Russo-Caucasian conflict: Difference between revisions

Russo-Caucasian conflict
	; Ethnic map of Caucasus
Date	c. 1550 – ongoing (c. 474 years) (recent phase: 1991– ongoing)
Location	North Caucasus
Result	Ongoing Several wars between Russian and Caucasian forces resulted in: Russian victory (1560, 1591, 1708, 1722, 1723, 1758, 1783, 1791, 1825, 1830, 1834, 1843, 1859, 1861, 1864, 1878, 1921, 1944); Caucasian victory (1571, 1594, 1607, 1650, 1996); Russian victory (2009); Islamic State Insurgency; ;
Territorial; changes	Following the conflict with Kumyks, Russia largely withdrew from the Caucasus for nearly 150 years (1560-1607); After the Russo-Circassian War and genocide, Circassians were expelled from the Kuban region, which was resettled by Russians and Cossacks (1763–1878); North Caucasian states incorporated into Russia as the Terek Oblast after the Caucasian War (1864–1917); North Caucasian independence in the MRNC and NCE (1917–1922); Caucasian AO‘s (Karachay AO, Kabardino-Balkarian AO, Ossetian AO, Checheno-Ingush AO, Dagestan AO) incorporated into the Soviet Union (1922–1936); Caucasian ASSR‘s (Karachay-Cherkessia ASSR, Kabardino-Balkarian ASSR, Ossetian ASSR, Checheno-Ingush ASSR, Dagestan ASSR) incorporated into the Russian SFSR (1936–1944; 1957–1991); Provisional government supported by Nazi Germany (1940–1944); Deportation of the Karachays, Deportation of the Balkars, Deportation of the Chechens and Ingush to Central Asia (1943–57); Independence as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (1991–2000); Prigorodny District was taken by Ossetians, with the support of Russian forces, from Ingushetia (1992); Russia topples the leadership of Chechnya and Caucasian Emirate (2000–2017);
Belligerents
Caucasian states, militants and allied groups	Russian Federation; (1991–Present);
Including:; Islamic State – Caucasus Province; (2015–Present); Caucasus Emirate; (2007–2017); Chechen Republic of Ichkeria; (1991–2007); Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus; (1989–2000); North Caucasus National Committee; (1940–1944); Red Caucasians; (1921–1924); North Caucasian Emirate; (1919-1920); Mountain Republic; (1917–1922); Ossetians; (1817-1830); Caucasian Imamate; (1828–1859; 1877-1878); Ingushetia; (1817–1855); Dagestan nations; (1800–1859); Chechen tribes; (1791–1840; 1859-1861); Karachay-Balkars; (1787–1834; 1855); Sheikh Mansur Movement; (1785–1791); Principality of Abkhazia; (1778–1864); Abazinia; (1778–1864); Circassia; (1711-1864; 1877-1878); Grand Principality of Great Kabarda; (1571–1825); Nogais; (1569–1783); Shamkhalate of Tarki (1556–1813; 1823; 1831; 1843); The Russo-Caucasian Conflict is a centuries-long struggle between the Russian state and the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus, stretching from the mid-16th century to the present. This enduring conflict includes numerous wars, uprisings, and insurgencies, fueled by Russia’s attempts to assert dominance over the Caucasus and the persistent resistance of its diverse ethnic groups. Key episodes in this history include the Russo-Circassian War, Caucasian war, multiple genocides, mass deportations, and a continuing modern insurgency in parts of the North Caucasus. The conflict has profoundly shaped the region’s culture, identity, and ongoing quest for autonomy.	Preceded by:; Soviet Union; (1922–1991); Soviet Russia; (1917–1922); White Movement; (1917–1920); Russian Empire; (1721–1917); Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721);

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The Russo-Caucasian conflict is a protracted ethnic and political struggle between various North Caucasian peoples and Russian, Soviet, and Imperial Russian authorities. This conflict dates back to the 16th century, as Russian forces sought to expand southward. Various Caucasian groups, including Abazins, Abkhazians, Circassians, Chechens, Ingush, Karachay -Balkars, Ossetians and Dagestanis (various Dagestani nations), resisted Russian control through both armed and diplomatic means. The conflict’s modern phase intensified following the Soviet Union’s collapse in 1991, with separatist aspirations and resistance movements that continued to face suppression into the 21st century.

Background

Geopolitical Significance

The Caucasus region,^[6] bridging Europe and Asia, holds immense geopolitical importance. Its strategic location between the Black and Caspian Seas, coupled with its rugged terrain, has made it both a barrier and a gateway to southern territories. Russia’s desire to control the Caucasus stems from its ambitions to secure borders, control trade routes, and expand influence toward the Middle East.^[7]^[8]

Russian-Kumyk Wars and Initial Encounters

The origins of the Russo-Caucasian conflict can be traced back to the 16th century, coinciding with the Russian Empire’s expansion into the Caucasus region.^[9] The Kumyks, a Turkic people residing in Dagestan,^[10] were among the first to mount organized resistance against Russian encroachment,^[11] engaging in the Russian-Kumyk Wars throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.^[12] Their opposition not only laid the groundwork for broader alliances among various Caucasian groups but also set a precedent for the multi-ethnic resistance movements that would characterize subsequent conflicts.^[13]^[14]^[15]

Russian expansion into the Caucasus began under Ivan the Terrible,^[16] who initially sought to establish ties with the Kabardians.^[17] His marriage to Maria Temryukovna,^[18] a Kabardian noblewoman, temporarily aligned Kabardia with Russian interests.^[19] However, following her death, the relationship soured, leading the Kabardians,^[19] along with the Kumyks and Nogays, to launch raids against Russian forces.^[20] This growing resistance culminated in 1571, when Devlet Giray, the Crimean Tatar khan, allied with the Nogays to execute a devastating raid on Moscow,^[21] highlighting the challenges faced by Russia in securing its southern frontier.^[22]

The conflict began to intensify around 1556, when Russia captured Astrakhan, extending its reach into the North Caucasus and bringing it into direct contact with the Kumyks.^[23] This conquest disrupted Kumyk trade routes and further heightened tensions.^[24] Throughout the late 16th century, these conflicts continued sporadically, laying the groundwork for the larger Russo-Caucasian conflicts that would unfold in the 18th and 19th centuries.^[25] The Kumyks' resistance and collaboration with other local groups foreshadowed the volatility of the region and the protracted conflicts that were to follow, as diverse Caucasian peoples united against Russian expansionist policies.^[26]

The main conflicts began in 1560, when the Russians plundered the capital of the Kumyks, the city of Tarki. Soon, under pressure from the Crimeans, the Russians were forced to retreat. In 1591, the campaign was repeated, as a result of the campaign, the Kumyk tsar was wounded, and Georgia promised to become a Russian citizen. Further attempts at expansion were unsuccessful, in 1594 the Kumyks repelled the campaign, and in 1607 almost completely exterminated the invading forces.^[27]^[28]

History

Early Wars and Peter the Great’s Expansion

In the early 18th century, Tsar Peter the Great embarked on a series of campaigns to extend Russia’s reach into the Caucasus, marking the start of consistent Russian interventions in the region.^[29]^[30] His first significant attempt was in 1711 during the Pruth River Campaign, where Russian forces briefly advanced into Circassian territories.^[31]^[32] During the campaign, Tatar and Circassian farms suffered greatly. When trying to catch up with the invaders, the Circassians were defeated on the Chany River. The Russians were unable to consolidate their successes and were forced to withdraw troops under Treaty of the Pruth.^[33]

A decade later, Peter renewed his focus on the region with the Russo-Persian Campaign (1722–1723),^[34] aiming primarily at Dagestan and Azerbaijan.^[35] Although Circassia was not the main target of this campaign, it marked a turning point for Russian strategy in the Caucasus and set the stage for future conflicts.^[36] By this time, Circassian resistance to Russian expansion along the Black Sea coast had also begun to intensify,^[37] foreshadowing the larger Russo-Circassian War that would erupt later in the 18th century. This era of Russian campaigns laid the groundwork for a prolonged struggle over the Caucasus,^[38] initiating tensions that would eventually culminate in over a century of conflict.^[39]

Peter I in Tarki, the capital of Tarki Shamkhalate; by Franz Roubaud

Russo-Circassian War (1763–1864)

The Russo-Circassian War was a protracted struggle between the Russian Empire and the Circassian people of the North Caucasus, lasting from 1763 to 1864.^[40] As part of Russia’s broader campaign to control the Caucasus region, this war saw Circassian resistance characterized by guerrilla tactics and strategic use of mountainous terrain.^[41] The Circassians, who received limited support from the Ottoman Empire,^[42] fought to preserve their homeland and autonomy. By the war’s end, Russian forces killed and forcibly displaced large portions of the Circassian population, killing and expelling an estimated 1 million to 2 million people to the Ottoman Empire.^[43] Many perished from starvation, disease, and harsh travel conditions in what is now widely known as the Circassian Genocide. Georgia’s Parliament formally recognized this genocide in 2011,^[44] and Circassian activists continue to seek broader international recognition.^[45]

Sheikh Mansur’s Movement (1785–1791)

In 1785, Sheikh Mansur,^[46] a Chechen muslim leader, organized one of the first large-scale North Caucasian resistances against Russian expansion.^[47] Inspired by Islamic teachings, Mansur’s vision united fighters across the Caucasus, emphasizing cultural and religious independence. Though ultimately defeated and captured in 1791,^[48] Mansur’s movement laid the foundation for later resistance efforts and inspired future leaders. He remains a symbol of defiance against Russian dominance, and his call for a united Caucasian front set the stage for subsequent, religiously motivated resistance.^[49]

Caucasian War (1817–1864) and the Imamate of Imam Shamil

The Caucasian War (1817–1864) was the bloodiest phase of the broader Russo-Caucasian conflict.^[50] Imam Shamil, a Dagestani leader of Avar descent, became a central figure in the North Caucasian resistance when he proclaimed the Caucasian Imamate in 1834,^[51] seeking to unify the region’s ethnic and religious groups, including the Chechens, Avars, and Lezgins. Shamil led a powerful guerrilla campaign from the mountainous regions, effectively holding off Russian advances for years until his capture in 1859.^[52] While Shamil’s capture marked the end of his Imamate, resistance continued in various forms. Shamil is remembered as a symbol of resilience, embodying the North Caucasian struggle to protect their identity, independence, and way of life against Russian expansionism.^[53]

Brief Independence Movements (1917–1921)

The collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution provided a brief opportunity for North Caucasian independence. In 1917, the Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus (MRNC) was declared,^[54] encompassing regions inhabited by North Caucasian peoples. The North Caucasian Emirate (NCE) followed shortly after,^[55] grounded in Islamic governance. However, the newly formed Soviet Union quickly reasserted control, and by 1921, the Red Army had dismantled both republics. Though short-lived, the MRNC and NCE remain symbols of North Caucasian independence aspirations.^[56]

Soviet Era and Deportations

During World War II, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin accused the Chechens,^[57] Ingush,^[58] Karachays,^[59] and Balkars^[60] of collaborating with Nazi Germany, despite minimal evidence. In 1944, Stalin ordered mass deportations as part of Operation Lentil, forcibly relocating over 500,000 Chechens and Ingush,^[61] as well as over 110,000 of Karachays^[62] and Balkars, to remote areas in Central Asia. Transport conditions were severe, with an estimated 25–45% mortality rate due to starvation, exposure, and disease. Survivors faced harsh conditions until 1957, when they were allowed to return. These deportations left lasting trauma within North Caucasian communities.^[63]

Modern Insurgencies (1990s–Present)

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the North Caucasus saw renewed uprisings, particularly in Chechnya. The First Chechen War (1994–1996)^[64] and Second Chechen War (1999–2000)^[65] resulted in tens of thousands of deaths and widespread destruction, especially in Chechen cities like Grozny.^[66] Concurrently, tensions also escalated in other parts of the region, notably with the 1992 Ossetian-Ingush War, where the Russian government intervened on behalf of the Ossetians, exacerbating ethnic divisions and fueling further conflict.^[67] The Chechen conflict sparked a broader Islamist insurgency across the North Caucasus that continues sporadically to this day, with clashes in Dagestan, Ingushetia, and Kabardino-Balkaria underscoring the enduring tensions in the region.^[68]

Cultural and Social Impacts

The Russo-Caucasian Conflict has deeply shaped the culture, society, and identity of North Caucasian communities. Forced migrations, like the Circassian Genocide and Stalin’s deportations, severed populations from their homelands, scattering diaspora communities across the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas. In particular:

• Diaspora and Memory: The North-Caucasian diasporas actively preserve their cultural heritage and have played key roles in advocating for international recognition of historical atrocities, such as the Circassian Genocide.^[69]

• Traditional Practices: Indigenous languages, customs, and Islamic traditions have been instrumental in preserving North Caucasian identity despite efforts at Russification during both Tsarist and Soviet times.^[70]

• Symbolic Resistance: Figures like Imam Shamil and Sheikh Mansur have become cultural icons, representing the spirit of resistance and unity among North Caucasian groups. Annual commemorations of key events, including deportations and genocide, reinforce the collective memory of these historical traumas.^[71]

Modern North Caucasian culture reflects a blend of resilience, historical awareness, and ongoing advocacy for autonomy, often in tension with Russian federal policies aimed at integration.^[72]

South Caucasus Situation

The South Caucasus comprising present-day Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan has had a unique yet deeply intertwined role in the Russo-Caucasian conflict. Russian ambitions in the South Caucasus added layers of complexity to the prolonged struggle for control of the Caucasus, impacting local cultures, loyalties, and resistance movements. This region saw Russian expansion, local alliances, and complex legacies of forced displacements and conflicts.^[73]^[74]

Russian Expansion, Local Alliances, and Loyalties

During the early 19th century, Russian ambitions turned southward, bringing Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan under imperial control as Russia aimed to secure its position between the Ottoman and Persian Empires. Initially, some South Caucasian communities viewed Russia as a protector against Ottoman and Persian dominance, particularly among Christian communities in Armenia and Georgia. This led to a period of loyalty to the Russian Empire, with Georgian and Armenian leaders often collaborating with Russian authorities to maintain regional stability. Over time, however, loyalty shifted as Russia asserted more direct control over the South Caucasus, dissolving local governance structures and limiting autonomy.^[75]^[76]^[77]

Resistance, Displacement, and the Deportation of Meskhetian Turks

As Russian policies intensified, local resistance grew, particularly as the empire’s control restricted traditional forms of self-governance. In Azerbaijan, local khanates initially resisted Russian encroachment but were ultimately annexed and incorporated into the empire. Tensions were further strained by Russian-led population movements that disrupted regional demographics. In 1944, under Stalin’s orders, the Meskhetian Turks,^[78] a Muslim minority, were forcibly deported from Georgia to Central Asia due to alleged security concerns. Thousands suffered from harsh conditions, and the deportation left lasting divisions and grievances within the region.^[79]^[80]

Conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia

Russian influence in the South Caucasus left a legacy of ethnic tensions, particularly in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. These regions sought independence from Georgia following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, leading to the Abkhaz-Georgian and Ossetian-Georgian conflicts in the early 1990s. Russia’s involvement in these conflicts including direct support for separatist movements further destabilized the region and contributed to the fragmentation of Georgian territory. The 2008 Russo-Georgian War exacerbated these divisions, with Russia formally recognizing Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states, a move that has since strained Georgian-Russian relations and maintained high levels of regional tension.^[81]^[82]^[83]

Armenian Conflicts and Russian Alignment

In Armenia, Russian influence reshaped both local governance and national identity, with Armenian communities often aligning with Russia for protection against neighboring powers. However, Armenia’s ties to Russia have also drawn it into complex regional politics, notably in its longstanding conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh. Russian involvement has been pivotal, both as a mediator and as an ally to Armenia, reflecting a broader pattern of Russia’s strategic balancing in the South Caucasus.^[84]^[85]^[86]

Legacy and Modern Impacts

Russia’s control over the South Caucasus left enduring legacies of cultural shifts, forced displacements, and political instability. The region remains geopolitically significant, with Russian influence still prominent. The forced resettlements and deportations, such as those of the Meskhetian Turks, and the legacy of Russian support for Abkhaz and Ossetian separatism, have fueled ongoing regional divides and mistrust. Today, Russia’s role in the South Caucasus continues to shape the region’s security dynamics, with long-standing ethnic and political divisions rooted in centuries of imperial ambition and complex alliances. This legacy underscores the continued relevance of the Russo-Caucasian conflict and the struggle for autonomy and stability in the Caucasus.^[87]^[88]^[89]

Current Situation

Today, the Russo-Caucasian Conflict manifests in complex social, political, and economic dimensions, with the North Caucasus region under ongoing Russian control. Many North Caucasians perceive this as a continuation of historical occupation, as the Russian government maintains a significant military and security presence in the area, often justifying it under the pretext of counter-terrorism. This has fostered a climate of tension, where Russian authorities are seen as enforcing policies that limit local autonomy and cultural expression. Additionally, frequent clashes between Caucasian residents and Russian security forces underscore persistent regional discontent.^[90]^[91]^[92]^[93]

In Russian society, discrimination and xenophobia against Caucasians have intensified. Common slogans like „stop feeding Caucasians“, “Russia for Russians” and “Moscow for Muscovites”^[94] reflect a segment of public opinion that resists the presence of Caucasians in major cities and other parts of Russia. Government policies and nationalist rhetoric have at times fueled these sentiments, reinforcing stereotypes and marginalizing North Caucasians within Russian society. Caucasians in Russia face routine discrimination and racial profiling in areas such as employment, housing, and law enforcement. Caucasian communities in urban centers often experience disproportionate scrutiny from police, and media portrayals can sometimes further stigmatize these groups.^[95]^[96]^[97]^[98]

Clashes between ethnic Russians and North Caucasians frequently arise, both in urban settings and in the Caucasus region itself. These confrontations, fueled by underlying ethnic and social tensions, contribute to a cycle of distrust and resentment on both sides. Despite the formal integration of the North Caucasus into the Russian Federation, the region remains economically underdeveloped and socially volatile, with a high unemployment rate and limited access to resources compared to other parts of Russia.^[101]^[102]^[103]^[104]

The ongoing challenges in the North Caucasus are a testament to the enduring legacy of the Russo-Caucasian Conflict, where historical grievances, systemic repression, and modern geopolitical interests continue to shape the dynamics between Russia and the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus. These issues reflect the deep-seated impacts of a centuries-long conflict that has yet to find resolution in the current political landscape.^[105]^[106]^[107]^[108]

Modern Recognition

The legacy of the Russo-Caucasian Conflict has prompted varying degrees of recognition and awareness in contemporary discourse, particularly regarding historical injustices faced by indigenous groups in the Caucasus. In recent years, there has been a growing acknowledgment of the atrocities committed during the conflicts, including the Circassian Genocide, as well as the widespread deportations of various ethnic groups.

Circassian Genocide

In 2011, the Parliament of Georgia formally recognized the Circassian Genocide, which occurred during the Russo-Circassian War (1763–1864) and resulted in the deaths and forced displacement of hundreds of thousands of Circassians.^[109] This recognition has been part of a broader movement among Circassian activists and diaspora communities who advocate for international acknowledgment of the genocide and seek reparations and the right of return for displaced Circassians. Various other countries, including Turkey and the United States, have seen similar discussions about recognizing the historical injustices faced by the Circassian people.^[110]^[111]^[112]^[113]

Soviet Deportations

The deportations of Chechens, Ingush, Karachays, and Balkars during World War II under Stalin’s regime are also increasingly recognized as acts of genocide by various scholars and human rights organizations.^[114] The European Parliament acknowledged the deportation of Chechens as a genocidal act in 2004, emphasizing the need for remembrance and acknowledgment of these historical traumas.^[115]^[116]^[117]

Contemporary Impact

Modern recognition of these historical events has influenced current discussions on human rights, autonomy, and the rights of indigenous peoples in the North Caucasus. In Russia, however, governmental narratives often downplay or deny the historical grievances associated with the Russo-Caucasian Conflict, reflecting ongoing tensions between the Russian state and the various ethnic groups in the region.^[118] Activists continue to push for broader recognition of their rights, cultural heritage, and historical injustices, highlighting the complex interplay between history, identity, and politics in contemporary Caucasian society.^[119]^[120]

Sources

Potto, Vasily (1887). "Петровские походы" [Peter's campaign]. Кавказская война [Caucasian war] (in Russian). Vol. I: From ancient times to Ermolov. Типография Евдокимовой.
Egorshina, O.; Petrova, A. (2023). История русской армии [The history of the Russian Army] (in Russian). Moscow: Edition of the Russian Imperial Library. ISBN 978-5-699-42397-2.

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@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 | place             = [[North Caucasus]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Eurasia Overview |url=https://fas.org/irp/threat/terror_99/eurasia.html |website=Patterns of Global Terrorism: 1999 |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426043326/http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/terror_99/eurasia.html |archive-date=26 April 2009 |quote=Georgia also faced spillover violence from the Chechen conflict...}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gordon |first1=Michael R. |author-link1=Michael R. Gordon |title=Georgia Trying Anxiously to Stay Out of Chechen War |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/17/world/georgia-trying-anxiously-to-stay-out-of-chechen-war.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=17 November 1999}}</ref>
 | territory         = {{blist
-|Following the First and Second Russian-Tarkov Wars, Russia largely withdrew from the Caucasus for nearly 150 years {{nowrap|(1560-1572; 1589-1607)}}
+|Following the conflict with Kumyks, Russia largely withdrew from the Caucasus for nearly 150 years {{nowrap|(1560-1607)}}
 |After the [[Russo-Circassian War]] and [[Circassian genocide|genocide]], Circassians were expelled from the [[Kuban]] region, which was resettled by [[Russians]] and [[Cossacks]] {{nowrap|(1763–1878)}}
 |North Caucasian states incorporated into [[Russian Empire|Russia]] as the [[Terek Oblast]] after the [[Caucasian War]] {{nowrap|(1864–1917)}}
@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 | combatant1b       = {{ubl|''Including:''|[[File:Islamic State – Caucasus Province.svg |23px]] [[Islamic State – Caucasus Province]]|<small>(2015–Present)</small>|{{flagicon image|Flag of Caucasian Emirate.svg}} [[Caucasus Emirate]]|<small>(2007–2017)</small>|{{flag|Chechen Republic of Ichkeria}}|<small>(1991–2007)</small>| {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Confederation of Caucasian Mountain People.svg}} [[Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus]]|<small>(1989–2000)</small>| {{flagicon image |Nordkaukasien legion flag.svg}} [[North Caucasian and Mountain-Caucasian legions|North Caucasus National Committee]]|<small>(1940–1944)</small>|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1918–1925).svg}} [[Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Red Caucasians]]|<small>(1921–1924)</small>|{{flagicon image|Flag of North Caucasian Emirate.svg}} [[North Caucasian Emirate]]|<small>(1919-1920)</small>|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Mountain Republic.svg}} [[Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus|Mountain Republic]]|<small>(1917–1922)</small>|[[File:Flag of South Ossetia.svg |23px]] [[Ossetians]]|<small>(1817-1830)</small>|{{flagicon image|Thirdimamateflag.svg}} [[Caucasian Imamate]]|<small>(1828–1859; 1877-1878)</small>|[[File: Flag of Ingushetia.svg |23px]] [[Ingushetia]]|<small>(1817–1855)</small>|[[Dagestan]] nations|<small>(1800–1859)</small>|[[File: Sheikh Mansur flag.svg|23px]] [[Chechens|Chechen tribes]]|<small>(1791–1840; 1859-1861)</small>|{{flagicon image|Флаг Къарачая 1828г.jpg}} [[Karachays|Karachay]][[Balkars|-Balkars]]|<small>(1787–1834; 1855)</small>|[[File:Flag of the Sheikh Mansur Movement.png|23px]] [[Sheikh Mansur Movement]]|<small>(1785–1791)</small>|[[File:Flag of Abkhazia (c. 1770-1864).svg|23px]] [[Principality of Abkhazia]]|<small>(1778–1864)</small>|[[File:Proposed Naval Jack of the Republic of Abkhazia.svg |23px]] [[Abazinia]]|<small>(1778–1864)</small>|[[File:Flag of Circassia.svg|23px]] [[Circassia]]|<small>(1711-1864; 1877-1878)</small>|[[File:Banner of the Kabardian Union.svg|23px]] [[Kabardia|Grand Principality of Great Kabarda]]|<small>(1571–1825)</small>|[[File:Nogai flag.svg |23px]] [[Nogais]]|<small>(1569–1783)</small>|[[File: Flag of the Shamkhalate of Tarki.jpg|23px]] [[Shamkhalate of Tarki]]<small> (1556–1813; 1823; 1831; 1843)</small>}}
 The '''Russo-Caucasian Conflict''' is a centuries-long struggle between the [[Russia|Russian state]] and the [[Ethnic groups in the Caucasus|indigenous peoples of]] [[Caucasus|the Caucasus]], stretching from the mid-16th century to the present. This enduring conflict includes numerous wars, uprisings, and insurgencies, fueled by Russia’s attempts to assert dominance over the Caucasus and the persistent resistance of its diverse ethnic groups. Key episodes in this history include the [[Russo-Circassian War]], [[Caucasian War|Caucasian war]], multiple genocides, mass deportations, and a continuing [[Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus|modern insurgency]] in parts of the North Caucasus. The conflict has profoundly shaped the region’s culture, identity, and ongoing quest for autonomy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The North Caucasus Conflict and its Implications for Russia {{!}} Wilson Center |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-north-caucasus-conflict-and-its-implications-for-russia |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=www.wilsoncenter.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Redactie |date=2024-08-14 |title=Why the violence in the North Caucasus should worry Russia |url=https://platformraam.nl/artikelen/2652-why-the-violence-in-the-north-caucasus-should-worry-russia |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=RAAM |language=nl-nl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date= |title=Did You Know...Russia's North Caucasus {{!}} USCIRF |url=https://www.uscirf.gov/publications/did-you-knowrussias-north-caucasus |access-date= |website=www.uscirf.gov |language=en}}</ref>
 | combatant2        = {{ubl|{{flag|Russian Federation}}|{{small|(1991–Present)}} }}
 | combatant2b       = {{ubl|''Preceded by:''|{{flag|Soviet Union}} |<small>(1922–1991)</small>|{{flag|Soviet Russia}}|<small>(1917–1922)</small>|{{flagicon|Russia|navy}}{{flagicon|Russia}} [[White Movement]]|<small>(1917–1920)</small>|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Romanov Monarchy.svg}}{{flag|Russian Empire}}|<small>(1721–1917)</small>|{{flagicon image |Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]] <small>(1547–1721)</small>}}
-| result            = Ongoing
+| result            = [[List of ongoing armed conflicts|Ongoing]]
 *Several wars between Russian and Caucasian forces resulted in:
-**Russian victory (1723, 1783, 1791, 1825, 1830, 1834, 1843, 1859, 1861, 1864, 1878, 1921, 1930, 1944)
+**Russian victory (1560, 1591, 1708, 1722, 1723, 1758, 1783, 1791, 1825, 1830, 1834, 1843, 1859, 1861, 1864, 1878, 1921, 1944)
-**Caucasian victory (1571, 1572, 1607, 1650, 1711, 1996)
+**Caucasian victory (1571, 1594, 1607, 1650, 1996)
 **Russian victory (2009)
 ** [[Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus|Islamic State Insurgency]]
+}}
-} The '''Russo-Caucasian conflict''' [[was a protracted ethnic and political struggle between various [[Ethnic groups in the Caucasus|North Caucasian peoples]] and [[Russians|Russian]], [[Soviet Union|Soviet]], and [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russian]] authorities. This conflict dates back to the 16th century, as Russian forces sought to expand southward. Various Caucasian groups, including [[Abazins]], [[Abkhazians]], [[Circassians]], [[Chechens]], [[Ingush people|Ingush]], [[Karachays|Karachay]][[Balkars|-Balkars]], [[Ossetians]] and [[Dagestan|Dagestanis]] (various Dagestani nations), resisted Russian control through both armed and diplomatic means. The conflict’s modern phase intensified following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union’s collapse]] in 1991, with separatist aspirations and resistance movements that continued to face suppression into the 21st century.}
+The [[Russo-Caucasian conflict]] is a protracted ethnic and political struggle between various [[Ethnic groups in the Caucasus|North Caucasian peoples]] and [[Russians|Russian]], [[Soviet Union|Soviet]], and [[Russian Empire|Imperial Russian]] authorities. This conflict dates back to the 16th century, as Russian forces sought to expand southward. Various Caucasian groups, including [[Abazins]], [[Abkhazians]], [[Circassians]], [[Chechens]], [[Ingush people|Ingush]], [[Karachays|Karachay]][[Balkars|-Balkars]], [[Ossetians]] and [[Dagestan|Dagestanis]] (various Dagestani nations), resisted Russian control through both armed and diplomatic means. The conflict’s modern phase intensified following the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union’s collapse]] in 1991, with separatist aspirations and resistance movements that continued to face suppression into the 21st century.
 == Background ==
 ===Geopolitical Significance===
@@ Line 41: / Line 41: @@
 ===Russian-Kumyk Wars and Initial Encounters===
-The origins of the Russo-Caucasian conflict can be traced back to the 16th century, coinciding with the [[Russian Empire|Russian Empire’s]] expansion into the [[Caucasus|Caucasus region]].<ref>Essays on the history of the northern Kumyks / Yu. M. Idrisov. — Makhachkala: Lotus, 2014</ref> The [[Kumyks]], a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic people]] residing in [[Dagestan]],<ref>Kusheva E. N. Peoples of the North Caucasus and their connections with Russia (second half of the 16th - 30s of the 17th century) / Approved by the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences. - M.: Publishing house. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - P. 237-238. — 1500 copies.</ref> were among the first to mount organized resistance against Russian encroachment,<ref>Kusheva E. N. Peoples of the North Caucasus and their connections with Russia (second half of the 16th - 30s of the 17th century) / Approved by the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences. - M.: Publishing house. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - P. 237-238. — 1500 copies.</ref> engaging in the [[Russian–Kumyk Wars|Russian-Kumyk Wars]] throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>Essays on the history of the northern Kumyks / Yu. M. Idrisov. — Makhachkala: Lotus, 2014</ref> Their opposition not only laid the groundwork for broader alliances among various Caucasian groups but also set a precedent for the multi-ethnic resistance movements that would characterize subsequent conflicts.<ref>Shishov A.V. Chapter 1. The Caucasus among the Islamic world. Rapprochement with Russia // Scramble for the Caucasus of the 16th-21st centuries / Ch. ed. S. N. Dmitriev. - M.: Veche, 2007. - P. 16-17. — 480 s. — (Military secrets of Russia)</ref><ref>Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. Book two = History of Russia from ancient times. — 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Partnership “Public Benefit”, 1851-1879. - T. 6-10. - pp. 627-628, 640. - 1726 p. — [[Special:BookSources/9660310501|ISBN 966-03-1050-1]]</ref><ref>Essays on the history of the northern Kumyks / Yu. M. Idrisov. — Makhachkala: Lotus, 2014</ref>[[File:Tarki.jpg|thumb|capital of Tarki]]
+The origins of the Russo-Caucasian conflict can be traced back to the 16th century, coinciding with the [[Russian Empire|Russian Empire’s]] expansion into the [[Caucasus|Caucasus region]].<ref>Essays on the history of the northern Kumyks / Yu. M. Idrisov. — Makhachkala: Lotus, 2014</ref> The [[Kumyks]], a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic people]] residing in [[Dagestan]],<ref>Kusheva E. N. Peoples of the North Caucasus and their connections with Russia (second half of the 16th - 30s of the 17th century) / Approved by the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences. - M.: Publishing house. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - P. 237-238. — 1500 copies.</ref> were among the first to mount organized resistance against Russian encroachment,<ref>Kusheva E. N. Peoples of the North Caucasus and their connections with Russia (second half of the 16th - 30s of the 17th century) / Approved by the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences. - M.: Publishing house. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1963. - P. 237-238. — 1500 copies.</ref> engaging in the [[Russian–Kumyk Wars|Russian-Kumyk Wars]] throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref>Essays on the history of the northern Kumyks / Yu. M. Idrisov. — Makhachkala: Lotus, 2014</ref> Their opposition not only laid the groundwork for broader alliances among various Caucasian groups but also set a precedent for the multi-ethnic resistance movements that would characterize subsequent conflicts.<ref>Shishov A.V. Chapter 1. The Caucasus among the Islamic world. Rapprochement with Russia // Scramble for the Caucasus of the 16th-21st centuries / Ch. ed. S. N. Dmitriev. - M.: Veche, 2007. - P. 16-17. — 480 s. — (Military secrets of Russia)</ref><ref>Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. Book two = History of Russia from ancient times. — 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Partnership “Public Benefit”, 1851-1879. - T. 6-10. - pp. 627-628, 640. - 1726 p. — [[Special:BookSources/9660310501|ISBN 966-03-1050-1]]</ref><ref>Essays on the history of the northern Kumyks / Yu. M. Idrisov. — Makhachkala: Lotus, 2014</ref>[[File:Tarki.jpg|thumb|Capital of Tarki]]
 Russian expansion into the Caucasus began under [[Ivan the Terrible]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bronevsky |first=S.N. |title=''Historical summary on Russia's relations with Persia, Georgia and with the mountain peoples of the Caucasus'' |url=http://www.vostlit.info/Texts/rus9/Bronevskij/frametext1.htm |access-date=2021-09-09 |website=Vostlit}}</ref> who initially sought to establish ties with the [[Kabardians]].<ref>Kabardino-Russian relations in the XVI-XVII centuries. - M., 1957. T.1. P.304</ref> His marriage to [[Maria Temryukovna]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=''Domestic and foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible.'' |url=http://bibliotekar.ru/karamzin/70.htm |access-date=2021-09-09 |website=Bibliotekar}}</ref> a Kabardian noblewoman, temporarily aligned Kabardia with Russian interests.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Demidova |first=N.F. |title=Temruk Idarovich |url=http://www.hrono.info/biograf/bio_t/temryuk.php |access-date=2021-09-09 |website=Hrono}}</ref> However, following her death, the relationship soured, leading the Kabardians,<ref name=":0" /> along with the [[Kumyks]] and [[Nogais|Nogays]], to launch raids against Russian forces.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Penskoy |first1=V. V. |url=https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/yaz-dei-deda-svoego-i-pradeda-nyne-zdelal-lutchi-pohod-devlet-gireya-i-i-sozhzhenie-moskvy-v-mae-1571-g/viewer |title="Яз деи деда своего и прадеда ныне зделал лутчи…": Поход Девлет-Гирея I и сожжение Москвы в мае 1571 г. |last2=Penskaya |first2=T. M. |publisher=History of military affairs: studies and sources |year=2013 |volume=4 |language=ru |trans-title=The campaign of Devlet-Giray I and the burning of Moscow in May 1571 |issn=2308-4286}}</ref> This growing resistance culminated in 1571, when [[Devlet I Giray|Devlet Giray]], the Crimean Tatar khan, allied with the Nogays to execute a devastating [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|raid on Moscow]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Kondratiev |first=Sergey Yurievich |author-link= |title=Sedaya starina Moskvy [The hoary antiquity of Moscow] |year=1996 |isbn=5-239-01340-3 |language=ru}}</ref> highlighting the challenges faced by Russia in securing its southern frontier.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zimin |first=Aleksandr |author-link=Aleksandr Zimin |title=Oprichnina |year=2001 |isbn=5-900829-07-3 |language=ru}}</ref>
-The conflict began to intensify around 1556, when Russia captured [[Astrakhan]], extending its reach into the North Caucasus and bringing it into direct contact with the Kumyks.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 1909 |title=The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus By: John F. Baddeley (London and New York: Longmans, Green and Company. 1908. Pp. xxxviii, 518.) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |journal=The American Historical Review |doi=10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |issn=1937-5239}}</ref> This conquest disrupted Kumyk trade routes and further heightened tensions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Treadgold |first=Donald W. |date=1993-01-01 |title=James Forsyth. A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony, 1581-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187633193x00234 |journal=Russian History |volume= |issue= |pages=279–281 |doi= 10.1163/187633193x00234|issn=}}</ref> Throughout the late 16th century, these conflicts continued sporadically, laying the groundwork for the larger Russo-Caucasian conflicts that would unfold in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shavlоkhova |first=E. S. |date=2016-10-10 |title=Historical background of completing the joining the North Caucasus to Russia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.20534/esr-16-7.8-18-19 |journal=European Science Review |pages=18–19 |doi= 10.20534/esr-16-7.8-18-19|issn=}}</ref> The Kumyks' resistance and collaboration with other local groups foreshadowed the volatility of the region and the protracted conflicts that were to follow, as diverse Caucasian peoples united against Russian expansionist policies.<ref>Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. Book two = History of Russia from ancient times. — 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Partnership “Public Benefit”, 1851-1879. - T. 6-10. - pp. 627-628, 640. - 1726 p. — [[Special:BookSources/9660310501|ISBN 966-03-1050-1]]</ref>[[File:Facial_Chronicle_-_b.22,_p._202.gif|thumb|Miniature of the Illustrated Chronicle, 16th century]]
+The conflict began to intensify around 1556, when Russia captured [[Astrakhan]], extending its reach into the North Caucasus and bringing it into direct contact with the Kumyks.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 1909 |title=The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus By: John F. Baddeley (London and New York: Longmans, Green and Company. 1908. Pp. xxxviii, 518.) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |journal=The American Historical Review |doi=10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |issn=1937-5239}}</ref> This conquest disrupted Kumyk trade routes and further heightened tensions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Treadgold |first=Donald W. |date=1993-01-01 |title=James Forsyth. A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony, 1581-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187633193x00234 |journal=Russian History |volume= |issue= |pages=279–281 |doi= 10.1163/187633193x00234|doi-broken-date=2024-11-13 |issn=}}</ref> Throughout the late 16th century, these conflicts continued sporadically, laying the groundwork for the larger Russo-Caucasian conflicts that would unfold in the 18th and 19th centuries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shavlоkhova |first=E. S. |date=2016-10-10 |title=Historical background of completing the joining the North Caucasus to Russia |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.20534/esr-16-7.8-18-19 |journal=European Science Review |pages=18–19 |doi= 10.20534/esr-16-7.8-18-19|issn=}}</ref> The Kumyks' resistance and collaboration with other local groups foreshadowed the volatility of the region and the protracted conflicts that were to follow, as diverse Caucasian peoples united against Russian expansionist policies.<ref>Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. Book two = History of Russia from ancient times. — 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Partnership “Public Benefit”, 1851-1879. - T. 6-10. - pp. 627-628, 640. - 1726 p. — [[Special:BookSources/9660310501|ISBN 966-03-1050-1]]</ref>[[File:Facial_Chronicle_-_b.22,_p._202.gif|thumb|left|Miniature of the [[Illustrated Chronicle of Ivan the Terrible|Illustrated Chronicle]]]]
+The main conflicts began in 1560, when the Russians plundered the capital of the Kumyks, the city of [[Tarki]]. Soon, under [[Russo-Turkish War (1568-1570)|pressure from the Crimeans]], the Russians were forced to retreat. In 1591, the campaign was repeated, as a result of the campaign, the Kumyk tsar was wounded, and Georgia promised to become a Russian citizen. Further attempts at expansion were unsuccessful, in 1594 the Kumyks repelled the campaign, and in 1607 almost [[Schevkal campaign|completely exterminated]] the invading forces.{{sfn|Egorshina|Petrova|2023|p=475}}{{sfn|Potto|1887|p=9}}
 == History ==
 ===Early Wars and Peter the Great’s Expansion===
-In the early 18th century, [[Peter the Great|Tsar Peter the Great]] embarked on a series of campaigns to extend Russia’s reach into the Caucasus, marking the start of consistent Russian interventions in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 1909 |title=&lt;italic&gt;The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus&lt;/italic&gt;. By &lt;sc&gt;John F. Baddeley&lt;/sc&gt;. (London and New York: Longmans, Green and Company. 1908. Pp. xxxviii, 518.) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |journal=The American Historical Review |doi=10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |issn=1937-5239}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sysyn |first1=Frank E. |last2=Kohut |first2=Zenon |date= |title=Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy: Imperial Absorption of the Hetmanate, 1760s-1830s |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/130885 |journal=Russian Review |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=120 |doi= 10.2307/130885|jstor=130885 |issn=0036-0341}}</ref> His first significant attempt was in 1711 during the [[Pruth River Campaign]], where Russian forces briefly advanced into Circassian territories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Chechnia |date=2013-11-05 |work=Muslim Resistance to the Tsar |pages=137–145 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315039909-27 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315039909-27 |isbn=978-1-315-03990-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jersild |first=Austin |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780773569966 |title=Orientalism and Empire |date=2002-03-12 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |doi=10.1515/9780773569966 |isbn=978-0-7735-6996-6}}</ref> However, this campaign ended in defeat, forcing Peter to abandon his immediate ambitions for the Caucasus and withdraw under the terms of the [[Treaty of the Pruth]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dunlop |first=John B. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511612077 |title=Russia Confronts Chechnya |date=1998-09-28 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511612077 |isbn=978-0-521-63184-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Treadgold |first=Donald W. |date=1993-01-01 |title=James Forsyth. A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony, 1581-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. xx, 455 pp. $79.95. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187633193x00234 |journal=Russian History |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=279–281 |doi=10.1163/187633193x00234 |issn=0094-288X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kalshoven |first1=Frits |title=Constraints on the waging of war: an introduction to international humanitarian law |last2=Zegveld |first2=Liesbeth |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |isbn=978-1-107-60032-4 |edition=4 |location=Cambridge}}</ref>
+In the early 18th century, [[Peter the Great|Tsar Peter the Great]] embarked on a series of campaigns to extend Russia’s reach into the Caucasus, marking the start of consistent Russian interventions in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=April 1909 |title=&lt;italic&gt;The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus&lt;/italic&gt;. By &lt;sc&gt;John F. Baddeley&lt;/sc&gt;. (London and New York: Longmans, Green and Company. 1908. Pp. xxxviii, 518.) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |journal=The American Historical Review |doi=10.1086/ahr/14.3.583 |issn=1937-5239}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sysyn |first1=Frank E. |last2=Kohut |first2=Zenon |date= |title=Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy: Imperial Absorption of the Hetmanate, 1760s-1830s |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/130885 |journal=Russian Review |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=120 |doi= 10.2307/130885|jstor=130885 |issn=0036-0341}}</ref> His first significant attempt was in 1711 during the [[Pruth River Campaign]], where Russian forces briefly advanced into Circassian territories.<ref>{{Citation |title=Chechnia |date=2013-11-05 |work=Muslim Resistance to the Tsar |pages=137–145 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315039909-27 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315039909-27 |isbn=978-1-315-03990-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jersild |first=Austin |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9780773569966 |title=Orientalism and Empire |date=2002-03-12 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |doi=10.1515/9780773569966 |isbn=978-0-7735-6996-6}}</ref> During the campaign, Tatar and Circassian farms suffered greatly. When trying to catch up with the invaders, the Circassians were defeated on the Chany River. The Russians were unable to consolidate their successes and were forced to withdraw troops under [[Treaty of the Pruth]].{{sfn|Potto|1887|pp=18-19}}
 A decade later, Peter renewed his focus on the region with the [[Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)|Russo-Persian Campaign (1722–1723)]],<ref>Kurkin, Igor (2010).  <bdi>Персидский поход Петра Великого</bdi> [''Persian campaign of the Peter the Great''] (in Russian). Moscow: Квадрига. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-5-91791-046-8|<bdi>978-5-91791-046-8</bdi>]]</ref> aiming primarily at [[Dagestan]] and [[Azerbaijan]].<ref>[[Michael Axworthy|Axworthy, Michael]] (2010). ''The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant''. I.B. Tauris. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0857721938|<bdi>978-0857721938</bdi>]]</ref> Although Circassia was not the main target of this campaign, it marked a turning point for Russian strategy in the Caucasus and set the stage for future conflicts.<ref>Dunlop, John B. (1998), ''Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict'', [[Cambridge, England|Cambridge]]: Cambridge University Press, [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0521636191|<bdi>0521636191</bdi>]]</ref> By this time, Circassian resistance to Russian expansion along the [[Black Sea]] coast had also begun to intensify,<ref>Atkin, Muriel (1980). ''Russia and Iran, 1780–1828''. U of Minnesota Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0816656974|<bdi>978-0816656974</bdi>]]</ref> foreshadowing the larger [[Russo-Circassian War]] that would erupt later in the 18th century. This era of Russian campaigns laid the groundwork for a prolonged struggle over the Caucasus,<ref>''Bruce P. H.'' Memoirs of Peter Henry Bruce, esq., a military officer in the services of Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain: Containing an account of his travels in Germany, Russia, Tartary, Turkey, the West-Indies… London, 1782.</ref> initiating tensions that would eventually culminate in over a century of conflict.<ref>Wars and the population of the South of Russia in the 18th – early 21st centuries. Demographic processes and consequences. (2021). Russia: liters. P.292</ref>[[File:Roubaud-Peter-in-Tarki.jpg|thumb|Peter I in Tarki, the capital of Tarki Shamkhalate; by [[Franz Roubaud]]]]
@@ Line 56: / Line 57: @@
 The [[Russo-Circassian War]] was a protracted struggle between the [[Russian Empire]] and the [[Circassians|Circassian people]] of the North Caucasus, lasting from 1763 to 1864.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Circassians |url=http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/540/handouts/ussr/circass.htm |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=ccat.sas.upenn.edu}}</ref> As part of Russia’s broader campaign to control the Caucasus region, this war saw Circassian resistance characterized by guerrilla tactics and strategic use of mountainous terrain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=HIST 493/593 |url=https://people.sabanciuniv.edu/adanir/courses/hist593.html |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=people.sabanciuniv.edu}}</ref> The Circassians, who received limited support from the [[Ottoman Empire]],<ref>Köremezli İbrahim. 2004. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080528095914/http://www.circassianworld.com/Russo-Circassian-War.pdf The Place of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Circassian War (1830–1864).] Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey.</ref> fought to preserve their homeland and autonomy. By the war’s end, Russian forces killed and forcibly displaced large portions of the Circassian population, killing and expelling an estimated 1 million to 2 million people to the Ottoman Empire.<ref>[[Mark Levene|Levene, Mark]] (2005). "6: Declining Powers". ''Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State''. Vol. II: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010. p. 301. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/1-84511-057-9|<bdi>1-84511-057-9</bdi>]]. <q>anything between 1 and 1.5 million Circassians perished either directly, or indirectly, as a result of the Russian military campaign</q></ref> Many perished from starvation, disease, and harsh travel conditions in what is now widely known as the [[Circassian genocide|Circassian Genocide]]. [[Parliament of Georgia|Georgia’s Parliament]] formally recognized this genocide in 2011,<ref>Eurasianet, [https://eurasianet.org/georgia-recognizes-circassian-genocide Georgia Recognizes Circassian Genocide]</ref> and Circassian activists continue to seek broader international recognition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=itekushev |date=2017-05-21 |title=Черкесы демонстрируют небывалый |url=https://caucasustimes.com/ru/cherkesy-demonstrirujut-nebyvalyj-nacionalnyj-podem/ |access-date=2024-10-29 |website=Caucasus Times |language=ru-RU}}</ref>
-[[File:Circassian_genocide_map.jpg|thumb|map of Circassians, Abazgians and Ubykhs before and after the Circassian Genocide]]
+[[File:Circassian_genocide_map.jpg|thumb|Map of Circassians, Abazgians and Ubykhs before and after the Circassian Genocide]]
 ===Sheikh Mansur’s Movement (1785–1791)===
-In 1785, [[Sheikh Mansur]],<ref>Askerov, Ali (2015). ''Historical Dictionary of the Chechen Conflict''. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3.</ref> a Chechen muslim leader, organized one of the first large-scale North Caucasian resistances against Russian expansion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-11 |title=The story of Sheik Mansur and other myths of the Caucases - Comics Ac… |url=https://archive.ph/20140211121850/http://www.politicalcomics.info/ebook/the-story-of-sheik-mansur-and-other-myths-of-the-caucases// |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=archive.ph}}</ref> Inspired by Islamic teachings, Mansur’s vision united fighters across the Caucasus, emphasizing cultural and religious independence. Though ultimately [[Siege of Anapa (1791)|defeated and captured in 1791]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gammer |first=Moshe |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003572794 |title=Muslim Resistance To The Tsar |date=2024-10-02 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-57279-4 |location=London|doi=10.4324/9781003572794 }}</ref> Mansur’s movement laid the foundation for later resistance efforts and inspired future leaders. He remains a symbol of defiance against Russian dominance, and his call for a united Caucasian front set the stage for subsequent, religiously motivated resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Шейх Мансур (fb2) {{!}} Флибуста |url=http://flibusta.site/b/382111/read |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=flibusta.site}}</ref>
+In 1785, [[Sheikh Mansur]],<ref>Askerov, Ali (2015). ''Historical Dictionary of the Chechen Conflict''. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3.</ref> a Chechen muslim leader, organized one of the first large-scale North Caucasian resistances against Russian expansion.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-11 |title=The story of Sheik Mansur and other myths of the Caucases - Comics Ac… |url=https://archive.today/20140211121850/http://www.politicalcomics.info/ebook/the-story-of-sheik-mansur-and-other-myths-of-the-caucases// |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=archive.ph}}</ref> Inspired by Islamic teachings, Mansur’s vision united fighters across the Caucasus, emphasizing cultural and religious independence. Though ultimately [[Siege of Anapa (1791)|defeated and captured in 1791]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gammer |first=Moshe |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003572794 |title=Muslim Resistance To The Tsar |date=2024-10-02 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-003-57279-4 |location=London|doi=10.4324/9781003572794 }}</ref> Mansur’s movement laid the foundation for later resistance efforts and inspired future leaders. He remains a symbol of defiance against Russian dominance, and his call for a united Caucasian front set the stage for subsequent, religiously motivated resistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Шейх Мансур (fb2) {{!}} Флибуста |url=http://flibusta.site/b/382111/read |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=flibusta.site}}</ref>
 [[File:Шейх_Мансур_(4).jpg|thumb|Sheikh Mansur‘s Portrait]]
@@ Line 71: / Line 72: @@
 The [[Russian Empire|collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917]] after the [[October Revolution|Bolshevik Revolution]] provided a brief opportunity for North Caucasian independence. In 1917, the [[Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus|Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus (MRNC)]] was declared,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hille |first=Charlotte Mathilde Louise |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxFP6K8iZzQC |title=State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus |date=2010 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-17901-1 |language=en}}</ref> encompassing regions inhabited by North Caucasian peoples. [[North Caucasian Emirate|The North Caucasian Emirate (NCE)]] followed shortly after,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coene |first=Frederik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XuMAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22North+Caucasian+Emirate%22&pg=PA133 |title=The Caucasus - An Introduction |date=2009-10-16 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-20302-3 |language=en}}</ref> grounded in Islamic governance. However, the newly formed [[Soviet Union]] quickly reasserted control, and by 1921, the [[Red Army]] had dismantled both republics. Though short-lived, the MRNC and NCE remain symbols of North Caucasian independence aspirations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Askhakov |first1=Marat |last2=Chebotarev |first2=Vyacheslav |last3=Lajpanov |first3=Islam |date=2013 |title=A new approach in the complex treatment of chronic infectious prostatitis |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.14300/mnnc.2013.08040 |journal=Medical News of the North Caucasus |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.14300/mnnc.2013.08040 |issn=2073-8137}}</ref>
-[[File:Mountainous_Republic_of_the_Northern_Caucasus.svg|thumb|map of MRNC]]
+[[File:Mountainous_Republic_of_the_Northern_Caucasus.svg|thumb|Map of MRNC]]
 ===Soviet Era and Deportations===
@@ Line 104: / Line 105: @@
 ===Resistance, Displacement, and the Deportation of Meskhetian Turks===
-As Russian policies intensified, local resistance grew, particularly as the empire’s control restricted traditional forms of self-governance. In Azerbaijan, local khanates initially resisted Russian encroachment but were ultimately annexed and incorporated into the empire. Tensions were further strained by Russian-led population movements that disrupted regional demographics. In 1944, under [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin’s]] orders, the [[Meskhetian Turks]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MEMMEDLI |first=Gülnara GOCA |date=2020-12-26 |title=Education History of Meskhetian (Ahiskaian) Turks: Tsarist Russia Period |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v14n1p108 |journal=International Education Studies |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=108 |doi=10.5539/ies.v14n1p108 |issn=1913-9039|doi-access=free }}</ref> a Muslim minority, were [[Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks|forcibly deported from Georgia]] to Central Asia due to alleged security concerns. Thousands suffered from harsh conditions, and the deportation left lasting divisions and grievances within the region.<ref>Aivazian, Aram. “The Impact of Russian Imperial Policies on the Local Governance in Azerbaijan.” ''Journal of Caucasian Studies'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015.</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Russian Conquest of the South Caucasus |work=Resettling the Borderlands |pages=16–42 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt21c4ttb.9 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=MQUP |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21c4ttb.9 |isbn=978-0-7735-5372-9}}</ref>
+As Russian policies intensified, local resistance grew, particularly as the empire’s control restricted traditional forms of self-governance. In Azerbaijan, local khanates initially resisted Russian encroachment but were ultimately annexed and incorporated into the empire. Tensions were further strained by Russian-led population movements that disrupted regional demographics. In 1944, under [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin’s]] orders, the [[Meskhetian Turks]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MEMMEDLI |first=Gülnara GOCA |date=2020-12-26 |title=Education History of Meskhetian (Ahiskaian) Turks: Tsarist Russia Period |journal=International Education Studies |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=108 |doi=10.5539/ies.v14n1p108 |issn=1913-9039|doi-access=free }}</ref> a Muslim minority, were [[Deportation of the Meskhetian Turks|forcibly deported from Georgia]] to Central Asia due to alleged security concerns. Thousands suffered from harsh conditions, and the deportation left lasting divisions and grievances within the region.<ref>Aivazian, Aram. “The Impact of Russian Imperial Policies on the Local Governance in Azerbaijan.” ''Journal of Caucasian Studies'', vol. 4, no. 1, 2015.</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Russian Conquest of the South Caucasus |work=Resettling the Borderlands |pages=16–42 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt21c4ttb.9 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=MQUP |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21c4ttb.9 |isbn=978-0-7735-5372-9}}</ref>
 [[File:Ahiska_Turk_woman_and_her_child.jpg|thumb|A deported Meskhetian Turk woman and her child in exile in Uzbek SSR]]
 ===Conflicts in Abkhazia and South Ossetia===
-Russian influence in the South Caucasus left a legacy of ethnic tensions, particularly in [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]]. These regions sought independence from Georgia following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, leading to the [[Abkhazia conflict|Abkhaz-Georgian]] and [[Georgian–Ossetian conflict|Ossetian-Georgian conflicts]] in the early 1990s. Russia’s involvement in these conflicts including direct support for separatist movements further destabilized the region and contributed to the fragmentation of Georgian territory. [[Russo-Georgian War|The 2008 Russo-Georgian War]] exacerbated these divisions, with [[Russia]] formally recognizing [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] as independent states, a move that has since strained [[Georgia–Russia relations|Georgian-Russian relations]] and maintained high levels of regional tension.<ref>{{Citation |title=Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, and Abkhazia |work=Understanding Ethnopolitical Conflict |date=8 July 2013 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137280237.0008 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |doi=10.1057/9781137280237.0008 |isbn=978-1-137-28023-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kakachia |first=Kornely |date=2023-11-10 |title=Energy Security Aftermath of Russo-Georgian War: Implications for South Caucasus |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.62343/cjss.2009.17 |journal=Caucasus Journal of Social Sciences |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.62343/cjss.2009.17 |issn=2960-9380}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Potier |first=Tim |title=History of the Conflicts in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia |date=2001-01-01 |work=Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia |pages=1–20 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004478169_005 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Brill {{!}} Nijhoff |doi=10.1163/9789004478169_005 |isbn=978-90-04-47816-9}}</ref>
+Russian influence in the South Caucasus left a legacy of ethnic tensions, particularly in [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]]. These regions sought independence from Georgia following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, leading to the [[Abkhazia conflict|Abkhaz-Georgian]] and [[Georgian–Ossetian conflict|Ossetian-Georgian conflicts]] in the early 1990s. Russia’s involvement in these conflicts including direct support for separatist movements further destabilized the region and contributed to the fragmentation of Georgian territory. [[Russo-Georgian War|The 2008 Russo-Georgian War]] exacerbated these divisions, with [[Russia]] formally recognizing [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] as independent states, a move that has since strained [[Georgia–Russia relations|Georgian-Russian relations]] and maintained high levels of regional tension.<ref>{{Citation |title=Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, and Abkhazia |work=Understanding Ethnopolitical Conflict |date=8 July 2013 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9781137280237.0008 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |doi=10.1057/9781137280237.0008 |doi-broken-date=2024-11-13 |isbn=978-1-137-28023-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kakachia |first=Kornely |date=2023-11-10 |title=Energy Security Aftermath of Russo-Georgian War: Implications for South Caucasus |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.62343/cjss.2009.17 |journal=Caucasus Journal of Social Sciences |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=37–48 |doi=10.62343/cjss.2009.17 |issn=2960-9380}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Potier |first=Tim |title=History of the Conflicts in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia |date=2001-01-01 |work=Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia |pages=1–20 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004478169_005 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Brill {{!}} Nijhoff |doi=10.1163/9789004478169_005 |isbn=978-90-04-47816-9}}</ref>
 [[File:Georgia-War-2008-08-11.jpg|thumb|Map of Georgia War in 2008]]
@@ Line 128: / Line 129: @@
 Clashes between ethnic Russians and North Caucasians frequently arise, both in urban settings and in the Caucasus region itself. These confrontations, fueled by underlying ethnic and social tensions, contribute to a cycle of distrust and resentment on both sides. Despite the formal integration of the North Caucasus into the Russian Federation, the region remains economically underdeveloped and socially volatile, with a high unemployment rate and limited access to resources compared to other parts of Russia.<ref>{{Citation |last=Chang |first=H. K. |title=North Caucasus: Russia's Southern Frontier |date=2023 |work=Mapping Civilizations Across Eurasia |pages=373–381 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7641-6_29 |access-date=2024-11-02 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Nature Singapore |doi=10.1007/978-981-99-7641-6_29 |isbn=978-981-99-7640-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Avdeev |first1=Evgenij |last2=Vorobev |first2=Sergej |date=2021 |title=Russian Civic Identity of Youth in the North Caucasus: The Main Challenges and Risks of Conflict |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu23.2021.106 |journal=Political Expertise: POLITEX |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=69–86 |doi=10.21638/spbu23.2021.106 |issn=1818-4499|hdl=11701/29125 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Achilov |first=Dilshod |date=2010-07-12 |title=Russia's Islamic Threat. By Gordon M. Hahn. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1755048310000222 |journal=Politics and Religion |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=410–413 |doi=10.1017/s1755048310000222 |issn=1755-0483}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kakışım |first=Can |date=2019-01-31 |title=Racism in Russia and ITS Effects on the Caucasian Region and Peoples |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.30626/tesamakademi.528002 |journal=TESAM Akademi Dergisi |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=97–121 |doi=10.30626/tesamakademi.528002 |issn=2148-2462}}</ref>
-The ongoing challenges in the North Caucasus are a testament to the enduring legacy of the Russo-Caucasian Conflict, where historical grievances, systemic repression, and modern geopolitical interests continue to shape the dynamics between Russia and the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus. These issues reflect the deep-seated impacts of a centuries-long conflict that has yet to find resolution in the current political landscape.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=POPOV |first=Maxim |date=2020-07-05 |title=North Caucasus: Promoting Conflict Resolution Strategy in an Unstable Region |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/csq.32.3 |journal=Conflict Studies Quarterly |issue=32 |pages=35–52 |doi=10.24193/csq.32.3 |issn=2285-7605|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Holland |first1=Edward C. |title=The decline and shifting geography of violence in Russia's North Caucasus, 2010-2016 |date=2020-05-21 |work=Political Geographies of the Post-Soviet Union |pages=152–180 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429281938-8 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-28193-8 |last2=Witmer |first2=Frank D.W. |last3=O’Loughlin |first3=John|doi=10.4324/9780429281938-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Avdeev |first1=Evgenii |last2=Vorobev |first2=Sergej |date=2023 |title=Socio-Cultural Bases of the North Caucasus Student Youth Identity: Risks of Conflict in Inter-Ethnic Relations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu23.2023.101 |journal=Political Expertise: POLITEX |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=4–21 |doi=10.21638/spbu23.2023.101 |issn=1818-4499|hdl=11701/41675 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=From Comrades to Outcasts: Caucasians in Modern Russia |url=https://ecpr.eu/Events/Event/PaperDetails/3778 |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=ecpr.eu}}</ref>
+The ongoing challenges in the North Caucasus are a testament to the enduring legacy of the Russo-Caucasian Conflict, where historical grievances, systemic repression, and modern geopolitical interests continue to shape the dynamics between Russia and the indigenous peoples of the Caucasus. These issues reflect the deep-seated impacts of a centuries-long conflict that has yet to find resolution in the current political landscape.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=POPOV |first=Maxim |date=2020-07-05 |title=North Caucasus: Promoting Conflict Resolution Strategy in an Unstable Region |journal=Conflict Studies Quarterly |issue=32 |pages=35–52 |doi=10.24193/csq.32.3 |issn=2285-7605|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Holland |first1=Edward C. |title=The decline and shifting geography of violence in Russia's North Caucasus, 2010-2016 |date=2020-05-21 |work=Political Geographies of the Post-Soviet Union |pages=152–180 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429281938-8 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-28193-8 |last2=Witmer |first2=Frank D.W. |last3=O’Loughlin |first3=John|doi=10.4324/9780429281938-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Avdeev |first1=Evgenii |last2=Vorobev |first2=Sergej |date=2023 |title=Socio-Cultural Bases of the North Caucasus Student Youth Identity: Risks of Conflict in Inter-Ethnic Relations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu23.2023.101 |journal=Political Expertise: POLITEX |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=4–21 |doi=10.21638/spbu23.2023.101 |issn=1818-4499|hdl=11701/41675 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=From Comrades to Outcasts: Caucasians in Modern Russia |url=https://ecpr.eu/Events/Event/PaperDetails/3778 |access-date=2024-11-02 |website=ecpr.eu}}</ref>
 ==Modern Recognition==
@@ Line 144: / Line 145: @@
 Modern recognition of these historical events has influenced current discussions on human rights, autonomy, and the rights of indigenous peoples in the North Caucasus. In Russia, however, governmental narratives often downplay or deny the historical grievances associated with the Russo-Caucasian Conflict, reflecting ongoing tensions between the Russian state and the various ethnic groups in the region.<ref>{{Citation |last=Shami |first=Seteney |title=Engendering Social Memory: Domestic Rituals, Resistance and Identity in the North Caucasus |date=2000-01-01 |work=Gender and Identity Construction |pages=305–331 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004492028_017 |access-date=2024-11-02 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/9789004492028_017 |isbn=978-90-04-49202-8}}</ref> Activists continue to push for broader recognition of their rights, cultural heritage, and historical injustices, highlighting the complex interplay between history, identity, and politics in contemporary Caucasian society.<ref>Aliev, A. (2015). “Cultural Heritage and Politics in the North Caucasus.” ''Journal of Cultural Studies''.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Catic |first=Maja |date=2015-11-26 |title=Circassians and the Politics of Genocide Recognition |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2015.1102202 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |language=en |volume=67 |issue=10 |pages=1685–1708 |doi=10.1080/09668136.2015.1102202 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref>
+==Sources==
+* {{cite book |last=Potto  |first=Vasily |author-link=Vasily Potto |lang=ru |script-title=ru:Кавказская война |trans-title=Caucasian war |chapter=Петровские походы |trans-chapter=Peter's campaign |volume=I: From ancient times to Ermolov   |date=1887 |publisher=Типография Евдокимовой |url=https://runivers.ru/lib/book4747/58703/ }}
+* {{cite book |last1=Egorshina |first1=O. |last2=Petrova |first2=A. |language=ru |script-title=ru:История русской армии |trans-title=The history of the Russian Army |location=Moscow |publisher=Edition of the Russian Imperial Library |date=2023 |isbn=978-5-699-42397-2}}
 == See also ==
@@ Line 182: / Line 186: @@
 [[Category:Wars involving the Circassians]]
 [[Category:Wars involving the Karachay-Balkars]]
-[[Category:Wars involving the Ingush]]
 [[Category:Civil wars in Russia]]
 [[Category:Violence against indigenous peoples]]
@@ Line 196: / Line 199: @@
 [[Category:Military history of Georgia (country)]]
 [[Category:Wars involving Ingushetia]]
-[[Category:Wars involving the Circassians]]
 [[Category:Wars involving the Russian Empire]]
 [[Category:Conflicts in 2017]]