comme barbouze, 1975, éd. Alain Moreau, p.59 and p.254
  9. ^ José L. Rodríguez Jiménez, Antisemitism and the Extreme Right in Spain (1962–1997) Archived 2013-09-26 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ "Spanish interlude". libcom.org.
  11. ^ Matteo, ALBANESE; Pablo, DEL HIERRO (2016). "Transnational Fascism in the twentieth century : Spain, Italy and the global Neo-Fascist network". Terrorism and Political Violence. 33 (2): 428–429. doi:10.1080/09546553.2021.1883353.
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