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| image = Histoire de la guerre sainte de Guilaume de Tyr - BNF Fr2824 f1r (bataille de Ninive).jpg
| image = Histoire de la guerre sainte de Guilaume de Tyr - BNF Fr2824 f1r (bataille de Ninive).jpg
| caption = Anachronistic depiction of the Battle of Nineveh in a late 15th century illuminated French manuscript (by [[Robinet Testard]])
| caption = Anachronistic depiction of the Battle of Nineveh in a late 15th century illuminated French manuscript (by [[Robinet Testard]])
| date = December 12, 627 CE
| date = 12 December 627
| place = Near [[Nineveh]]
| place = Near [[Nineveh]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|36|21|34|N|43|09|10|E|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|36|21|34|N|43|09|10|E|display=inline,title}}
Line 14: Line 14:
| latitude =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| longitude =
| map_size = 300
| map_size = 300
| map_marksize =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_caption =
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| units1 =
| units1 =
| units2 =
| units2 =
| strength1 = 25,000-50,000 [[Byzantine army|Byzantines]]<ref name = "Kaegi158">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA158 158–159]}}</ref><br>40,000 [[Göktürks]] (deserted)
| strength1 = 25,000–50,000 [[Byzantine army|Byzantines]]<ref name = "Kaegi158">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA158 158–159]}}</ref><br>40,000 [[Göktürks]] (deserted)
| strength2 = 12,000 Sasanians<ref name = "Kaegi167">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA167 167]}}</ref>
| strength2 = 12,000 Sasanians<ref name = "Kaegi167">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA167 167]}}</ref>
| casualties1 = 50 killed{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=214}}
| casualties1 = 50 killed{{sfn|Greatrex|1991|p=214}}
| casualties2 = 6,000<ref name="Kaegi167"/> to 12,000{{sfn|Norwich|2023|p=193}}{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2011|p=153}}
| casualties2 = 6,000<ref name="Kaegi167"/> to 12,000 killed{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|2011|p=153}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628}}
}}
}}

The '''Battle of Nineveh''' was the climactic battle of the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]].
The '''Battle of Nineveh''' was the climactic battle of the [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]].


In mid-September 627, [[Heraclius]] invaded [[Asoristan|Sasanian Mesopotamia]] in a surprising, risky winter campaign. [[Khosrow II]] appointed [[Rhahzadh]] as the commander of an army to confront him. Heraclius' [[Göktürk]] allies quickly deserted, while Rhahzadh's reinforcements did not arrive in time. In the ensuing battle, Rhahzadh was slain and the remaining Sasanians retreated.
In mid-September 627, [[Heraclius]] invaded [[Asoristan|Sasanian Mesopotamia]] in a surprising, risky winter campaign. [[Khosrow II]] appointed [[Rhahzadh]] as the commander of an army to confront him. Heraclius' [[Göktürk]] allies quickly deserted, while Rhahzadh's reinforcements did not arrive in time. In the ensuing battle, Rhahzadh was slain and the remaining Sasanian forces retreated.


The [[Byzantine]] victory later resulted in [[Sasanian civil war of 628–632|civil war in Persia]], and for a period of time restored the (Eastern) Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries in the [[Middle East]]. The Sasanian civil war significantly weakened the [[Sasanian Empire]], contributing to the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]].
The [[Byzantine]] victory later resulted in [[Sasanian civil war of 628–632|civil war in Persia]], and for a period of time restored the (Eastern) Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries in the [[Middle East]]. The Sasanian civil war significantly weakened the [[Sasanian Empire]], contributing to the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]].


==Prelude==
==Prelude==
When [[Maurice (emperor)|Emperor Maurice]] was murdered by the usurper [[Phocas]], [[Khosrow II]] declared war under the pretext of avenging his benefactor's death. While the Persians were successful over the course of earlier stages in the war, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, and even some of Anatolia, the resurgence of [[Heraclius]] eventually led to the Persians' downfall. Heraclius' campaigns tilted the balance towards the Romans, forcing the Persians on the defensive. Allied with the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], the Persians [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|attempted to take Constantinople]], but were defeated.{{sfn|Norwich|1997}}
When [[Maurice (emperor)|Emperor Maurice]] was murdered by the usurper [[Phocas]], [[Khosrow II]] declared war under the pretext of avenging his benefactor's death.{{sfn|Börm|2024|p=589}} While the Persians were successful over the course of earlier stages in the war, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, and even some of Anatolia, the resurgence of [[Heraclius]] eventually led to the Persians' downfall. Heraclius' campaigns tilted the balance towards the Romans, forcing the Persians on the defensive. Allied with the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], the Persians [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|attempted to take Constantinople]], but were defeated.{{sfn|Börm|2024|p=589}}


While the Siege of Constantinople was taking place, Heraclius allied with what Byzantine sources called the Khazars under [[Ziebel]], who are identified with the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]] of the [[Göktürks]] led by Tong Yabghu,<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA143 143]}}</ref> plying him with wondrous gifts and a promise of the reward of the [[porphyrogenita]] [[Eudoxia Epiphania]]. The Caucasus-based Turks responded by sending 40,000 of their men to invade the Caucasus in 626, inciting the [[Third Perso-Turkic War]].<ref name = "Norwich92">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ElLZK1EOjHsC&pg=PA92 92]}}</ref> Joint Byzantine and Göktürk operations were focused on besieging [[Tiflis]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA144 144]}}</ref>
While the Siege of Constantinople was taking place, Heraclius allied with what Byzantine sources called the Khazars under [[Ziebel]], who are identified with the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]] of the [[Göktürks]] led by Tong Yabghu,<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA143 143]}}</ref> plying him with wondrous gifts and a promise of the reward of the [[porphyrogenita]] [[Eudoxia Epiphania]]. The Caucasus-based Turks responded by sending 40,000 of their men to invade the Caucasus in 626, inciting the [[Perso-Turkic war of 627–629]].{{sfn|Howard-Johnston|2016|p=124}} Joint Byzantine and Göktürk operations were focused on besieging [[Tiflis]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA144 144]}}</ref>


==Invasion of Mesopotamia==
==Invasion of Mesopotamia==
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[[File:Battle of nineveh-mohammad adil rais.PNG|alt=Both Heraclius and the Persians approached from the east of the ruins of the ancient [[Assyrian Empire]] capital of Nineveh in [[Assuristan]] ([[Assyria]]) province. Persian reinforcements were near Mosul. After the battle, Heraclius went back east while the Persians looped back to Nineveh itself before following Heraclius again.|thumb|left|Maneuvers before and after the Battle of Nineveh]]
[[File:Battle of nineveh-mohammad adil rais.PNG|alt=Both Heraclius and the Persians approached from the east of the ruins of the ancient [[Assyrian Empire]] capital of Nineveh in [[Assuristan]] ([[Assyria]]) province. Persian reinforcements were near Mosul. After the battle, Heraclius went back east while the Persians looped back to Nineveh itself before following Heraclius again.|thumb|left|Maneuvers before and after the Battle of Nineveh]]


On December 1, Heraclius crossed the [[Great Zab|Great Zab River]] and camped near the ruins of the capital of the former [[Assyrian Empire]] of [[Nineveh]] in Persian ruled [[Assyria]]/[[Assuristan]]. This was a movement from south to north, contrary to the expectation of a southward advance. However, this can be seen as a way to avoid being trapped by the Persian army in case of a defeat. Rhahzadh approached Nineveh from a different position. News that 3,000 Persian reinforcements were approaching reached Heraclius, forcing him to counteract.<ref name="Kaegi160"/> He gave the appearance of retreating from Persia by crossing the Tigris.<ref name = "Kaegi161">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA161 161]}}</ref>
On 1 December, Heraclius crossed the [[Great Zab|Great Zab River]] and camped near the ruins of the capital of the former [[Assyrian Empire]] of [[Nineveh]] in Persian ruled [[Assyria]]/[[Assuristan]]. This was a movement from south to north, contrary to the expectation of a southward advance. However, this can be seen as a way to avoid being trapped by the Persian army in case of a defeat. Rhahzadh approached Nineveh from a different position. News that 3,000 Persian reinforcements were approaching reached Heraclius, forcing him to counteract.<ref name="Kaegi160"/> He gave the appearance of retreating from Persia by crossing the Tigris.<ref name = "Kaegi161">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA161 161]}}</ref>


==Field of battle==
==Field of battle==
Line 56: Line 57:


==Battle==
==Battle==
On December 12, Rhahzadh deployed his forces into three masses and attacked.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA161 161–162]}}</ref> Heraclius feigned retreat to lead the Persians to the plains before reversing his troops to the surprise of the Persians.<ref name = "Kaegi161" /> After eight hours of fighting, the Persians suddenly retreated to nearby foothills, but it was not a rout.<ref name="Norwich93">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ElLZK1EOjHsC&pg=PA93 93]}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA163 163]}}</ref> 6,000 Persians fell.<ref name = "Kaegi167" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA169 169]}}</ref>
On 12 December, Rhahzadh deployed his forces into three masses and attacked.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA161 161–162]}}</ref> Heraclius feigned retreat to lead the Persians to the plains before reversing his troops to the surprise of the Persians.<ref name = "Kaegi161" /> After eight hours of fighting, the Persians suddenly retreated to nearby foothills.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA163 163]}}</ref> 6,000 Persians fell.<ref name = "Kaegi167" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA169 169]}}</ref>


[[Nikephoros I of Constantinople|Nikephoros]]' ''Brief History'' tells that Rhahzadh challenged Heraclius to [[single combat]]. Heraclius accepted and killed Rhahzadh in a single thrust; two other challengers fought and also lost.<ref name = "Kaegi167" /><ref name = "Norwich93" /> The account of another Byzantine historian, [[Theophanes the Confessor]], supports this.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.karwansaraypublishers.com/mwblog/single-combat-the-duel-between-heraclius-and-razhadh-at-the-battle-of-nineveh/|title=Single Combat? The Duel between Heraclius and Razhadh at the Battle of Nineveh|last=Konieczny|first=Peter|date=June 5, 2016|website=Karwansaray Publishers|access-date=February 5, 2018}}</ref> However, doubt has been cast on whether or not this actually occurred.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam|last=Crawford|first=Peter|publisher=Pen & Sword Books Ltd.|year=2013|isbn=978-1848846128|location=South Yorkshire|page=71}}</ref> In any case, Rhahzadh died at some point during the battle.<ref name = "Kaegi167"/>
[[Nikephoros I of Constantinople|Nikephoros]]' ''Brief History'' tells that Rhahzadh challenged Heraclius to [[single combat]]. Heraclius accepted and killed Rhahzadh in a single thrust; two other challengers fought and also lost.<ref name = "Kaegi167" /> The account of another Byzantine historian, [[Theophanes the Confessor]], supports this.{{sfn|Konieczny|2016}} However, doubt has been cast on whether or not this actually occurred.{{sfn|Crawford|2013|p=71}} In any case, Rhahzadh died at some point during the battle.<ref name = "Kaegi167"/>


The 3,000 Persian reinforcements arrived too late for the battle.<ref name = "Kaegi167" /><ref name = "Kaegi170">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA170 170]}}</ref>
The 3,000 Persian reinforcements arrived too late for the battle.<ref name = "Kaegi167" /><ref name = "Kaegi170">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA170 170]}}</ref>
Line 66: Line 67:
The victory at Nineveh was not total as the Byzantines were unable to capture the Persian camp.<ref name = "Kaegi168">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA168 168]}}</ref> However, the victory was effective in preventing further Persian resistance.<ref name = "Kaegi168" />
The victory at Nineveh was not total as the Byzantines were unable to capture the Persian camp.<ref name = "Kaegi168">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA168 168]}}</ref> However, the victory was effective in preventing further Persian resistance.<ref name = "Kaegi168" />


With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius' victorious army plundered [[Dastagird]], Khosrow's palace, and gained tremendous riches while recovering 300 captured Byzantine/Roman standards accumulated over years of warfare.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA173 173]}}</ref> Khosrow had already fled to the mountains of [[Susiana]] to try to rally support for the defense of [[Ctesiphon]].<ref name = "Norwich93" /><ref name = "Oman211">{{Harvnb|Oman|1893|p=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_N6A-AAAAYAAJ/page/n222 211]}}</ref> Heraclius could not attack Ctesiphon itself because the [[Nahrawan Canal]] was blocked by the collapse of a bridge.<ref name="books.google.com"/>
With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius' victorious army plundered [[Dastagird]], Khosrow's palace, and gained tremendous riches while recovering 300 captured Byzantine/Roman standards accumulated over years of warfare.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Harvnb|Kaegi|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA173 173]}}</ref> Khosrow had already fled to the mountains of [[Susiana]] to try to rally support for the defense of [[Ctesiphon]].<ref name = "Oman211">{{Harvnb|Oman|1893|p=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_N6A-AAAAYAAJ/page/n222 211]}}</ref> Heraclius could not attack Ctesiphon itself because the [[Nahrawan Canal]] was blocked by the collapse of a bridge.<ref name="books.google.com"/>


The Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrow II, raising his son [[Kavad II]], also known as Siroes, in his stead. Khosrow perished in a dungeon after suffering for five days on bare sustenance—he was shot to death slowly with arrows on the fifth day.<ref name = "Norwich94">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ElLZK1EOjHsC&pg=PA94 94]}}</ref> Kavad immediately sent peace offers to Heraclius. Heraclius did not impose harsh terms, knowing that his own empire was also near exhaustion. Under the peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a war indemnity, and of great spiritual significance, the [[True Cross]] and other relics that were [[Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem|lost]] in [[Jerusalem]] in 614.<ref name = "Norwich94" /><ref name = "Oman212">{{Harvnb|Oman|1893|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N6A-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA212 212]}}</ref> The battle was the last conflict of the [[Roman–Persian Wars]].
The Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrow II, raising his son [[Kavad II]], also known as Siroes, in his stead. Khosrow perished in a dungeon after suffering for five days on bare sustenance—he was shot to death slowly with arrows on the fifth day.<ref name = "Norwich94">{{Harvnb|Norwich|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ElLZK1EOjHsC&pg=PA94 94]}}</ref> Kavad immediately sent peace offers to Heraclius. Heraclius did not impose harsh terms, knowing that his own empire was also near exhaustion. Under the peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a war indemnity, and of great spiritual significance, the [[True Cross]] and other relics that were [[Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem|lost]] in [[Jerusalem]] in 614.<ref name = "Norwich94" /><ref name = "Oman212">{{Harvnb|Oman|1893|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N6A-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA212 212]}}</ref> The battle was the last conflict of the [[Roman–Persian Wars]].


==Notes==
==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}
{{Reflist|20em}}


==References==
==Sources==
*{{cite book |chapter=Kavad I, Khosrow I, and the Wars with the Roman Empire |first=Henning |last=Börm |pages=566{{endash}}599 |title=Brill’s Companion to War in the Ancient Iranian Empires |editor-first1=John |editor-last1=Hyland |editor-first2=Khodadad |editor-last2=Rezakhani |publisher=Brill |year=2024 }}
*{{Cite book|title=The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam |last=Crawford |first=Peter |publisher=Pen & Sword Books Ltd. |year=2013 |isbn=978-1848846128|location=South Yorkshire }}
* {{Cite book |last=Greatrex|first=Geoffrey |title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian wars.Part II.363-630AD |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=0-415-14687-9 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Greatrex|first=Geoffrey |title=The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian wars.Part II.363-630AD |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=0-415-14687-9 }}
*{{cite book |title=East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies |first=James |last=Howard-Johnston |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 }}
* {{cite book | last = Kaegi | first = Walter Emil | author-link=Walter Kaegi | title = Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0521814591}}
* {{cite book | last = Kaegi | first = Walter Emil | author-link=Walter Kaegi | title = Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0521814591}}
*{{Cite journal |journal=Medieval World Magazine |url=https://www.karwansaraypublishers.com/mwblog/single-combat-the-duel-between-heraclius-and-razhadh-at-the-battle-of-nineveh/|title=Single Combat? The Duel between Heraclius and Razhadh at the Battle of Nineveh |last=Konieczny |first=Peter |year=2016 |issue=June 5 |publisher=Karwansaray Publishers |access-date=February 5, 2018}}
* {{cite book | last = Norwich | first = John Julius | author-link=John Julius Norwich | title = A Short History of Byzantium | publisher = Vintage Books | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0679772699}}
* {{cite book | last = Norwich | first = John Julius | author-link=John Julius Norwich | title = A Short History of Byzantium | publisher = Vintage Books | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0679772699}}
* {{cite book | last = Oman | first = Charles | author-link=Charles Oman | title = Europe, 476–918 | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1893 }}
* {{cite book | last = Oman | first = Charles | author-link=Charles Oman | title = Europe, 476–918 | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1893 }}
* {{cite book |last=Norwich |first=John |author-link=John Julius Norwich |title=The History of the Byzantine Empire: From the foundation of Constantinople to the collapse of the state |location=Moscow |publisher=КоЛибри |year=2023 |isbn=978-5-389-19591-2}}
{{Drafts moved from mainspace|date=October 2024}}
* {{cite book |last=Ostrogorsky |first=George |author-link=George Ostrogorsky |lang=ru |script-title=ru:История Византийского государства |trans-title=The History of the Byzantine State |orig-date=1956 |date=2011 |isbn=978-5-91362-458-1 |place=Moscow |publisher=Сибирская Благозвонница }}
* {{cite book |last=Ostrogorsky |first=George |author-link=George Ostrogorsky |lang=ru |script-title=ru:История Византийского государства |trans-title=The History of the Byzantine State |orig-date=1956 |date=2011 |isbn=978-5-91362-458-1 |place=Moscow |publisher=Сибирская Благозвонница }}



{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Nineveh (627)}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Nineveh (627)}}

Latest revision as of 15:19, 16 December 2024

Battle of Nineveh
Part of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628

Anachronistic depiction of the Battle of Nineveh in a late 15th century illuminated French manuscript (by Robinet Testard)
Date12 December 627
Location
Near Nineveh
36°21′34″N 43°09′10″E / 36.35944°N 43.15278°E / 36.35944; 43.15278
Result Byzantine victory
Belligerents
Byzantine Empire Sasanian Empire
Commanders and leaders
Heraclius Rahzadh †
Vahram-Arshusha V (POW)
Strength
25,000–50,000 Byzantines[1]
40,000 Göktürks (deserted)		 12,000 Sasanians[2]
Casualties and losses
50 killed[3] 6,000[2] to 12,000 killed[4]
Battle of Nineveh (627) is located in West and Central Asia
Battle of Nineveh (627)
class=notpageimage|
Location within West and Central Asia
Battle of Nineveh (627) is located in Iraq
Battle of Nineveh (627)
Battle of Nineveh (627) (Iraq)

The Battle of Nineveh was the climactic battle of the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.

In mid-September 627, Heraclius invaded Sasanian Mesopotamia in a surprising, risky winter campaign. Khosrow II appointed Rhahzadh as the commander of an army to confront him. Heraclius' Göktürk allies quickly deserted, while Rhahzadh's reinforcements did not arrive in time. In the ensuing battle, Rhahzadh was slain and the remaining Sasanian forces retreated.

The Byzantine victory later resulted in civil war in Persia, and for a period of time restored the (Eastern) Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries in the Middle East. The Sasanian civil war significantly weakened the Sasanian Empire, contributing to the Muslim conquest of Persia.

Prelude

[edit]

When Emperor Maurice was murdered by the usurper Phocas, Khosrow II declared war under the pretext of avenging his benefactor's death.[5] While the Persians were successful over the course of earlier stages in the war, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, and even some of Anatolia, the resurgence of Heraclius eventually led to the Persians' downfall. Heraclius' campaigns tilted the balance towards the Romans, forcing the Persians on the defensive. Allied with the Avars, the Persians attempted to take Constantinople, but were defeated.[5]

While the Siege of Constantinople was taking place, Heraclius allied with what Byzantine sources called the Khazars under Ziebel, who are identified with the Western Turkic Khaganate of the Göktürks led by Tong Yabghu,[6] plying him with wondrous gifts and a promise of the reward of the porphyrogenita Eudoxia Epiphania. The Caucasus-based Turks responded by sending 40,000 of their men to invade the Caucasus in 626, inciting the Perso-Turkic war of 627–629.[7] Joint Byzantine and Göktürk operations were focused on besieging Tiflis.[8]

Invasion of Mesopotamia

[edit]

In mid-September 627, leaving Ziebel to continue the Siege of Tbilisi, Heraclius invaded the Persian Empire, this time with between 25,000 and 50,000 troops and 40,000 Göktürks. The Göktürks, however, quickly deserted him because of the strange winter conditions.[1] Heraclius was tailed by Rhahzadh's army of 12,000,[2] but managed to evade Rhahzadh and entered Mesopotamia (modern Iraq).[1] Heraclius acquired food and fodder from the countryside, so Rhahzadh, following through countryside already stripped, could not easily find provisions for his soldiers and animals.[9][10]

Both Heraclius and the Persians approached from the east of the ruins of the ancient Assyrian Empire capital of Nineveh in Assuristan (Assyria) province. Persian reinforcements were near Mosul. After the battle, Heraclius went back east while the Persians looped back to Nineveh itself before following Heraclius again.
Maneuvers before and after the Battle of Nineveh

On 1 December, Heraclius crossed the Great Zab River and camped near the ruins of the capital of the former Assyrian Empire of Nineveh in Persian ruled Assyria/Assuristan. This was a movement from south to north, contrary to the expectation of a southward advance. However, this can be seen as a way to avoid being trapped by the Persian army in case of a defeat. Rhahzadh approached Nineveh from a different position. News that 3,000 Persian reinforcements were approaching reached Heraclius, forcing him to counteract.[10] He gave the appearance of retreating from Persia by crossing the Tigris.[11]

Field of battle

[edit]

Heraclius had found a plain west of the Great Zab some distance from the ruins of Nineveh.[12] This allowed the Byzantines to take advantage of their strengths in lances and hand-to-hand combat. Furthermore, fog reduced the Persian advantage in missile-shooting soldiers and allowed the Byzantines to charge without great losses from missile barrages.[11] Walter Kaegi believes that this battle took place near Karamlays Creek.[13]

Battle

[edit]

On 12 December, Rhahzadh deployed his forces into three masses and attacked.[14] Heraclius feigned retreat to lead the Persians to the plains before reversing his troops to the surprise of the Persians.[11] After eight hours of fighting, the Persians suddenly retreated to nearby foothills.[15] 6,000 Persians fell.[2][16]

Nikephoros' Brief History tells that Rhahzadh challenged Heraclius to single combat. Heraclius accepted and killed Rhahzadh in a single thrust; two other challengers fought and also lost.[2] The account of another Byzantine historian, Theophanes the Confessor, supports this.[17] However, doubt has been cast on whether or not this actually occurred.[18] In any case, Rhahzadh died at some point during the battle.[2]

The 3,000 Persian reinforcements arrived too late for the battle.[2][19]

Aftermath

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The right panel shows Emperor Heraclius, in armor, holding a sword and preparing to strike the submissive Khosrow. The left panel shows a cherub with palms open.
A cherub and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrow II; plaque from a cross (Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160–1170, Paris, Louvre)

The victory at Nineveh was not total as the Byzantines were unable to capture the Persian camp.[20] However, the victory was effective in preventing further Persian resistance.[20]

With no Persian army left to oppose him, Heraclius' victorious army plundered Dastagird, Khosrow's palace, and gained tremendous riches while recovering 300 captured Byzantine/Roman standards accumulated over years of warfare.[21] Khosrow had already fled to the mountains of Susiana to try to rally support for the defense of Ctesiphon.[22] Heraclius could not attack Ctesiphon itself because the Nahrawan Canal was blocked by the collapse of a bridge.[21]

The Persian army rebelled and overthrew Khosrow II, raising his son Kavad II, also known as Siroes, in his stead. Khosrow perished in a dungeon after suffering for five days on bare sustenance—he was shot to death slowly with arrows on the fifth day.[23] Kavad immediately sent peace offers to Heraclius. Heraclius did not impose harsh terms, knowing that his own empire was also near exhaustion. Under the peace treaty, the Byzantines regained all their lost territories, their captured soldiers, a war indemnity, and of great spiritual significance, the True Cross and other relics that were lost in Jerusalem in 614.[23][24] The battle was the last conflict of the Roman–Persian Wars.

References

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  1. ^ a b c Kaegi 2003, pp. 158–159
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Kaegi 2003, p. 167
  3. ^ Greatrex 1991, p. 214.
  4. ^ Ostrogorsky 2011, p. 153.
  5. ^ a b Börm 2024, p. 589.
  6. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 143
  7. ^ Howard-Johnston 2016, p. 124.
  8. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 144
  9. ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 159
  10. ^ a b Kaegi 2003, pp. 160
  11. ^ a b c Kaegi 2003, pp. 161
  12. ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 162
  13. ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 163
  14. ^ Kaegi 2003, pp. 161–162
  15. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 163
  16. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 169
  17. ^ Konieczny 2016.
  18. ^ Crawford 2013, p. 71.
  19. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 170
  20. ^ a b Kaegi 2003, p. 168
  21. ^ a b Kaegi 2003, p. 173
  22. ^ Oman 1893, p. 211
  23. ^ a b Norwich 1997, p. 94
  24. ^ Oman 1893, p. 212

Sources

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  • Börm, Henning (2024). "Kavad I, Khosrow I, and the Wars with the Roman Empire". In Hyland, John; Rezakhani, Khodadad (eds.). Brill’s Companion to War in the Ancient Iranian Empires. Brill. pp. 566–599.
  • Crawford, Peter (2013). The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1848846128.
  • Greatrex, Geoffrey (1991). The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian wars.Part II.363-630AD. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14687-9.
  • Howard-Johnston, James (2016). East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies. Routledge.
  • Kaegi, Walter Emil (2003). Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521814591.
  • Konieczny, Peter (2016). "Single Combat? The Duel between Heraclius and Razhadh at the Battle of Nineveh". Medieval World Magazine (June 5). Karwansaray Publishers. Retrieved February 5, 2018.
  • Norwich, John Julius (1997). A Short History of Byzantium. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0679772699.
  • Oman, Charles (1893). Europe, 476–918. Macmillan.
  • Ostrogorsky, George (2011) [1956]. История Византийского государства [The History of the Byzantine State] (in Russian). Moscow: Сибирская Благозвонница. ISBN 978-5-91362-458-1.
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