Operation Juniper Shield: Difference between revisions

Operation Juniper Shield
	Part of the War on terror (Islamist insurgency in the Sahel)
	; A United States special forces NCO watches weapons marksmanship training for a member of a Malian counter-terrorism unit in December 2010.
Date	6 February 2007 – ongoing; (17 years and 11 months)
Location	Sahara Desert and North Africa, West Africa
Result	Ongoing
Belligerents
Algeria ; Morocco ; Mauritania; Tunisia; Burkina Faso; Chad; Mali ; Niger; Nigeria; Senegal; Cameroon; Togo; Ghana; Ivory Coast; Benin; Cape Verde; Gambia; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Liberia; Sierra Leone; Supported & Trained By: United States ; Canada ; France ; Germany ; Netherlands ; Spain ; United Kingdom ; Denmark ; Czech Republic ; Sweden ;	Islamic militants al-Qaeda; Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin; MOJWA (until 2013); AQIM; Al-Mourabitoun (until 2017); Ansar al-Sharia; Macina Liberation Front; Ansar Dine (until 2017); Boko Haram (partially aligned with ISIL since 2015); Ansaru; ISIL Islamic State in the Greater Sahara ; (2015–present); Islamic State – West Africa Province;
Commanders and leaders
Abdelmadjid Tebboune ; (2019–present); Nadir Larbaoui ; (2023–present); Mohammed VI ; (2007–present); Aziz Akhannouch ; (2021–present); Mohamed Ould Ghazouani ; (2019–present); Mohamed Ould Bilal ; (2020–present); Kais Saied ; (2019–present); Ahmed Hachani ; (2023–present); Ibrahim Traoré ; (2022–present); Apollinaire Joachim Kyélem de Tambèla ; (2022–present); Mahamat Déby ; (2021–present); Saleh Kebzabo ; (2022–present); Assimi Goïta ; (2021–present); Choguel Kokalla Maïga ; (2021–present); Abdourahamane Tchiani ; (2023–present); Ali Lamine Zeine ; (2023–present); Bola Tinubu ; (2023–present); Bassirou Diomaye Faye ; (2024–present); Ousmane Sonko ; (2024–present); Paul Biya ; (2007–present); Joseph Ngute ; (2019–present); Faure Gnassingbé ; (2007–present); Victoire Tomegah Dogbé ; (2020–present); Nana Akufo-Addo ; (2017–present); Alassane Ouattara ; (2010–present); Robert Beugré Mambé ; (2023–present); Patrice Talon ; (2016–present); José Maria Neves ; (2021–present); Ulisses Correia e Silva ; (2016–present); Adama Barrow ; (2017–present); Mamady Doumbouya ; (2021–present); Bah Oury ; (2024–present); Umaro Sissoco Embaló ; (2020–present); Rui Duarte de Barros ; (2023–present); Joseph Boakai ; (2024–present); Julius Maada Bio ; (2018–present); Joe Biden ; (2021–present); Lloyd Austin ; (2021–present); Charles III ; (2022–present); Keir Starmer ; (2024–present); Mary Simon ; (2021–present); Justin Trudeau ; (2015–present); Emmanuel Macron ; (2017–present); Gabriel Attal ; (2024–present); Frank-Walter Steinmeier ; (2017–present); Olaf Scholz ; (2021–present); Willem-Alexander ; (2013–present); Mark Rutte ; (2010–present); Felipe VI ; (2014–present); Pedro Sánchez ; (2018–present); Frederik X ; (2007–present); Mette Frederiksen ; (2019–present); Petr Pavel ; (2023–present); Petr Fiala ; (2021–present); Carl XVI Gustaf ; (2007–present); Ulf Kristersson ; (2022–present); Former Abdelaziz Bouteflika † ; Abdelkader Bensalah † ; Abdelaziz Belkhadem ; Ahmed Ouyahia ; Abdelmalek Sellal ; Youcef Yousfi ; Noureddine Bedoui ; Sabri Boukadoum ; Abdelaziz Djerad ; Aymen Benabderrahmane ; Driss Jettou ; Abbas El Fassi ; Abdelilah Benkirane ; Saadeddine Othmani ; Ely Ould Mohamed Vall ; Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi ; Ba Mamadou Mbaré ; Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz ; Sidi Mohamed Ould Boubacar ; Zeine Ould Zeidane ; Yahya Ould Ahmed El Waghef ; Moulaye Ould Mohamed Laghdaf ; Yahya Ould Hademine ; Mohamed Salem Ould Béchir ; Ismail Ould Bedde Ould Cheikh Sidiya ; Zine El Abidine Ben Ali ; Mohamed Ghannouchi ; Fouad Mebazaa ; Moncef Marzouki ; Beji Caid Essebsi ; Mohamed Ennaceur ; Hamadi Jebali ; Ali Laarayedh ; Mehdi Jomaa ; Habib Essid ; Youssef Chahed ; Elyes Fakhfakh ; Hichem Mechichi ; Najla Bouden ; Blaise Compaoré ; Honoré Traoré ; Yacouba Isaac Zida ; Michel Kafando ; Gilbert Diendéré ; Chérif Sy ; Roch Marc Christian Kaboré ; Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba ; Paramanga Ernest Yonli ; Tertius Zongo ; Luc-Adolphe Tiao ; Paul Kaba Thieba ; Christophe Joseph Marie Dabiré ; Lassina Zerbo ; Albert Ouédraogo ; Idriss Déby † ; Pascal Yoadimnadji ; Adoum Younousmi ; Delwa Kassiré Koumakoye ; Youssouf Saleh Abbas ; Emmanuel Nadingar ; Djimrangar Dadnadji ; Kalzeubet Pahimi Deubet ; Albert Pahimi Padacké ; Amadou Toumani Touré ; Amadou Sanogo ; Dioncounda Traoré ; Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta ; Bah Ndaw ; Ousmane Issoufi Maïga ; Modibo Sidibé ; Cissé Mariam Kaïdama Sidibé ; Cheick Modibo Diarra ; Django Sissoko ; Oumar Tatam Ly ; Moussa Mara ; Modibo Keita ; Abdoulaye Idrissa Maïga ; Soumeylou Boubèye Maïga ; Boubou Cissé ; Moctar Ouane ; Abdoulaye Maïga ; Mamadou Tandja ; Salou Djibo ; Mahamadou Issoufou ; Mohamed Bazoum ; Hama Amadou ; Seyni Oumarou ; Albadé Abouba ; Ali Badjo Gamatié ; Mahamadou Danda ; Brigi Rafini ; Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou ; Olusegun Obasanjo ; Umaru Musa Yar'Adua ; Goodluck Jonathan ; Muhammadu Buhari ; Abdoulaye Wade ; Macky Sall ; Cheikh Hadjibou Soumaré ; Souleymane Ndéné Ndiaye ; Abdoul Mbaye ; Aminata Touré ; Mahammed Dionne ; Amadou Ba ; Sidiki Kaba ; Ephraïm Inoni ; Philémon Yang ; Yawovi Agboyibo ; Komlan Mally ; Gilbert Houngbo ; Kwesi Ahoomey-Zunu ; Komi Sélom Klassou ; John Kufuor ; John Atta Mills ; John Mahama ; Laurent Gbagbo ; Charles Konan Banny † ; Guillaume Soro ; Gilbert Aké ; Jeannot Ahoussou-Kouadio ; Daniel Kablan Duncan ; Amadou Gon Coulibaly † ; Hamed Bakayoko † ; Patrick Achi ; Mathieu Kérékou ; Thomas Boni Yayi ; Pascal Koupaki ; Lionel Zinsou ; Pedro Pires ; Jorge Carlos Fonseca ; Yahya Jammeh ; Lansana Conté ; Moussa Dadis Camara ; Sékouba Konaté ; Alpha Condé ; Eugène Camara ; Lansana Kouyaté ; Ahmed Tidiane Souaré ; Kabiné Komara ; Jean-Marie Doré ; Mohamed Said Fofana ; Mamady Youla ; Ibrahima Kassory Fofana ; Mohamed Béavogui ; Bernard Goumou ; João Bernardo Vieira ; Raimundo Pereira ; Malam Bacai Sanhá ; Mamadu Ture Kuruma ; Manuel Serifo Nhamadjo ; José Mário Vaz ; Aristides Gomes ; Martinho Ndafa Kabi ; Carlos Correia ; Carlos Gomes Júnior ; Adiato Djaló Nandigna ; Rui Duarte de Barros ; Domingos Simões Pereira ; Baciro Djá ; Artur Silva ; Faustino Imbali ; Nuno Gomes Nabiam ; Geraldo Martins ; Ellen Johnson Sirleaf ; George Weah ; Ahmad Tejan Kabbah ; Ernest Bai Koroma ; George W. Bush ; Barack Obama ; Donald Trump ; Robert Gates ; Leon Panetta ; Chuck Hagel ; Ash Carter ; Jim Mattis ; Mark Esper ; Elizabeth II ; Tony Blair ; Gordon Brown ; David Cameron ; Theresa May ; Boris Johnson ; Liz Truss ; Michaëlle Jean ; David Johnston ; Julie Payette ; Stephen Harper ; Jacques Chirac ; Nicolas Sarkozy ; François Hollande ; Dominique de Villepin ; François Fillon ; Jean-Marc Ayrault ; Manuel Valls ; Bernard Cazeneuve ; Édouard Philippe ; Jean Castex ; Élisabeth Borne ; Horst Köhler ; Christian Wulff ; Joachim Gauck ; Angela Merkel ; Beatrix ; Jan Peter Balkenende ; Juan Carlos I ; José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero ; Mariano Rajoy ; Margrethe II ; Anders Fogh Rasmussen ; Lars Løkke Rasmussen ; Helle Thorning-Schmidt ; Václav Klaus ; Miloš Zeman ; Mirek Topolánek ; Jan Fischer ; Petr Nečas ; Jiří Rusnok ; Bohuslav Sobotka ; Andrej Babiš ; Fredrik Reinfeldt ; Stefan Löfven ; Magdalena Andersson ;	Abdelmalek Droukdel † ; Abu Ubaidah Youssef al-Annabi ; Mokhtar Belmokhtar †; Tiyib Ould Sidi Ali †; Athmane Touati ; Winan Bin Yousef (POW)
Strength
1,325+ American advisors & trainers;; 900 Moroccans;; 400 Malians;; 250 Algerians;; 200 Chadians;; <1,000 Mauritanians;; 25 Senegalese medical doctors	AQIM: 400-4,000 ; Tuaregs: ~1,000; Boko Haram: 300–2,000+
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown
	Causes: September 11 attacks and 2003 Casablanca bombings

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Operation Juniper Shield, formerly known as Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (OEF-TS), is the military operation conducted by the United States and partner nations in the Saharan and Sahel regions of Africa, consisting of counterterrorism efforts and policing of arms and drug trafficking across central Africa. It is part of the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT). The other OEF mission in Africa is Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA).

Congress approved $500 million for the Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative (TSCTI) over six years to support countries involved in counterterrorism against alleged threats of al-Qaeda operating in African countries, primarily Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Nigeria, and Morocco.^[25] This program builds upon the former Pan Sahel Initiative (PSI), which concluded in December 2004^[26] and focused on weapon and drug trafficking, as well as counterterrorism.^[27] TSCTI has both military and non-military components to it. OEF-TS is the military component of the program. Civil affairs elements include USAID educational efforts, airport security, Department of the Treasury, and State Department efforts.^[28]

Canada deployed teams of less than 15 CSOR members to Mali throughout 2011 to help combat militants in the Sahara.^[2] Although the special forces will not engage in combat, they will train the Malian military in basic soldiering. Areas include communications, planning, first aid, and providing aid to the general populace.^[2]

Mission

Operation Enduring Freedom Trans Sahara is primarily a training mission meant to equip 10 nations to combat insurgents in the region.^[29] Africa Command states:

OEF-TS is the USG's 3rd priority counter terror effort conducting activities that support TSCTP but are not exclusive to TSCTP. OEF-TS supports TSCTP by forming relationships of peace, security, and cooperation among all Trans Sahara Nations. OEF-TS fosters collaboration and communication among participating countries. Furthermore, OEF-TS strengthens counterterrorism and border security, promotes democratic governance, reinforces bilateral military ties, and enhances development and institution building. U.S. Africa Command, through OEF-TS, provides training, equipment, assistance and advice to partner nation armed forces. This increases their capacity and capability to deny safe haven to terrorists and ultimately defeat extremist and terrorist activities in the region.^[29]

At some point in 2013, OEF-TS was redesignated as Operation Juniper Shield.^[30] Operation Juniper Shield encompasses American operations across Algeria, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Tunisia.^[31]

Training programs

Flintlock

Twice a year, the Joint Combined Exchange Training (JCET) program holds a multinational training exercise.^[32] Called Flintlocks, these exercises are meant to strengthen special forces from the United States as well as multiple other nations.^[32] Participants include troops from the Sahel and those from NATO members.^[32] Flintlock started in 1988 and continued through Operation Enduring Freedom, and is now held in Africa.^[32] The exercises teach medical operations, infantry and peacekeeping training, airborne operations, humanitarian relief, and leadership skills.^[32] The amount each category is stressed depends on the host nation's needs.^[32] In addition, participants are put through different scenarios involving skills instructed during the exercise.^[33]

Mali was supposed to host the 2012 exercise, but the United States decided to postpone the exercise.^[34] Officials say Flintlock was postponed because Mali is facing a renewed Tuareg insurgency.^[34]

The Atlas Accord

Although the Flintlock Exercise was postponed, another training program in Mali was not. The Atlas Accord was created in 2012 to train African military personnel in a number of skills while focusing on logistics.^[3] The exercise includes classroom instruction and field instruction.^[3] Atlas Accord 12 focused solely on logistics and aerial resupply, while the next exercise in 2013 will continue training in aerial logistics but will also include command, control, communications, and computer (C4) techniques.^[3]

African Lion exercise

The largest training exercise, African Lion, is an annual security cooperation exercise held by the US and Morocco.^[35] Created in 2008, this program is designed to instruct a variety of skills, including aerial logistics, non-lethal weapons training, combined arms and maneuver exercises.^[35] More than 900 Moroccans and 1,200 Americans take part in the two-week exercise.^[35]

History

On 12 September 2007, a USAF C-130 was damaged from rifle fire by Tuareg forces while the aircraft was engaged in a supply drop to besieged Malian soldiers, no Americans were wounded in the incident.^[36] The Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) established the Joint Special Operations Task Force–Trans Sahara (JSOTF-TS)^[37] to help combat terrorism in the region. In 2012, the name of Operation Enduring Freedom - Trans Sahara transitioned to Operation Juniper Shield, although the operation was still referred to in US Government sources as OEF-TS as late as 2014.^[38]^[39]

ABC News reported that US forces arrived in Niger in early 2013 to support the French military intervention in Mali; 150 US personnel set up a surveillance drone operation over Mali that was conducted out of Niamey. As of 2017, there were about 800 US troops in Niger, the majority of whom are construction crews working to build up a second drone base in northern Niger. The remainder conduct a surveillance drone mission out of Niamey that helps out the French in Mali and other regional countries in the fight against the terrorists, and less than a hundred US Army Special Forces soldiers are also advising and assisting Niger's military to build up their fighting capability to counter the terrorists.^[40] CNN reported that following the Tongo Tongo ambush in October 2017, which left 4 US soldiers killed, the government of Niger granted the US military the authority to arm its drones in Niger; the US military had been seeking the authority to arm its drones in Niger for months prior to the ambush.^[41]

ABC News also reported that there are 300 U.S. military personnel in Burkina Faso and Cameroon carrying out the same task as US forces in Niger,^[40] The Guardian reported that the US military deployed 300 personnel to Cameroon in early October 2015, with the approval of the Cameroonian government, their primary mission was to provide intelligence support to local forces as well as conducting reconnaissance flights,^[42] The personnel are also overseeing a program to transfer American military vehicles to the Cameroonian Army to aid in their fight against Islamist militants,^[43] Army Times later reported that US soldiers in Cameroon are also providing IED awareness training to the country's infantry forces.^[44] CNN reported that in May 2016 that US personnel conduct the drone operations from Garoua to help provide intelligence in the region to assist local forces.^[45] In 2023, The 2023 Niger coup happens and leads to The Nigerien crisis.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e "Flintlock 11 Kicks off February 21 in Senegal". AFRICOM. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Canada Sends Special Forces to Aid African Al-Qaida Fight". Montreal Gazette. 2 December 2011. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "US, Mali Armies Kick off Exercise Atlas Accord; Postpone Exercise Flintlock". Defense Web. 13 February 2012. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
^ "French Hostage Executed after raid on Al-Qaeda base". France 24 news. 26 July 2011. Archived from the original on 10 December 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
^ "Police in Spain arrest 5 suspected of financing terrorists". CNN. 27 September 2011. Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
^ "US Starts Anti-Al-Qaeda Military Exercise in Sahara". BBC. 3 May 2010. Archived from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2012.
^ "Britain Signals Maghreb Push with Anti-Terror Help". Reuters Africa. 18 October 2011. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
^ "The Danish effort in the Sahel region (MINUSMA and Operation Barkhane)". fmn.dk. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
^ Maclean, Ruth; O’Reilly, Finbarr (29 March 2020). "Crisis in the Sahel Becoming France's Forever War". The New York Times – via NYTimes.com.
^ Forces, Swedish Armed. "Swedish Special Forces to Mali". Försvarsmakten. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
^ ^a ^b Comolli (2015), pp. 28, 103, 171.
^ "Islamic State in Greater Sahara (ISGS) / Islamic State in the Sahara (ISS) / Islamic State in Burkina Faso & Mali (ISISBM)". Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
^ Lamothe, Dan (29 December 2014). "Meet Operation Freedom's Sentinel, the Pentagon's new mission in Afghanistan". Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2017 – via www.WashingtonPost.com.
^ "Training in Trans-Sahara Africa". USASOC News Service. United States Army Special Operations Command. 9 December 2010. Archived from the original on 16 December 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
^ "Al-Qaeda in North Africa appoints new leader after killing". Al Jazeera. 22 November 2020.
^ "Hosted news". Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2016..
^ "Mauritania army raid killed al-Qaida group leader". Miami Herald. 23 October 2011.
^ "AQIM Leader Surrenders in Algeria". News24. 1 June 2011. Archived from the original on 5 March 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
^ "Niger Militant with ties to killers of French engineer arrested". ADN Kronos. Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
^ ^a ^b "U.S., Morocco Plans Fifth "African Lion" Exercise". World Tribune. 12 February 2012. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
^ "Al Qaeda retreats from West Mali Camps-Military Sources". Reuters Africa. 5 August 2011. Archived from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
^ "Mauritania Killings May be New Qaeda Chapter". Reuters. 11 February 2008. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
^ "Tuaregs Use Qaddafi's Arms for Rebellion in Mali". The New York Times. 5 February 2012. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
^ "5 Facts About Boko Haram". 24/7 Nigeria news update. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
^ "US to get Africa command centre". BBC News. 6 February 2007. Archived from the original on 10 February 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
^ "EUCOM: Operations and Initiatives". EUCOM. Archived from the original on 9 January 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.
^ "Pan Sahel Initiative (PSI)". Global Security. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.
^ "Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (OEF-TS)". Global Security. Archived from the original on 15 February 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.
^ ^a ^b "Operation Enduring Freedom Trans Sahara". AFRICOM. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
^ "Joint Special Operations Task Force - Juniper Shield (JSOTF-JS)". Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "Flintlock". Global Security. Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
^ "Flintlock 10 Begins in Burkina Faso". AFRICOM. 4 May 2010. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012.
^ ^a ^b "US Postpones Counter-Terrorism Training Exercises in Mali as Army there Battles Tuareg Rebels". The Washington Post. 10 February 2012. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
^ ^a ^b ^c "African Lion 12 ready to roar: marine forces in Africa conducts final planning conference". DVIDs hub. Archived from the original on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
^ "Rifle fire strikes U.S. C-130 during airdrop over Mali - News - Stripes". Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
^ Neville, Leigh, Special Forces in the War on Terror (General Military), Osprey Publishing, 2015 ISBN 978-1472807908, p. 280
^ "Crisis In Mali" (PDF). 3 March 2013. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^ Pike, John. "Operation Enduring Freedom - Trans Sahara (OEF-TS) / Operation Juniper Shield". GlobalSecurity.org. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
^ ^a ^b "Why US troops are in Niger". ABC News. 19 October 2017. Archived from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
^ "US military is granted authority to arm its drones in Niger". CNN. 1 December 2017. Archived from the original on 8 December 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
^ "Obama to deploy 300 US troops to Cameroon to fight Boko Haram". The Guardian. 14 October 2017. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
^ "US Sending Troops, Vehicles To Cameroon To Combat Boko Haram". DefenseNews.com. 20 October 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
^ "U.S. soldiers help African armies detect and defeat IEDs". Army times. 31 May 2016.
^ "U.S. special forces wage secretive 'small wars' against terrorists". CNN. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.

Sources

Comolli, Virginia (2015). Boko Haram: Nigeria's Islamist Insurgency. London: Oxford University Press.

External links

Official United States Africa Command site
Maps of Operation Enduring Freedom
Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Initiative Details of the operation by Global Security.

[Flintlock-1] "Flintlock 11 Kicks off February 21 in Senegal". AFRICOM. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2012.

[CSOR_Deployment-2] "Canada Sends Special Forces to Aid African Al-Qaida Fight". Montreal Gazette. 2 December 2011. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012.

[Atlas_Accord-3] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "US, Mali Armies Kick off Exercise Atlas Accord; Postpone Exercise Flintlock". Defense Web. 13 February 2012. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 24 February 2012.

[execution-4] "French Hostage Executed after raid on Al-Qaeda base". France 24 news. 26 July 2011. Archived from the original on 10 December 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2011.

[5] "Police in Spain arrest 5 suspected of financing terrorists". CNN. 27 September 2011. Archived from the original on 31 October 2011. Retrieved 4 November 2011.

[6] "US Starts Anti-Al-Qaeda Military Exercise in Sahara". BBC. 3 May 2010. Archived from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2012.

[7] "Britain Signals Maghreb Push with Anti-Terror Help". Reuters Africa. 18 October 2011. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.

[8] "The Danish effort in the Sahel region (MINUSMA and Operation Barkhane)". fmn.dk. Archived from the original on 26 September 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020.

[9] Maclean, Ruth; O’Reilly, Finbarr (29 March 2020). "Crisis in the Sahel Becoming France's Forever War". The New York Times – via NYTimes.com.

[10] Forces, Swedish Armed. "Swedish Special Forces to Mali". Försvarsmakten. Retrieved 18 November 2020.

[FOOTNOTEComolli201528,_103,_171-11] Comolli (2015), pp. 28, 103, 171.

[12] "Islamic State in Greater Sahara (ISGS) / Islamic State in the Sahara (ISS) / Islamic State in Burkina Faso & Mali (ISISBM)". Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.

[13] Lamothe, Dan (29 December 2014). "Meet Operation Freedom's Sentinel, the Pentagon's new mission in Afghanistan". Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2017 – via www.WashingtonPost.com.

[14] "Training in Trans-Sahara Africa". USASOC News Service. United States Army Special Operations Command. 9 December 2010. Archived from the original on 16 December 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2011.

[15] "Al-Qaeda in North Africa appoints new leader after killing". Al Jazeera. 22 November 2020.

[AQIM_got_arms-16] "Hosted news". Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 11 November 2016..

[17] "Mauritania army raid killed al-Qaida group leader". Miami Herald. 23 October 2011.

[18] "AQIM Leader Surrenders in Algeria". News24. 1 June 2011. Archived from the original on 5 March 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2011.

[adnkronos.com-19] "Niger Militant with ties to killers of French engineer arrested". ADN Kronos. Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2011.

[African_Lion-20] "U.S., Morocco Plans Fifth "African Lion" Exercise". World Tribune. 12 February 2012. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2012.

[AQIM_Camps-21] "Al Qaeda retreats from West Mali Camps-Military Sources". Reuters Africa. 5 August 2011. Archived from the original on 18 May 2017. Retrieved 1 July 2017.

[22] "Mauritania Killings May be New Qaeda Chapter". Reuters. 11 February 2008. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2017.

[23] "Tuaregs Use Qaddafi's Arms for Rebellion in Mali". The New York Times. 5 February 2012. Archived from the original on 23 February 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.

[24] "5 Facts About Boko Haram". 24/7 Nigeria news update. Archived from the original on 26 February 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2012.

[AFRICA-TO-GET-ITS-OWN-US-MILITARY-COMMAND-25] "US to get Africa command centre". BBC News. 6 February 2007. Archived from the original on 10 February 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011.

[EUCOM-OPERATIONS-AND-INITIATIVES-26] "EUCOM: Operations and Initiatives". EUCOM. Archived from the original on 9 January 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.

[PAN-SAHEL-INITIATIVE-27] "Pan Sahel Initiative (PSI)". Global Security. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.

[OEF-TS-GLOBALSECURITY-28] "Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara (OEF-TS)". Global Security. Archived from the original on 15 February 2007. Retrieved 6 February 2007.

[OEF_TS-29] "Operation Enduring Freedom Trans Sahara". AFRICOM. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012.

[30] "Joint Special Operations Task Force - Juniper Shield (JSOTF-JS)". Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.

[31] "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[Flintlock_info-32] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "Flintlock". Global Security. Archived from the original on 18 October 2012. Retrieved 24 February 2012.

[33] "Flintlock 10 Begins in Burkina Faso". AFRICOM. 4 May 2010. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012.

[Postpone-34] "US Postpones Counter-Terrorism Training Exercises in Mali as Army there Battles Tuareg Rebels". The Washington Post. 10 February 2012. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 7 September 2017.

[African_Lion2-35] "African Lion 12 ready to roar: marine forces in Africa conducts final planning conference". DVIDs hub. Archived from the original on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 February 2012.

[36] "Rifle fire strikes U.S. C-130 during airdrop over Mali - News - Stripes". Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.

[37] Neville, Leigh, Special Forces in the War on Terror (General Military), Osprey Publishing, 2015 ISBN 978-1472807908, p. 280

[38] "Crisis In Mali" (PDF). 3 March 2013. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

[39] Pike, John. "Operation Enduring Freedom - Trans Sahara (OEF-TS) / Operation Juniper Shield". GlobalSecurity.org. Archived from the original on 22 December 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2017.

[auto-40] "Why US troops are in Niger". ABC News. 19 October 2017. Archived from the original on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.

[41] "US military is granted authority to arm its drones in Niger". CNN. 1 December 2017. Archived from the original on 8 December 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017.

[42] "Obama to deploy 300 US troops to Cameroon to fight Boko Haram". The Guardian. 14 October 2017. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.

[43] "US Sending Troops, Vehicles To Cameroon To Combat Boko Haram". DefenseNews.com. 20 October 2015. Retrieved 25 October 2015.

[44] "U.S. soldiers help African armies detect and defeat IEDs". Army times. 31 May 2016.

[45] "U.S. special forces wage secretive 'small wars' against terrorists". CNN. 12 May 2016. Archived from the original on 24 October 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.

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