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{{Short description|Conspiracy theory}}{{Distinguish|Synthesis anarchism}} |
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'''Synarchism''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] words meaning "to rule together" or "harmonious rule", in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Sinarquismo'') is a word that has been used to describe several different political processes in various contexts. |
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[[File:Femmes_françaises_n°_46_(10_août_1945)_-_Synarchie.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Synarchism|Femmes Francaises.jpg]] |
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==Political theory== |
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'''Synarchism''' generally means "joint rule" or "harmonious rule". Beyond this general definition, both '''''synarchism''''' and '''''synarchy''''' have been used to denote rule by a secret [[elite]] in [[Vichy France]], [[Italy]], [[China]], and [[Hong Kong]], while being used to describe a pro-Catholic theocracy movement in [[Mexico]].<ref name="Parekh 2008">{{cite journal| author = Parekh, Rupal | title = WPP'S 'Synarchy' Name Choice Sparks Sneers | year = 2008 | url = http://adage.com/agencynews/article?article_id=127164 | access-date=2009-01-08}}</ref> |
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==Origins== |
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The earliest recorded use of the term |
The earliest recorded use of the term ''synarchy'' is attributed to [[Thomas Stackhouse]] (1677–1752), an English clergyman who used the word in his ''New History of the Holy Bible from the Beginning of the World to the Establishment of Christianity'' (published in two folio volumes in 1737). The attribution can be found in the [[Webster's Dictionary]] (the American Dictionary of the English Language, published by [[Noah Webster]] in 1828). Webster's definition for ''synarchy'' is limited entirely to "joint rule or [[sovereignty]]". The word is derived from the Greek stems ''syn'' meaning "with" or "together" and ''archy'' meaning "rule".<ref>[http://www.1828-dictionary.com/d/word/synarchy Synarchy entry on ''Noah Webster's 1828 American Dictionary'' web edition]</ref> |
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The most |
The most substantial early use of the word ''synarchy'' comes from the writings of [[Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre]] (1842–1909), who used the term in his book ''La France vraie'' to describe what he believed was the ideal [[form of government]].<ref>Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, ''La France vraie'' (Paris: Calmann Lévy, 1887).</ref> In reaction to the emergence of [[anarchist]] ideologies and movements, Saint-Yves elaborated a political formula which he believed would lead to a harmonious society. He defended social differentiation and hierarchy with collaboration between social classes, transcending conflict between social and economic groups: synarchy, as opposed to [[anarchy]]. Specifically, Saint-Yves envisioned a [[Federal Europe]] (as well as all the states it has integrated) with a [[corporatism|corporatist]] government composed of three [[Council of State|councils]], one for [[academia]], one for the [[judiciary]], and one for [[chamber of commerce|commerce]].<ref>André Nataf, ''The Wordsworth Dictionary of the Occult'' (Wordsworth Editions Ltd; 1994).</ref> |
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==Rule by a secret elite== |
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The word ''synarchy'' is used, especially among French and Spanish speakers, to describe a [[Shadow government (conspiracy)|shadow government]] or [[deep state]], a form of government where political power effectively rests with a secret [[elite]], in contrast to an [[oligarchy]] where the elite is or could be known by the public.<ref name="Patton & Robin Mackness 2006">{{cite book|author1=Patton, Guy |author2=Mackness, Robin | title = Web of Gold: The Secret History of Sacred Treasures | publisher = Sidgwick & Jackson | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-283-06344-0}}</ref> |
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===Pacte Synarchique=== |
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Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, an [[occult]]ist, also used the word "synarchy" to describe a [[form of government]] where [[political power]] effectively rests with [[secret societies]] or, more precisely, [[esoteric]] societies, which are composed of [[oracle]]s. He associated this form of governance with [[paranormal]] subterranean beings from the land of [[Shambhala]] and [[Agartha]], who supposedly communicated with him [[telepathy|telepathically]]. Saint-Yves d'Alveydre believed that the ideal synarchist government was transferred underground at the start of the [[Kali-Yuga]] era, around 3,200 B.C.<ref>Joscelyn Godwyn, ''Arktos: The Polar Myth - in Science, Symbolism, and Nazi Survival'', p.84 (Adventures Unlimited Press, USA; 1996).</ref> |
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The [[Pacte Synarchique]] is a historical theory that the surrender of [[Vichy France]] was as a result of a conspiracy by French industrial and banking interests to surrender France to Hitler in order to fight [[Communism]]. The original Pacte was supposedly discovered after the death in 1941 of [[Jean Coutrot]], former member of [[Groupe X-Crise]]. According to this document, a ''Mouvement Synarchique d'Empire'' had been founded in 1922 with the aim of abolishing [[Parliamentary system|parliamentarianism]] and replacing it with synarchy. A Vichy investigation<ref>Henry Chavin, ''Rapport confidentiel sur la société secrète polytechnicienne dite Mouvement synarchique d'Empire (MSE) ou Convention synarchique révolutionnaire'', 1941.</ref> found no evidence for the ''Mouvement Synarchiste d'Empire'' existence. Most of the presumed synarchists were either associated with the [[Banque Worms]] or with Groupe X-Crise and were close to Admiral [[François Darlan]] the Vichy prime minister (1941–1942). Most historians agree that the ''Pacte'' was a [[hoax]] created by some French collaborators with Nazi Germany to weaken Darlan and his Vichy technocrats.<ref>Olivier Dard, ''La synarchie, le mythe du complot permanent'', Paris, Perrin, 1998</ref> |
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===Lyndon LaRouche=== |
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| ⚫ | [[Lyndon LaRouche]], leader of the [[LaRouche movement]], described a wide-ranging historical phenomenon, starting with [[Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre]] and the [[Martinist Order]] followed by important individuals, organizations, movements and regimes that are alleged to have been synarchist, including the [[Nazi Germany#Government|government of Nazi Germany]].<ref name="LaRouche 2003">{{cite journal|last=LaRouche | first=Lyndon | title = Reviving the Sense of Mission For American Citizens Today| year = 2003 |url = http://www.larouchepub.com/lar/2003/3046bsn_event.html| access-date=2008-04-06}}</ref> He claimed that during the [[Great Depression]] an international coalition of financial institutions, raw materials cartels, and [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] operatives installed [[fascist]] regimes throughout [[Europe]] (and tried to do so in [[Mexico]]) to maintain world order and prevent the repudiation of [[international debt]]s.<ref name="Steinberg 2003">{{cite journal | last=Steinberg | first=Jeffrey | title = Synarchism: The Fascist Roots Of the Wolfowitz Cabal | year = 2003 | url = http://www.larouchepub.com/other/2003/3021synarchism.html | access-date=2008-04-06}}</ref> LaRouche identified the former [[Vice President of the United States|U.S. vice president]] and former [[Project for the New American Century|PNAC]] member [[Dick Cheney]] as a modern "synarchist", and claimed that "synarchists" have "a scheme for replacing regular military forces of nations, by [[private military company|private armies]] in the footsteps of a privately financed international [[Waffen-SS]] like scheme, a force deployed by leading financier institutions, such as the multi-billions funding by the [[U.S. Treasury]], of Cheney's [[Halliburton]] gang."<ref name="LaRouche, Jr 2008">{{cite journal| last=LaRouche | first=Lyndon H. Jr.| title = The Empire Versus the Nations: Synarchism, Sport & Iran| year = 2008 |url = http://www.larouchepac.com/pages/writings_files/2006/060527_synarchism_sport.htm| access-date=2008-04-06 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080324035429/http://www.larouchepac.com/pages/writings_files/2006/060527_synarchism_sport.htm |archive-date = March 24, 2008}}</ref> |
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==Other uses== |
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===Qing China=== |
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==Synarchism in various parts of the world== |
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[[Harvard]] historian and [[sinology|sinologist]] [[John K. Fairbank]] used the word ''synarchy'' in his 1953 book ''Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854'', and in later writings, to describe the mechanisms of government under the [[Qing dynasty]] in [[China]]. Fairbank's synarchy is a form of joint rule by co-opting existing Manchu and Han Chinese elites and bringing the foreign powers into the system and legitimizing them through a schedule of rituals and tributes that gave them a stake in the Qing dynasty rule. He believed that the Qing, who were considered outside rulers because of their Manchu origins, developed this strategy out of necessity because they did not have a strong political base in China.<ref>John King Fairbank, ''Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854'', (Harvard University Press, 1953), 462–468</ref><ref>"Synarchy under the Treaties", ''Chinese Thought and Institutions'', John K. Fairbank, ed. (University of Chicago Press, 1957), 204–231.</ref><ref>[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/fairbank.htm Review of ''Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast'']</ref> |
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| ⚫ | The term is also used by some political scientists to describe the [[Colonial Hong Kong|British colonial government in Hong Kong]] (1842–1997). [[Ambrose King]], in his 1975 paper ''Administrative Absorption of Politics in Hong Kong'', described colonial Hong Kong's administration as "elite consensual government". In it, he claimed, any coalition of elites or forces capable of challenging the legitimacy of Hong Kong's administrative structure would be co-opted by the existing apparatus through the appointment of leading political activists, business figures and other elites to oversight committees, by granting them [[British honours system|British honours]], and by bringing them into elite institutions like Hong Kong's horse racing clubs. He called this ''synarchy'', by extension of Fairbank's use of the word. |
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===Mexican synarchism=== |
===Mexican synarchism=== |
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{{main| |
{{main|National Synarchist Union}} |
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''Synarchy'' is also the name of the ideology of a political movement in [[Mexico]] dating from the 1930s. In Mexico, it was historically a movement of the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[extreme right]], in some ways akin to [[fascism]], violently opposed to the [[Populism|populist]] and [[secularist]] policies of the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party|revolutionary]] (PNR, PRM, and PRI) governments that ruled Mexico from 1929 to 2000.<ref>{{cite book | last=Lucas |first=Jeffrey Kent | title=The Rightward Drift of Mexico's Former Revolutionaries: The Case of Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama |year=2010 |publisher=Lewiston, NY: [[Edwin Mellen Press]] |isbn=978-0-7734-3665-7 |pages=207–212}}</ref> |
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The [[National Synarchist Union]] ''(Unión Nacional Sinarquista,'' UNS) was founded in May 1937 by a group of Catholic political activists led by |
The [[National Synarchist Union]] ''(Unión Nacional Sinarquista,'' UNS) was founded in May 1937 by a group of Catholic political activists led by José Antonio Urquiza, who was murdered in April 1938, and [[Salvador Abascal]]. In 1946, a faction of the movement loyal to deposed leader [[Manuel Torres Bueno]] regrouped as the [[Popular Force Party]] (Partido Fuerza Popular). Synarchism revived as a political movement in the 1970s through the [[Mexican Democratic Party]] (PDM),<ref>A. Riding, ''Mexico: Inside the Volcano'', Coronet Books, 1989, p. 113</ref> whose candidate, Ignacio González Gollaz, polled 1.8 percent of the vote at the 1982 presidential election. In 1988 [[Gumersindo Magaña]] polled a similar proportion, but the party then suffered a split, and, in 1992, lost its registration as a [[political party]]. It was dissolved in 1996. |
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There are now two organisations, both calling themselves the Unión Nacional Sinarquista, one aligning to [[Francoist Spain#Francoism|Francoist policies]],<ref>{{in lang|es}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027132521/http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Senate/9136/ National Synarchist Union (Website of the right-wing UNS)]</ref> the other following the [[Movimiento Español Sindicalista|National Syndicalism]] of [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera|Primo De Rivera]].{{According to whom|date=November 2016}} [[Carlos María Abascal Carranza|Carlos Abascal]], son of [[Salvador Abascal]], was Mexico's Secretary of the Interior during [[Vicente Fox]]'s presidency. Many ''sinarquistas'' are now militant in the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]], PAN, of former presidents Vicente Fox (2000–2006) and [[Felipe Calderón]] (2006–2012). |
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There are now two organisations, both calling themselves the Unión Nacional Sinarquista, one apparently right-wing orientation, the other apparently left-wing. |
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[[Carlos María Abascal Carranza|Carlos Abascal]], son of [[Salvador Abascal]], was Mexico's Secretary of the Interior during [[Vicente Fox]]'s presidency. Many ''sinarquistas'' are now militant in the [[National Action Party (Mexico)|National Action Party]], PAN, the party in power since 2000 first with [[Vicente Fox]] and now with [[Felipe Calderón]] (since 2006) as presidents. ''Sinarquistas'' are influential policy makers in matters like education and health. |
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===Chinese synarchism=== |
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[[Harvard]] historian and [[sinology|sinologist]] [[John K. Fairbank]] also used the word "synarchism" in his [[1953]] book ''Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854'' and in later writings, to describe the mechanisms of government under the late [[Qing dynasty]] in [[China]]. |
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Fairbank's synarchy is a form of rule by co-opting existing elites and powers, bringing them into the system and legitimising them through a schedule of rituals and tributes that gave them a stake in the Chinese regime and neutralised any risk that they might rebel against the monarchy. He believed that the Qing, who were considered outside rulers because of their [[Manchu]] origins, had developed this strategy out of necessity because they did not have their own political base in China. This conception of Qing rule is not universally accepted among sinologists and historians of China, but is a respected, [[mainstream]] view with significant support in the field. |
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| ⚫ | The term is also used by some political scientists to describe the British colonial government in |
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===French synarchism=== |
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According to former [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] officer William Langer (''Our Vichy Gamble'', Alfred A Knopf, New York, 1947), there were French industrial and banking interests who "even before the war, had turned to Nazi Germany and had looked to Hitler as the savior of Europe from Communism... These people were as good fascists as any in Europe... Many of them had extensive and intimate business relations with German interests and were still dreaming of a new system of "synarchy", which meant government of Europe on fascist principles by an international brotherhood of financiers and industrialists." Historian Annie Lacroiz-Riz wrote a book on this subject, titled ''Le choix de la défaite : Les élites françaises dans les années 1930'' (The Choice of Defeat: the French elites in the 1930s, 2006 <ref> Annie Lacroiz-Riz, ''Le choix de la défaite : Les élites françaises dans les années 1930'', [[Armand Colin]], 2006. ISBN 978-2200267841 </ref>. This belief system has been dismissed as a "work of a paranoid imagination which wove together the histories of three disparate groups of activists, creating a conspiracy among them where non existed". <ref>Richard F. Kuisel, ''The Legend of the Vichy Synarchy'' (French Historical Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3; Spring, 1970).</ref> |
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{{reflist}} |
{{reflist}} |
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==Further reading== |
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* Richard F. Kuisel (Spring 1970). [https://doi.org/10.2307/286065 "The Legend of the Vichy Synarchy."] ''[[French Historical Studies]]'', vol. 6, no. 3. pp. 365–398. {{doi|10.2307/286065}}. |
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===Secret societies=== |
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* {{in lang|fr}} Olivier Dard (2012). ''La synarchie ou le mythe du complot permanent''. Paris: Perrin. {{ISBN|978-2262010997}}. |
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*[http://www.foundation.bw/OnSynarchy.htm On Synarchy] |
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===Mexican synarchism=== |
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*{{es icon}} [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Senate/9136/ National Synarchist Union] (Website of the right-wing UNS) |
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===Chinese synarchism=== |
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*[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/fairbank.htm Review of ''Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast''] |
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[[Category:Integralism]] |
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[[Category:Political ideologies]] |
[[Category:Political ideologies]] |
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[[Category:Political philosophies]] |
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[[Category:Secret societies]] |
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[[de:Synarchie]] |
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[[es:Sinarquía]] |
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[[fr:Synarchie]] |
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[[it:Sinarchia]] |
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[[nl:Synarchisme]] |
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[[pt:Sinarquia]] |
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[[sv:Synarki]] |
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Latest revision as of 15:23, 17 December 2024
_-_Synarchie.jpg)
Synarchism generally means "joint rule" or "harmonious rule". Beyond this general definition, both synarchism and synarchy have been used to denote rule by a secret elite in Vichy France, Italy, China, and Hong Kong, while being used to describe a pro-Catholic theocracy movement in Mexico.[1]
Origins
[edit]The earliest recorded use of the term synarchy is attributed to Thomas Stackhouse (1677–1752), an English clergyman who used the word in his New History of the Holy Bible from the Beginning of the World to the Establishment of Christianity (published in two folio volumes in 1737). The attribution can be found in the Webster's Dictionary (the American Dictionary of the English Language, published by Noah Webster in 1828). Webster's definition for synarchy is limited entirely to "joint rule or sovereignty". The word is derived from the Greek stems syn meaning "with" or "together" and archy meaning "rule".[2]
The most substantial early use of the word synarchy comes from the writings of Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre (1842–1909), who used the term in his book La France vraie to describe what he believed was the ideal form of government.[3] In reaction to the emergence of anarchist ideologies and movements, Saint-Yves elaborated a political formula which he believed would lead to a harmonious society. He defended social differentiation and hierarchy with collaboration between social classes, transcending conflict between social and economic groups: synarchy, as opposed to anarchy. Specifically, Saint-Yves envisioned a Federal Europe (as well as all the states it has integrated) with a corporatist government composed of three councils, one for academia, one for the judiciary, and one for commerce.[4]
Rule by a secret elite
[edit]The word synarchy is used, especially among French and Spanish speakers, to describe a shadow government or deep state, a form of government where political power effectively rests with a secret elite, in contrast to an oligarchy where the elite is or could be known by the public.[5]
Pacte Synarchique
[edit]The Pacte Synarchique is a historical theory that the surrender of Vichy France was as a result of a conspiracy by French industrial and banking interests to surrender France to Hitler in order to fight Communism. The original Pacte was supposedly discovered after the death in 1941 of Jean Coutrot, former member of Groupe X-Crise. According to this document, a Mouvement Synarchique d'Empire had been founded in 1922 with the aim of abolishing parliamentarianism and replacing it with synarchy. A Vichy investigation[6] found no evidence for the Mouvement Synarchiste d'Empire existence. Most of the presumed synarchists were either associated with the Banque Worms or with Groupe X-Crise and were close to Admiral François Darlan the Vichy prime minister (1941–1942). Most historians agree that the Pacte was a hoax created by some French collaborators with Nazi Germany to weaken Darlan and his Vichy technocrats.[7]
Lyndon LaRouche
[edit]Lyndon LaRouche, leader of the LaRouche movement, described a wide-ranging historical phenomenon, starting with Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre and the Martinist Order followed by important individuals, organizations, movements and regimes that are alleged to have been synarchist, including the government of Nazi Germany.[8] He claimed that during the Great Depression an international coalition of financial institutions, raw materials cartels, and intelligence operatives installed fascist regimes throughout Europe (and tried to do so in Mexico) to maintain world order and prevent the repudiation of international debts.[9] LaRouche identified the former U.S. vice president and former PNAC member Dick Cheney as a modern "synarchist", and claimed that "synarchists" have "a scheme for replacing regular military forces of nations, by private armies in the footsteps of a privately financed international Waffen-SS like scheme, a force deployed by leading financier institutions, such as the multi-billions funding by the U.S. Treasury, of Cheney's Halliburton gang."[10]
Other uses
[edit]Qing China
[edit]Harvard historian and sinologist John K. Fairbank used the word synarchy in his 1953 book Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854, and in later writings, to describe the mechanisms of government under the Qing dynasty in China. Fairbank's synarchy is a form of joint rule by co-opting existing Manchu and Han Chinese elites and bringing the foreign powers into the system and legitimizing them through a schedule of rituals and tributes that gave them a stake in the Qing dynasty rule. He believed that the Qing, who were considered outside rulers because of their Manchu origins, developed this strategy out of necessity because they did not have a strong political base in China.[11][12][13]
Hong Kong
[edit]The term is also used by some political scientists to describe the British colonial government in Hong Kong (1842–1997). Ambrose King, in his 1975 paper Administrative Absorption of Politics in Hong Kong, described colonial Hong Kong's administration as "elite consensual government". In it, he claimed, any coalition of elites or forces capable of challenging the legitimacy of Hong Kong's administrative structure would be co-opted by the existing apparatus through the appointment of leading political activists, business figures and other elites to oversight committees, by granting them British honours, and by bringing them into elite institutions like Hong Kong's horse racing clubs. He called this synarchy, by extension of Fairbank's use of the word.
Mexican synarchism
[edit]Synarchy is also the name of the ideology of a political movement in Mexico dating from the 1930s. In Mexico, it was historically a movement of the Roman Catholic extreme right, in some ways akin to fascism, violently opposed to the populist and secularist policies of the revolutionary (PNR, PRM, and PRI) governments that ruled Mexico from 1929 to 2000.[14]
The National Synarchist Union (Unión Nacional Sinarquista, UNS) was founded in May 1937 by a group of Catholic political activists led by José Antonio Urquiza, who was murdered in April 1938, and Salvador Abascal. In 1946, a faction of the movement loyal to deposed leader Manuel Torres Bueno regrouped as the Popular Force Party (Partido Fuerza Popular). Synarchism revived as a political movement in the 1970s through the Mexican Democratic Party (PDM),[15] whose candidate, Ignacio González Gollaz, polled 1.8 percent of the vote at the 1982 presidential election. In 1988 Gumersindo Magaña polled a similar proportion, but the party then suffered a split, and, in 1992, lost its registration as a political party. It was dissolved in 1996.
There are now two organisations, both calling themselves the Unión Nacional Sinarquista, one aligning to Francoist policies,[16] the other following the National Syndicalism of Primo De Rivera.[according to whom?] Carlos Abascal, son of Salvador Abascal, was Mexico's Secretary of the Interior during Vicente Fox's presidency. Many sinarquistas are now militant in the National Action Party, PAN, of former presidents Vicente Fox (2000–2006) and Felipe Calderón (2006–2012).
References
[edit]- ^ Parekh, Rupal (2008). "WPP'S 'Synarchy' Name Choice Sparks Sneers". Retrieved 2009-01-08.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Synarchy entry on Noah Webster's 1828 American Dictionary web edition
- ^ Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, La France vraie (Paris: Calmann Lévy, 1887).
- ^ André Nataf, The Wordsworth Dictionary of the Occult (Wordsworth Editions Ltd; 1994).
- ^ Patton, Guy; Mackness, Robin (2000). Web of Gold: The Secret History of Sacred Treasures. Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 0-283-06344-0.
- ^ Henry Chavin, Rapport confidentiel sur la société secrète polytechnicienne dite Mouvement synarchique d'Empire (MSE) ou Convention synarchique révolutionnaire, 1941.
- ^ Olivier Dard, La synarchie, le mythe du complot permanent, Paris, Perrin, 1998
- ^ LaRouche, Lyndon (2003). "Reviving the Sense of Mission For American Citizens Today". Retrieved 2008-04-06.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Steinberg, Jeffrey (2003). "Synarchism: The Fascist Roots Of the Wolfowitz Cabal". Retrieved 2008-04-06.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ LaRouche, Lyndon H. Jr. (2008). "The Empire Versus the Nations: Synarchism, Sport & Iran". Archived from the original on March 24, 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ John King Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842-1854, (Harvard University Press, 1953), 462–468
- ^ "Synarchy under the Treaties", Chinese Thought and Institutions, John K. Fairbank, ed. (University of Chicago Press, 1957), 204–231.
- ^ Review of Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast
- ^ Lucas, Jeffrey Kent (2010). The Rightward Drift of Mexico's Former Revolutionaries: The Case of Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. pp. 207–212. ISBN 978-0-7734-3665-7.
- ^ A. Riding, Mexico: Inside the Volcano, Coronet Books, 1989, p. 113
- ^ (in Spanish) National Synarchist Union (Website of the right-wing UNS)
Further reading
[edit]- Richard F. Kuisel (Spring 1970). "The Legend of the Vichy Synarchy." French Historical Studies, vol. 6, no. 3. pp. 365–398. doi:10.2307/286065.
- (in French) Olivier Dard (2012). La synarchie ou le mythe du complot permanent. Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2262010997.