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The Islamization of Egypt occurred after the seventh-century Muslim conquest, in which the Islamic Rashidun Caliphate seized control of Egypt from the Christian dominated Byzantine Empire. Egypt and other conquered territories in the Middle East gradually underwent a large-scale conversion from Christianity to Islam, motivated in part by a jizya tax for those who refused to convert.^[1] Islam became the faith of the majority of the population at some point between the 10th and 12th centuries, and Arabic became the main language, replacing Coptic and Greek, which had previously served as the vernacular and governmental languages, respectively.^[2]

History

In the mid 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate successfully conquered Egypt from the Byzantine Empire. This ended seven centuries of mostly uninterrupted Roman rule over Egypt.^{[note 1]} However, local resistance by the Egyptians occurred during the Umayyad Caliphate that lasted until at least the ninth century.^[3]^[4]^[5]

One contributing factor to this resistance was taxation. Under the Rashidun Caliphate and its successors, non-Muslims were required to pay a special tax called jizya and were given status as dhimmis. The taxation was argued as being justified as local Christians were never drafted to serve in the army.^[6]

This resistance escalated to armed rebellions against the Umayyads and Abbasids in a number of instances, such as during the Bashmurian revolts in the Nile Delta.^[7]

Religious life remained largely undisturbed following the establishment of Arab rule, as evidence by the rich output of Coptic Orthodox Christian arts in monastic centers in Old Cairo (Fustat) and throughout Egypt. Conditions, however, worsened shortly after that, and in the eighth and ninth centuries when Muslim rulers banned the use of human forms in art (taking advantage of an iconoclastic conflict in the European-ruled Byzantium) and consequently destroyed many Coptic Christian paintings mainly of Jesus and frescoes in churches.^[8]

Under the Fatimid Caliphate, Egypt experienced a period of relative tolerance. The Fatimid rulers employed Copts in the government and participated in Coptic and local Egyptian feasts. Major renovation and reconstruction of churches and monasteries were also undertaken. Coptic arts flourished, reaching new heights in Middle and Upper Egypt.^[8] Despite this, by this time, Coptic Christians had lost their majority status,^[2]^[9] as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches^[10] and forced conversions to Islam.^[11]^[12]^[13]^[14]

However, the subsequent Mamluk Sultanate returned to previous practices of levying jizya and forcing conversions.^[10]^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[1] The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the Burji regime.^[19] There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Copts and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship during intercommunal clashes.^[20]

As a result of popular pressure, Copts had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion.^[20]

Coptic bureaucrats were often restored to their positions after tensions passed. Many Copts were forced to convert to Islam or at least adopted outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment and avoid the jizya and official measures against them.^[21] A large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam occurred in the 14th century,^[21]^[22]^[20]^[23]^[21] as a result of persecution, destruction of churches,^[20]^[24]^[25] and to retain employment.^[21] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1.^[20]

According to the medieval Egyptian historian Al-Maqrizi, soon afterwards in "all the provinces of Egypt, both north and south, no church remained that had not been razed.... Thus did Islam spread among the Christians of Egypt."^[26]

Notes

^ The Sasanian Empire, which generally followed Zoroastrianism, held Egypt for around a decade in the early 7th century.

References

^ ^a ^b Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Forcing taxes on those who refuse to convert (PDF), ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"
^ ^a ^b Clive Holes, Modern Arabic: structures, functions, and varieties, Georgetown University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-1-58901-022-2, M1 Google Print, p. 29.
^ Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar (2 vols., Bulaq, 1854), by Al-Maqrizi
^ Chronicles, by John of Nikiû
^ Marina Rustow (3 October 2014). Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate. Cornell University Press. pp. 219–. ISBN 978-0-8014-5529-2.
^ Ahmed, Ziauddin; Ahmad, Ziauddin (1985). "Jizyah and Kharāj in Early Islamic Egypt". Islamic Studies. 24 (3): 377–387. ISSN 0578-8072. JSTOR 20839731.
^ Feder 2017, pp. 33–35.
^ ^a ^b Kamil 1990, p. 41.
^ Shea, Nina (June 2017). "Do Copts have a future in Egypt". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 2017-06-20.
^ ^a ^b Etheredge 2011, p. 161.
^ N. Swanson, Mark (2010). The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517). American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 54. ISBN 9789774160936.
^ Michael Bonner (2006). Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691125740.
^ N. Swanson, Mark (2010). The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517). American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 54. ISBN 9789774160936. By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...
^ ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.
^ Katō, Hiroshi (2011). Islam in the Middle Eastern Studies: Muslims and Minorities. University of California Press. p. 133. ISBN 9784901838023. The Mamluk era, in which many Dhimmīs were forced to convert to Islam, was a time of great turbulence in society.
^ Naiem, Girgis (2018). Egypt's Identities in Conflict: The Political and Religious Landscape of Copts and Muslims. McFarland. p. 69. ISBN 9781476671208.
^ Morgan, Robert (2016). History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt. FriesenPress. p. 342. ISBN 9781460280270.
^ Documentation Center, Middle East (2006). Mamlūk Studies Review. University of Chicago. p. 73. ISBN 9781460280270.
^ Teule 2013, p. 10.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Etheredge 2011, p. 16.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Stilt 2011, p. 120.
^ Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Egypt : Copts of Egypt". Refworld. Retrieved 2020-06-15.
^ Goddard, Hugh (2000). A History of Christian–Muslim Relations. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 1566633400.
^ Little, Donald P. (1976). "Coptic Conversion to Islam under the Baḥrī Mamlūks, 692-755/1293-1354". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 39 (3): 552–569. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00051004. JSTOR 614714. S2CID 170719417.
^ Coptic Conversion to Islam Under the Mahri Mamlūks, 692–755/1293–1354. p. 568. JSTOR 614714.
^ Coptic Conversion to Islam Under the Mahri Mamlūks, 692–755/1293–1354. p. 568. JSTOR 614714.

Sources

Betts, Robert B. (1978). Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study (2nd rev. ed.). Athens: Lycabettus Press. ISBN 978-0-8042-0796-6.
Etheredge, Laura S., ed. (2011). Middle East, Region in Transition: Egypt. Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 9781615303922.
Feder, Frank (2017). "The Bashmurite Revolts in the Delta and the 'Bashmuric Dialect'". In Gawdat Gabra; Hany N. Takla (eds.). Christianity and Monasticism in Northern Egypt: Beni Suef, Giza, Cairo, and the Nile Delta. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 33–36.
Charles, Robert H. (2007) [1916]. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9.
Teule, Herman G. B. (2013). "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350–1516". In Thomas, David; Mallett, Alex (eds.). Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350–1500). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-25278-3.
Kamil, Jill (1990). Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide (Revised ed.). American University in Cairo Press.
Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. The Church in history. Vol. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-056-3.
Stilt, Kristen (2011). Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960243-8.
Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

[3] The Sasanian Empire, which generally followed Zoroastrianism, held Egypt for around a decade in the early 7th century.

[auto1-1] Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Forcing taxes on those who refuse to convert (PDF), ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"

[Copts-2] Clive Holes, Modern Arabic: structures, functions, and varieties, Georgetown University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-1-58901-022-2, M1 Google Print, p. 29.

[4] Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar (2 vols., Bulaq, 1854), by Al-Maqrizi

[5] Chronicles, by John of Nikiû

[6] Marina Rustow (3 October 2014). Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate. Cornell University Press. pp. 219–. ISBN 978-0-8014-5529-2.

[7] Ahmed, Ziauddin; Ahmad, Ziauddin (1985). "Jizyah and Kharāj in Early Islamic Egypt". Islamic Studies. 24 (3): 377–387. ISSN 0578-8072. JSTOR 20839731.

[FOOTNOTEFeder201733–35-8] Feder 2017, pp. 33–35.

[FOOTNOTEKamil199041-9] Kamil 1990, p. 41.

[FA-10] Shea, Nina (June 2017). "Do Copts have a future in Egypt". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 2017-06-20.

[FOOTNOTEEtheredge2011161-11] Etheredge 2011, p. 161.

[12] N. Swanson, Mark (2010). The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517). American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 54. ISBN 9789774160936.

[13] Michael Bonner (2006). Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691125740.

[14] N. Swanson, Mark (2010). The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517). American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 54. ISBN 9789774160936. By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...

[15] -Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.

[16] Katō, Hiroshi (2011). Islam in the Middle Eastern Studies: Muslims and Minorities. University of California Press. p. 133. ISBN 9784901838023. The Mamluk era, in which many Dhimmīs were forced to convert to Islam, was a time of great turbulence in society.

[17] Naiem, Girgis (2018). Egypt's Identities in Conflict: The Political and Religious Landscape of Copts and Muslims. McFarland. p. 69. ISBN 9781476671208.

[18] Morgan, Robert (2016). History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt. FriesenPress. p. 342. ISBN 9781460280270.

[19] Documentation Center, Middle East (2006). Mamlūk Studies Review. University of Chicago. p. 73. ISBN 9781460280270.

[FOOTNOTETeule201310-20] Teule 2013, p. 10.

[FOOTNOTEEtheredge201116-21] Etheredge 2011, p. 16.

[FOOTNOTEStilt2011120-22] Stilt 2011, p. 120.

[23] Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Egypt : Copts of Egypt". Refworld. Retrieved 2020-06-15.

[24] Goddard, Hugh (2000). A History of Christian–Muslim Relations. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 1566633400.

[25] Little, Donald P. (1976). "Coptic Conversion to Islam under the Baḥrī Mamlūks, 692-755/1293-1354". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 39 (3): 552–569. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00051004. JSTOR 614714. S2CID 170719417.

[26] Coptic Conversion to Islam Under the Mahri Mamlūks, 692–755/1293–1354. p. 568. JSTOR 614714.

[27] Coptic Conversion to Islam Under the Mahri Mamlūks, 692–755/1293–1354. p. 568. JSTOR 614714.

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+{{Short description|Spread of Islam after the Arab conquests}}{{History of Egypt}}The '''Islamization of [[Egypt]]''' occurred after the seventh-century [[Arab conquest of Egypt|Muslim conquest]], in which the Islamic [[Rashidun Caliphate]] seized control of Egypt from the Christian dominated [[Byzantine Empire]]. Egypt and other conquered territories in the Middle East gradually underwent a large-scale [[Religious conversion|conversion]] from [[Christianity]] to [[Islam]], motivated in part by a [[jizya]] tax for those who refused to convert.<ref name="auto1">{{Citation|title=Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Forcing taxes on those who refuse to convert|url=https://www.medievalworlds.net/0xc1aa5576%200x00372f27.pdf|quote= ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"}}</ref> Islam became the faith of the majority of the population at some point between the 10th and 12th centuries, and [[Arabic]] became the main language, replacing [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and [[Koine Greek|Greek]], which had previously served as the vernacular and governmental languages, respectively.<ref name="Copts">Clive Holes, ''Modern Arabic: structures, functions, and varieties'', Georgetown University Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-1-58901-022-2}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8E0Rr1xY4TQC&q=%2C&pg=PA29 M1 Google Print, p. 29].</ref>
-{{Short description|Spread of Islam after the Arab conquests}}
-{{History of Egypt}}{{More citations needed|date=April 2023}}
-The '''Islamization of Egypt''' occurred after the 7th century [[Arab conquest of Egypt]], in which the Islamic [[Rashidun Caliphate]] seized control of Egypt from the Christian [[Byzantine Empire]]. Egypt and other conquered territories in the Middle East underwent a large scale gradual conversion from [[Christianity]] to [[Islam]], accompanied by [[jizya]] for those who refused to convert.<ref name="auto1">{{Citation|title=Conversion, Exemption, and Manipulation: Social Benefits and Conversion to Islam in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages: Forcing taxes on those who refuse to convert|url=https://www.medievalworlds.net/0xc1aa5576%200x00372f27.pdf|quote= ʿUmar is depicted as having ordered that "the poll-tax should be taken from all men who would not become Muslims"}}</ref> Islam became the dominant faith by the 10th to 12th centuries, and [[Arabic]] replaced [[Coptic language|Coptic]] as the vernacular language and [[Koine Greek|Greek]]  as the official language.<ref name="Copts">Clive Holes, ''Modern Arabic: structures, functions, and varieties'', Georgetown University Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-1-58901-022-2}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=8E0Rr1xY4TQC&q=%2C&pg=PA29 M1 Google Print, p. 29].</ref>
 == History ==
+{{See also|Arab conquest of Egypt}}[[File:Kairo Hanging Church BW 1.jpg|thumb|303x303px|right|The [[Hanging Church]] in Old Cairo was founded in the third century, making it one of the oldest churches in Egypt.]]In the mid 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate successfully conquered Egypt from the Byzantine Empire. This ended seven centuries of mostly uninterrupted Roman rule over Egypt.{{NoteTag|The Sasanian Empire, which generally followed Zoroastrianism, held Egypt for around a decade in the early 7th century.}} However, local resistance by the Egyptians occurred during the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] that lasted until at least the ninth century.<ref>Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar (2 vols., Bulaq, 1854), by [[Al-Maqrizi]]</ref><ref>Chronicles, by [[John of Nikiû]]</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=[[Marina Rustow]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219 |title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate |date=3 October 2014 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2 |pages=219–}}</ref>
-{{See also|Arab conquest of Egypt}}
-Islamic links to Coptic Egypt predate Muslim rule. According to Muslim tradition, [[Muhammad]] married a [[concubine]] Copt, [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}[[File:Kairo Hanging Church BW 1.jpg|thumb|303x303px|right|The [[Hanging Church]] in Old Cairo was founded in the third century, making it one of the oldest churches in Egypt.]]In the mid 7th century, the Rashidun Caliphate successfully conquered Egypt from the Byzantine Empire. This ended seven centuries of mostly uninterrupted Roman rule over Egypt.{{NoteTag|The Sasanian Empire, which generally followed Zoroastrianism, held Egypt for around a decade in the early 7th century.}} However, local resistance by the Egyptians occurred during the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] that lasted until at least the ninth century.<ref>Mawaiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr al-khitat wa al-'athar (2 vols., Bulaq, 1854), by [[Al-Maqrizi]]</ref><ref>Chronicles, by [[John of Nikiû]]</ref>
-One contributing factor to this resistance was taxation. Under the Rashidun Caliphate and its successors, non-Muslims were required to pay a special tax called ''[[jizya]]'' and were given status as [[dhimmi]]s. The taxation was argued{{By whom|date=April 2023}} as being justified as local Christians were never drafted to serve in the army. This resistance escalated to armed rebellions against the Umayyads and Abbasids in a number of instances, such as during the [[Bashmurian revolts]] in the [[Nile Delta]].{{citation needed|date=May 2018}}[[Image:Le Caire mosquée Amr ibn al-As.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Amr ibn al-As Mosque]] was the first mosque built in both Egypt and Africa. It was built in Fustat (now [[Old Cairo]]), the newly founded capital of Rashidun Egypt.]]
+One contributing factor to this resistance was taxation. Under the Rashidun Caliphate and its successors, non-Muslims were required to pay a special tax called ''[[jizya]]'' and were given status as [[dhimmi]]s. The taxation was argued as being justified as local Christians were never drafted to serve in the army.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Ziauddin |last2=Ahmad |first2=Ziauddin |date=1985 |title=Jizyah and Kharāj in Early Islamic Egypt |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20839731 |journal=Islamic Studies |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=377–387 |jstor=20839731 |issn=0578-8072}}</ref>
+This resistance escalated to armed rebellions against the Umayyads and Abbasids in a number of instances, such as during the [[Bashmurian revolts]] in the [[Nile Delta]].{{sfn|Feder|2017|pp=33–35}}[[Image:Le Caire mosquée Amr ibn al-As.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Amr ibn al-As Mosque]] was the first mosque built in both Egypt and Africa. It was built in Fustat (now [[Old Cairo]]), the newly founded capital of Rashidun Egypt.]]
-Arab rulers generally preferred not to share the rule with [[Copts|Coptic Christians]] in their towns and established new colonies, like [[Fustat]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}  From the [[Muslim conquest of Egypt]] onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslims regimes.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Refugees|first=United Nations High Commissioner for|title=Refworld {{!}} World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Egypt : Copts of Egypt|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d2b2d.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Refworld|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Goddard|first=Hugh|title=A History of Christian–Muslim Relations|date=2000|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=1566633400}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=[[Marina Rustow]]|title=Heresy and the Politics of Community: The Jews of the Fatimid Caliphate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MGWsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT219|date=3 October 2014|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-5529-2|pages=219–}}</ref>
-The Arabs in the 7th century seldom used the term ''Agyptos'', and used instead an Arabic language version of the term ''Al Qibt'', which was then adopted into English as ''Copt'', to describe the locals in Egypt. They continued to use the term to refer to all Muslim and Christian Egyptians up until the Mamluk rule that legally banned the term on Muslims and associated the native language with [[paganism]]. {{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Thus, only Christian Egyptians became known as ''Copts'' or ''Orthodox Copts'', and also the non-Chalcedonian Egyptian Church became known as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Church]]. The Chalcedonian Church remained known as the [[Melkite|Melkite Church]]. Coptic Egyptians referred to themselves as ''ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ'' (/ni-rem-en-kēmi/).{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}
 Religious life remained largely undisturbed following the establishment of Arab rule, as evidence by the rich output of [[Coptic art|Coptic Orthodox Christian art]]s in monastic centers in Old Cairo ([[Fustat]]) and throughout Egypt. Conditions, however, worsened shortly after that, and in the eighth and ninth centuries when Muslim rulers banned the use of human forms in art (taking advantage of an iconoclastic conflict in the [[Europe]]an-ruled [[Byzantium]]) and consequently destroyed many Coptic Christian paintings mainly of [[Jesus]] and frescoes in churches.{{sfn|Kamil|1990|p=41}}
-Under the [[Fatimid Caliphate]], Egypt experienced a period of relative tolerance. The Fatimid rulers employed Copts in the government and participated in Coptic and local Egyptian feasts.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}} Major renovation and reconstruction of churches and monasteries were also undertaken. Coptic arts flourished, reaching new heights in Middle and Upper Egypt.{{sfn|Kamil|1990|p=41}} Despite this, by this time, Coptic Christians had lost their majority status<ref name="Copts" /><ref name="FA">{{cite journal |last1=Shea |first1=Nina |date=June 2017 |title=Do Copts have a future in Egypt |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt |url-status=live |journal=Foreign Affairs |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620201311/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt |archive-date=2017-06-20}}</ref> as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Etheredge |first=Laura S. |title=Middle East, Region in Transition: Egypt |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=9789774160936 |page=161}}</ref> and [[forced conversion|forced conversions]] to [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite book |last=N. Swanson |first=Mark |title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517) |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |year=2010 |isbn=9789774160936 |page=54}}</ref> This is attested to by [[John of Nikiû]], a Coptic bishop who wrote about the conquest, and who was a near contemporary of the events he described.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}
+Under the [[Fatimid Caliphate]], Egypt experienced a period of relative tolerance. The Fatimid rulers employed Copts in the government and participated in Coptic and local Egyptian feasts. Major renovation and reconstruction of churches and monasteries were also undertaken. Coptic arts flourished, reaching new heights in Middle and Upper Egypt.{{sfn|Kamil|1990|p=41}} Despite this, by this time, Coptic Christians had lost their majority status,<ref name="Copts" /><ref name="FA">{{cite journal |last1=Shea |first1=Nina |date=June 2017 |title=Do Copts have a future in Egypt |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt |url-status=live |journal=Foreign Affairs |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620201311/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/egypt/2017-06-20/do-copts-have-future-egypt |archive-date=2017-06-20}}</ref> as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches{{sfn|Etheredge|2011|p=161}} and [[forced conversion]]s to [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite book |last=N. Swanson |first=Mark |title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517) |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |year=2010 |isbn=9789774160936 |page=54}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jihad in Islamic History: Doctrines and Practice|isbn=0691125740|author=Michael Bonner|year=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/originsofjihadsh00bonn}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Coptic Papacy in Islamic Egypt (641-1517)| first=Mark |last= N. Swanson|year= 2010| isbn= 9789774160936| page =54|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|quote= By late 1012 the persecution had moved into high gear with demolitions of churches and the forced conversion of Christian ...}}</ref><ref>ha-Mizraḥit ha-Yiśreʼelit, Ḥevrah (1988). Asian and African Studies, Volume 22. Jerusalem Academic Press. Muslim historians note the destruction of dozens of churches and the forced conversion of dozens of people to Islam under al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in Egypt ...These events also reflect the Muslim attitude toward forced conversion and toward converts.</ref>
+However, the subsequent [[Mamluk Sultanate]] returned to previous practices of levying ''jizya'' and forcing conversions.{{sfn|Etheredge|2011|p=161}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Katō |first=Hiroshi |title=Islam in the Middle Eastern Studies: Muslims and Minorities |publisher=University of California Press |year=2011 |isbn=9784901838023 |page=133 |quote=The Mamluk era, in which many Dhimmīs were forced to convert to Islam, was a time of great turbulence in society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Naiem |first=Girgis |title=Egypt's Identities in Conflict: The Political and Religious Landscape of Copts and Muslims |publisher=McFarland |year=2018 |isbn=9781476671208 |page=69}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Robert |title=History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt |publisher=FriesenPress |year=2016 |isbn=9781460280270 |page=342}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Documentation Center |first=Middle East |title=Mamlūk Studies Review |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2006 |isbn=9781460280270 |page=73}}</ref><ref name="auto1" /> The Coptic decline in Egypt occurred under the Bahri sultans and accelerated further under the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Burji regime]].{{sfn|Teule|2013|p=10}} There were several instances of Egyptian Muslim protests against the wealth of Copts and their employment with the state, and both Muslim and Christian rioters burned down each other's houses of worship during intercommunal clashes.{{sfn|Etheredge|2011|p=16}}
+As a result of popular pressure, Copts had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion.{{sfn|Etheredge|2011|p=16}}
+Coptic bureaucrats were often restored to their positions after tensions passed. Many Copts were forced to convert to Islam or at least adopted outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment and avoid the jizya and official measures against them.{{sfn|Stilt|2011|p=120}}  A large wave of Coptic conversions to Islam occurred in the 14th century,{{sfn|Stilt|2011|p=120}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Refugees |first=United Nations High Commissioner for |title=Refworld {{!}} World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Egypt : Copts of Egypt |url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/49749d2b2d.html |access-date=2020-06-15 |website=Refworld |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Etheredge|2011|p=16}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Goddard |first=Hugh |title=A History of Christian–Muslim Relations |date=2000 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=1566633400}}</ref>{{sfn|Stilt|2011|p=120}} as a result of [[Persecution of Copts|persecution]], destruction of churches,{{sfn|Etheredge|2011|p=16}}<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/614714|title=Coptic Conversion to Islam under the Baḥrī Mamlūks, 692-755/1293-1354|author=Little, Donald P.|year=1976|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London|volume=39|issue=3|pages=552–569|doi=10.1017/S0041977X00051004 |jstor=614714 |s2cid=170719417}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/614714|title=Coptic Conversion to Islam Under the Mahri Mamlūks, 692–755/1293–1354|page=568|jstor=614714 }}</ref> and to retain employment.{{sfn|Stilt|2011|p=120}} By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1.{{sfn|Etheredge|2011|p=16}}
+According to the medieval Egyptian historian [[Al-Maqrizi]], soon afterwards in "all the provinces of Egypt, both north and south, no church remained that had not been razed.... Thus did Islam spread among the Christians of Egypt."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/614714|title=Coptic Conversion to Islam Under the Mahri Mamlūks, 692–755/1293–1354|page=568|jstor=614714 }}</ref>
-However, the subsequent [[Mamluk Sultanate]] returned to previous practices of levying ''jizya'' and forcing conversions.<ref name="auto" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Katō |first=Hiroshi |title=Islam in the Middle Eastern Studies: Muslims and Minorities |publisher=University of California Press |year=2011 |isbn=9784901838023 |page=133 |quote=The Mamluk era, in which many Dhimmīs were forced to convert to Islam, was a time of great turbulence in society.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Naiem |first=Girgis |title=Egypt's Identities in Conflict: The Political and Religious Landscape of Copts and Muslims |publisher=McFarland |year=2018 |isbn=9781476671208 |page=69}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=Robert |title=History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt |publisher=FriesenPress |year=2016 |isbn=9781460280270 |page=342}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Documentation Center |first=Middle East |title=Mamlūk Studies Review |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2006 |isbn=9781460280270 |page=73}}</ref><ref name="auto1" />
 ==See also==
@@ Line 36: / Line 37: @@
 ==Sources==
 * {{Cite book |last=Betts|first=Robert B.|title=Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study|year=1978|edition=2nd rev.|location=Athens|publisher=Lycabettus Press|isbn=978-0-8042-0796-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHstAQAAIAAJ}}
+* {{cite book|editor1-last=Etheredge|editor1-first=Laura S.|title=Middle East, Region in Transition: Egypt|date=2011|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LdecAAAAQBAJ|isbn=9781615303922}}
+*{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Feder |chapter=The Bashmurite Revolts in the Delta and the ‘Bashmuric Dialect’ |title=Christianity and Monasticism in Northern Egypt: Beni Suef, Giza, Cairo, and the Nile Delta |editor1=Gawdat Gabra |editor2=Hany N. Takla |year=2017 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |pages=33–36}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Charles|first=Robert H.|author-link=Robert Charles (scholar)|title=The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text|year=2007|orig-year=1916|location=Merchantville, NJ|publisher=Evolution Publishing|isbn=978-1-889758-87-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KgZ-DOr77OQC}}
+* {{cite book |last=Teule |first=Herman G. B. |editor1-last=Thomas |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Mallett |editor2-first=Alex |title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History, Volume 5 (1350–1500) |year=2013 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-25278-3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dgy7SN3ZixsC&pg=PA11 |chapter=Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350–1516}}
 * {{cite book| last=Kamil |first= Jill |title=Coptic Egypt: History and a Guide |edition= Revised |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year= 1990}}
 * {{Cite book |last=Meyendorff|first=John|author-link=John Meyendorff|year=1989|title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D.|series=The Church in history|volume=2|location=Crestwood, NY|publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press|isbn=978-0-88141-056-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ}}
+* {{cite book |last=Stilt |first=Kristen |title=Islamic Law in Action: Authority, Discretion, and Everyday Experiences in Mamluk Egypt |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-960243-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVaebZA94d4C}}
 * {{Cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|year=1956|title=History of the Byzantine State|location=Oxford|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ}}
@@ Line 50: / Line 55: @@
 [[Category:Roman Egypt]]
 [[Category:Coptic history]]
-[[Category:Medieval Egypt]]
+[[Category:Medieval history of Egypt]]
 [[Category:Persecution of Christians]]