Tetragonula iridipennis: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Species of bee}} |
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{{Speciesbox |
{{Speciesbox |
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| name = ''Tetragonula iridipennis'' |
| name = ''Tetragonula iridipennis'' |
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| image_caption = A hive of ''Tetragonula iridipennis'' |
| image_caption = A hive of ''Tetragonula iridipennis'' |
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| taxon = Tetragonula iridipennis |
| taxon = Tetragonula iridipennis |
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| authority = (Smith, 1854 |
| authority = [[Frederick Smith (entomologist)|Smith]], 1854 |
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| synonyms = * ''Trigona iridipennis'' <small>Smith, 1854</small> |
| synonyms = * ''Trigona iridipennis'' <small>Smith, 1854</small> |
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* ''Trigona (Tetragonula) iridipennis'' <small>Smith, 1854</small> |
* ''Trigona (Tetragonula) iridipennis'' <small>Smith, 1854</small> |
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|range_map_caption = It is found in India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia |
|range_map_caption = It is found in India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia |
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The '''Indian stingless bee''' or '''dammar bee''', '''''Tetragonula iridipennis''''', is a species of [[bee]] belonging to the family [[Apidae]], subfamily [[Apinae]]. It was first described by Frederick Smith in 1854 who found the species in what is now the island of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":0" /> Many older references erroneously placed this species in ''[[Melipona]]'', an unrelated genus from the [[New World]],<ref>Rahman, Khan A. S. Singh. 1940. Beekeeping in India. Indian Farming 1: 10-17</ref> and until recently it was placed in ''[[Trigona (genus)|Trigona]]'', therefore still often mistakenly referred to as ''Trigona iridipennis''. For centuries, colonies of ''T. iridipennis'' have been kept in objects such as clay pots so that their highly prized medicinal honey can be utilized.<ref name=":0" /> |
The '''Indian stingless bee''' or '''dammar bee''', '''''Tetragonula iridipennis''''', is a species of [[bee]] belonging to the family [[Apidae]], subfamily [[Apinae]]. It was first described by [[Frederick Smith (entomologist)|Frederick Smith]] in 1854 who found the species in what is now the island of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name=":0" /> Many older references erroneously placed this species in ''[[Melipona]]'', an unrelated genus from the [[New World]],<ref>Rahman, Khan A. S. Singh. 1940. Beekeeping in India. Indian Farming 1: 10-17</ref> and until recently it was placed in ''[[Trigona (genus)|Trigona]]'', therefore still often mistakenly referred to as ''Trigona iridipennis''. For centuries, colonies of ''T. iridipennis'' have been kept in objects such as clay pots so that their highly prized medicinal honey can be utilized.<ref name=":0" /> |
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== Taxonomy and phylogenetics == |
== Taxonomy and phylogenetics == |
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''Tetragonula iridipennis'' belongs to the complex genus of stingless bees ''Tetragonula'' which contains more than 30 described species from the Indian subcontinent. Until recently, all species in the group were treated as belonging to the single genus "''Trigona''". ''Tetragonula iridipennis'' belongs to the smaller ''Iridipennis'' species group which includes four primary species: ''Tetragonula iridipennis, Tetragonula praeterita, Tetragonula ruficornis, and Tetragonula bengalensis.'' These four species were proposed in the 19th century and were poorly characterized. They have since not been directly compared via molecular studies; therefore there is uncertainty about whether they are in fact separate species.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini) of the Indian subcontinent: Diversity, taxonomy and current status of knowledge|journal = Zootaxa|date = 2013-05-10|issn = 1175-5334|pages = 401–428|volume = 3647|issue = 3|doi = 10.11646/zootaxa.3647.3.1|first = Claus|last = Rasmussen}}</ref> |
''Tetragonula iridipennis'' belongs to the complex genus of stingless bees ''Tetragonula'' which contains more than 30 described species from the Indian subcontinent. Until recently, all species in the group were treated as belonging to the single genus "''Trigona''". ''Tetragonula iridipennis'' belongs to the smaller ''Iridipennis'' species group which includes four primary species: ''Tetragonula iridipennis, Tetragonula praeterita, Tetragonula ruficornis, and Tetragonula bengalensis.'' These four species were proposed in the 19th century and were poorly characterized. They have since not been directly compared via molecular studies; therefore there is uncertainty about whether they are in fact separate species.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini) of the Indian subcontinent: Diversity, taxonomy and current status of knowledge|journal = Zootaxa|date = 2013-05-10|issn = 1175-5334|pages = 401–428|volume = 3647|issue = 3|doi = 10.11646/zootaxa.3647.3.1|first = Claus|last = Rasmussen|pmid = 26295116}}</ref> |
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== Description and identification == |
== Description and identification == |
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Like other bees in its sub-species group, ''T. iridipennis'' can be identified by its dark mesoscutum or middle thorax region with four distinct hair bands separated by broad glabrous interspaces. It can be further distinguished from other species in its sub group by its chestnut-brown colored [[mandible]] which does not have a black apical area and a few dark brown erect [[setae]] or hair-like structures on the margin of its scutellum. Other species in the subgroup have yellow mandibles which have black apical areas and have light colored setae on their scutella.<ref name=":0" /> Based on studies of workers, ''T. indipennis'' has a total body length ranging from 3.5 |
Like other bees in its sub-species group, ''T. iridipennis'' can be identified by its dark mesoscutum or middle thorax region with four distinct hair bands separated by broad glabrous interspaces. It can be further distinguished from other species in its sub group by its chestnut-brown colored [[Mandible (insect mouthpart) | mandible]] which does not have a black apical area and a few dark brown erect [[setae]] or hair-like structures on the margin of its scutellum. Other species in the subgroup have yellow mandibles which have black apical areas and have light colored setae on their scutella.<ref name=":0" /> Based on studies of workers, ''T. indipennis'' has a total body length ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 mm and an entire body which is black to blackish brown. Size differences as well as male genitalia are key for identifying the species. They are relatively small sized bees and the male penis valve is very robust and tapers only at the apex. Male genitalia are also key to differentiating between male and female bees because the two sexes are very similar in size and color.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Taxonomic notes on stingless bee Trigona (Tetragonula) iridipennis Smith (Hymenoptera: Apidae) from India|journal = Journal of Threatened Taxa|pages = 6480–6484|volume = 6|issue = 11|doi = 10.11609/jott.o3773.6480-4|first1 = K.|last1 = Vijayakumar|first2 = R.|last2 = Jeyaraaj|year = 2014|doi-access = free}}</ref> |
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== Distribution and habitat == |
== Distribution and habitat == |
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''T. iridipennis'' is a tropical bee species and is found throughout the Indo-Malay region. Its range was once thought to go as far as the Solomon and Caroline islands, but unlike other ''Tetragonula'' species, its range is fairly limited.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Although it was originally discovered on the island of Sri Lanka, it is predominantly found in [[India]]. Specifically, studies have been conducted on ''T. iridipennis'' colonies located in [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{Cite journal |
''T. iridipennis'' is a tropical bee species and is found throughout the Indo-Malay region. Its range was once thought to go as far as the Solomon and Caroline islands, but unlike other ''Tetragonula'' species, its range is fairly limited.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Although it was originally discovered on the island of Sri Lanka, it is predominantly found in [[India]]. Specifically, studies have been conducted on ''T. iridipennis'' colonies located in [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Morphological studies on the stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis Smith|last = Danaraddi|first = C.S.|date = 2009|journal = Journal of Agricultural Science}}</ref> ''T. iridipennis'' also occurs on the islands of [[Indonesia]] where it is a natural pollinator.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sudaryadi |first1=Ignatius |last2=Firdausya |first2=Salma Alifah |last3=Rahmah |first3=Affinsyah Arrafiqah |last4=Rasyiid |first4=Mustafid |title=Pollen diversity as feed source of stingless bee, Tetragonula iridipennis (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in the forest of biology faculty, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia |date=2020 |pages=040021 |doi=10.1063/5.0015853}}</ref> |
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== Colony cycle == |
== Colony cycle == |
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As with other highly [[Eusociality|eusocial]] bee species, ''T. iridipennis'' colonies are founded by swarming. However, this process is different for stingless bees like ''T. iridipennis'' and honey bees. In honeybees, the process is abrupt and a large group of workers leaves the original colony with the old queen, thus few connections are maintained between the old and the new colonies. The process is more gradual for stingless bees such as ''T. iridepennis''. First scout workers from the original nest find a new nest site and gradually transport resources there from the mother colony. A virgin queen from the mother colony then arrives usually accompanied by a mass of workers. It is only after several days to half a year that relations between the mother and daughter colonies are severed.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Process of Colony Multiplication in the Sumatran Stingless Bee Trigona (Tetragonula) laeviceps|jstor = 2387841|journal = Biotropica|date = 1984-06-01|pages = 100–111|volume = 16|issue = 2|doi = 10.2307/2387841| |
As with other highly [[Eusociality|eusocial]] bee species, ''T. iridipennis'' colonies are founded by swarming. However, this process is different for stingless bees like ''T. iridipennis'' and honey bees. In honeybees, the process is abrupt and a large group of workers leaves the original colony with the old queen, thus few connections are maintained between the old and the new colonies. The process is more gradual for stingless bees such as ''T. iridepennis''. First scout workers from the original nest find a new nest site and gradually transport resources there from the mother colony. A virgin queen from the mother colony then arrives usually accompanied by a mass of workers. It is only after several days to half a year that relations between the mother and daughter colonies are severed.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Process of Colony Multiplication in the Sumatran Stingless Bee Trigona (Tetragonula) laeviceps|jstor = 2387841|journal = Biotropica|date = 1984-06-01|pages = 100–111|volume = 16|issue = 2|doi = 10.2307/2387841|first1 = Tamiji|last1 = Inoue|first2 = Shoichi F.|last2 = Sakagami|first3 = Siti|last3 = Salmah|first4 = Soichi|last4 = Yamane}}</ref> |
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== Behavior == |
== Behavior == |
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=== Mating behavior === |
=== Mating behavior === |
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Like males in other stingless bee species, there is tremendous competition between ''T. iridipennis'' males to copulate with virgin queens. Males have been observed to form large aggregations and to engage in mass flights near nests waiting for the emergence of virgin females.<ref name=":2">{{Cite |
Like males in other stingless bee species, there is tremendous competition between ''T. iridipennis'' males to copulate with virgin queens. Males have been observed to form large aggregations and to engage in mass flights near nests waiting for the emergence of virgin females.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = Tetragonula Stingless Bees of the Continental Asia and Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera, Apidae) (With 124 Text-figures, 1 Plate and 36 Tables)|first = SAKAGAMI, Shôichi|last = F.| journal=北海道大學理學部紀要 | date=June 1978 | volume=21 | issue=2 | pages=165–247 |hdl = 2115/27635}}</ref> Once a virgin queen emerges, it pairs with one of the males and a mating flight ensues, resulting in the fertilization of the queen. |
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== Life history == |
== Life history == |
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=== Nest === |
=== Nest === |
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Common nesting sites include tree trunks, logs and wall cavities. The nests are relatively low to the ground and are constructed at heights between 1.93 meters and 2.2 meters from the ground.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = Nesting habits and nest structure of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis Smith at Dharwad, Karnataka|url = http://14.139.155.167/test5/index.php/kjas/article/view/1338|journal = Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences|volume = 22|issue = 2| |
Common nesting sites include tree trunks, logs and wall cavities. The nests are relatively low to the ground and are constructed at heights between 1.93 meters and 2.2 meters from the ground.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = Nesting habits and nest structure of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis Smith at Dharwad, Karnataka|url = http://14.139.155.167/test5/index.php/kjas/article/view/1338|journal = Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences|volume = 22|issue = 2|first1 = C. S.|last1 = Danaraddi|first2 = Shashidhar|last2 = Viraktamath|first3 = K.|last3 = Basavanagoud|first4 = A. R. S.|last4 = Bhat|date = 2010-05-24}}</ref> Nests tend to be dark brown in color in order to blend in with their surroundings. The Indian tree species ''[[Cycas sphaerica]]'' appears to be an important nest provider for T. iridipennis.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title = Association of Indian Stingless Bee, Trigona iridipennis Smith (Apidae: Meliponinae) with Red-listed Cycas sphaerica Roxb. (Cycadaceae).|url = http://www.cabdirect.org/abstracts/20093170427.html;jsessionid=6375C4A61E51BF29E3C53D3CFD4B2FBB|website = www.cabdirect.org|access-date = 2015-10-16|first1 = Raju, A. J.|last1 = S.|first2 = Rao, K.|last2 = S.|first3 = Rao, N.|last3 = G.}}</ref> |
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== Interactions with other species == |
== Interactions with other species == |
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=== Diet === |
=== Diet === |
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''T. iridipennis'' collects nectar from many herbal plants such as the [[Coconut|coco palm]] and the [[Jackfruit]] tree. |
''T. iridipennis'' collects nectar from many herbal plants such as the [[Coconut|coco palm]] and the [[Jackfruit]] tree.{{cn|date=January 2021}} They also collect sap from tree species such as ''[[Cycas sphaerica]].''<ref name=":4" /> |
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[[File:Jack fruit on tree.jpg|thumb|''Tetragonula iridipennis'' feeds on the nectar of the Jack fruit tree]] |
[[File:Jack fruit on tree.jpg|thumb|''Tetragonula iridipennis'' feeds on the nectar of the Jack fruit tree]] |
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=== Predators === |
=== Predators === |
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The centipede species ''[[Scolopendra |
The centipede species ''[[Scolopendra hardwickei]]'' is a specialized predator for stingless bee species like ''T. iridipennis.''{{cn|date=January 2021}} Predators like spiders, flies, wasps, and lizards are also a constant threat to ''T. iridipennis'' colonies because they invade nests to eat their rich honey stores. ''T. iridipennis'' defends against these predators by preventing access to its nest. It seals pores of the hive with a substance created by mixing its own salivary gland secretions with plant-derived resins. This substance called propolis also has favorable mechanical properties and is used by ''T. iridipennis'' to protect its nest from wind and rain.{{cn|date=January 2021}} |
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== Human importance == |
== Human importance == |
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While they are currently not widely utilized as agricultural pollinators in South Asia, a study by Ramadhani et al. indicates that ''T. iridipennis'' can potentially be applied as pollinator agents for tomato farming as opposed to non-native honey bees such as the [[Western honey bee|European honey bee]] (''Apis mellifera L.)'' While they were shown to exhibit lower pollination efficiency, fruit sizes were not significantly affected. In addition, their low price and their harmlessness make them ideal candidates for low income farmers or those concerned about the safety risk associated with stinging honey bees.{{cn|date=November 2019}} |
While they are currently not widely utilized as agricultural pollinators in South Asia, a study by Ramadhani et al. indicates that ''T. iridipennis'' can potentially be applied as pollinator agents for tomato farming as opposed to non-native honey bees such as the [[Western honey bee|European honey bee]] (''Apis mellifera L.)'' While they were shown to exhibit lower pollination efficiency, fruit sizes were not significantly affected. In addition, their low price and their harmlessness make them ideal candidates for low income farmers or those concerned about the safety risk associated with stinging honey bees.{{cn|date=November 2019}} |
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=== Medicinal honey === |
=== Medicinal honey === |
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''T. iridipennis'' stores its honey in pots which are within a food storage zone of the nest. The food storage zone contains a honey storage pot and a [[pollen]] storage pot, but these are often intermixed.<ref name=":3" /> The honey of ''T. iridipennis'' is a rich source of antioxidant flavanoids. This is because workers collect [[honey]] from medicinally important herbal plants and flowers. The quantity of honey produced is a relatively small 600-700 grams per year. |
''T. iridipennis'' stores its honey in pots which are within a food storage zone of the nest. The food storage zone contains a honey storage pot and a [[pollen]] storage pot, but these are often intermixed.<ref name=":3" /> The honey of ''T. iridipennis'' is a rich source of antioxidant flavanoids. This is because workers collect [[honey]] from medicinally important herbal plants and flowers. The quantity of honey produced is a relatively small 600-700 grams per year.{{cn|date=January 2021}} |
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=== Propolis === |
=== Propolis === |
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[[File:Прополис.jpg|thumb|''Tetragonula iridipennis'' propolis has notable pharmacological properties]] |
[[File:Прополис.jpg|thumb|''Tetragonula iridipennis'' propolis has notable pharmacological properties]] |
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While ''T. iridipennis'' gathers [[propolis]] to reinforce its nest, people have harvested it and discovered it to have a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. Propolis exhibits notable [[antibacterial]] and [[antiviral]] properties.<ref name=":4 |
While ''T. iridipennis'' gathers [[propolis]] to reinforce its nest, people have harvested it and discovered it to have a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. Propolis exhibits notable [[antibacterial]] and [[antiviral]] properties.<ref name=":4" /> The pharmacological properties of propolis are dependent on a variety of factors including plants visited by the ''T. iridipennis'' hive and the amount of pollution present in their environment.{{cn|date=January 2021}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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* https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=764099 |
* https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=764099 |
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* http://www.threatenedtaxa.in/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1624 |
* http://www.threatenedtaxa.in/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1624 |
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* {{cite journal |doi=10.1155/2013/928280|title=Anticancer Activity of Indian Stingless Bee Propolis: An ''In'' Vitro ''Study''|year=2013|last1=Choudhari|first1=Milind K.|last2=Haghniaz|first2=Reihaneh|last3=Rajwade|first3=Jyutika M.|last4=Paknikar|first4=Kishore M.|journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=2013|pages=1–10|pmid=23762169|pmc=3670519|doi-access=free }} |
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* https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237200515_Anticancer_activity_of_Indian_stingless_bee_propolis_an_in_vitro_study |
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* http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/13867/1/IJTK%2011(2)%20342-345.pdf |
* http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/13867/1/IJTK%2011(2)%20342-345.pdf |
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Latest revision as of 18:54, 19 December 2024
| Tetragonula iridipennis | |
|---|---|
| |
| A hive of Tetragonula iridipennis | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hymenoptera |
| Family: | Apidae |
| Genus: | Tetragonula |
| Species: | T. iridipennis
|
| Binomial name | |
| Tetragonula iridipennis Smith, 1854
| |
| |
| It is found in India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia | |
| Synonyms | |
| |
The Indian stingless bee or dammar bee, Tetragonula iridipennis, is a species of bee belonging to the family Apidae, subfamily Apinae. It was first described by Frederick Smith in 1854 who found the species in what is now the island of Sri Lanka.[2] Many older references erroneously placed this species in Melipona, an unrelated genus from the New World,[3] and until recently it was placed in Trigona, therefore still often mistakenly referred to as Trigona iridipennis. For centuries, colonies of T. iridipennis have been kept in objects such as clay pots so that their highly prized medicinal honey can be utilized.[2]
Taxonomy and phylogenetics
[edit]Tetragonula iridipennis belongs to the complex genus of stingless bees Tetragonula which contains more than 30 described species from the Indian subcontinent. Until recently, all species in the group were treated as belonging to the single genus "Trigona". Tetragonula iridipennis belongs to the smaller Iridipennis species group which includes four primary species: Tetragonula iridipennis, Tetragonula praeterita, Tetragonula ruficornis, and Tetragonula bengalensis. These four species were proposed in the 19th century and were poorly characterized. They have since not been directly compared via molecular studies; therefore there is uncertainty about whether they are in fact separate species.[2]
Description and identification
[edit]Like other bees in its sub-species group, T. iridipennis can be identified by its dark mesoscutum or middle thorax region with four distinct hair bands separated by broad glabrous interspaces. It can be further distinguished from other species in its sub group by its chestnut-brown colored mandible which does not have a black apical area and a few dark brown erect setae or hair-like structures on the margin of its scutellum. Other species in the subgroup have yellow mandibles which have black apical areas and have light colored setae on their scutella.[2] Based on studies of workers, T. indipennis has a total body length ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 mm and an entire body which is black to blackish brown. Size differences as well as male genitalia are key for identifying the species. They are relatively small sized bees and the male penis valve is very robust and tapers only at the apex. Male genitalia are also key to differentiating between male and female bees because the two sexes are very similar in size and color.[4]
Distribution and habitat
[edit]T. iridipennis is a tropical bee species and is found throughout the Indo-Malay region. Its range was once thought to go as far as the Solomon and Caroline islands, but unlike other Tetragonula species, its range is fairly limited.[4][5] Although it was originally discovered on the island of Sri Lanka, it is predominantly found in India. Specifically, studies have been conducted on T. iridipennis colonies located in Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.[6] T. iridipennis also occurs on the islands of Indonesia where it is a natural pollinator.[7]
Colony cycle
[edit]As with other highly eusocial bee species, T. iridipennis colonies are founded by swarming. However, this process is different for stingless bees like T. iridipennis and honey bees. In honeybees, the process is abrupt and a large group of workers leaves the original colony with the old queen, thus few connections are maintained between the old and the new colonies. The process is more gradual for stingless bees such as T. iridepennis. First scout workers from the original nest find a new nest site and gradually transport resources there from the mother colony. A virgin queen from the mother colony then arrives usually accompanied by a mass of workers. It is only after several days to half a year that relations between the mother and daughter colonies are severed.[8]
Behavior
[edit]Mating behavior
[edit]Like males in other stingless bee species, there is tremendous competition between T. iridipennis males to copulate with virgin queens. Males have been observed to form large aggregations and to engage in mass flights near nests waiting for the emergence of virgin females.[5] Once a virgin queen emerges, it pairs with one of the males and a mating flight ensues, resulting in the fertilization of the queen.
Life history
[edit]Males
[edit]While no detailed studies have been done on colony composition of T. iridipennis nests, in keeping with other stingless bee species, it is expected that the total number of males produced per colony is lower than that of workers. In some tropical species, male stingless bees stay for an extended time in nests. They then leave the nests and form aggregations.[5]
Camouflage
[edit]Nest
[edit]Common nesting sites include tree trunks, logs and wall cavities. The nests are relatively low to the ground and are constructed at heights between 1.93 meters and 2.2 meters from the ground.[9] Nests tend to be dark brown in color in order to blend in with their surroundings. The Indian tree species Cycas sphaerica appears to be an important nest provider for T. iridipennis.[10]
Interactions with other species
[edit]Diet
[edit]T. iridipennis collects nectar from many herbal plants such as the coco palm and the Jackfruit tree.[citation needed] They also collect sap from tree species such as Cycas sphaerica.[10]
Predators
[edit]The centipede species Scolopendra hardwickei is a specialized predator for stingless bee species like T. iridipennis.[citation needed] Predators like spiders, flies, wasps, and lizards are also a constant threat to T. iridipennis colonies because they invade nests to eat their rich honey stores. T. iridipennis defends against these predators by preventing access to its nest. It seals pores of the hive with a substance created by mixing its own salivary gland secretions with plant-derived resins. This substance called propolis also has favorable mechanical properties and is used by T. iridipennis to protect its nest from wind and rain.[citation needed]
Human importance
[edit]Agriculture
[edit]While they are currently not widely utilized as agricultural pollinators in South Asia, a study by Ramadhani et al. indicates that T. iridipennis can potentially be applied as pollinator agents for tomato farming as opposed to non-native honey bees such as the European honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) While they were shown to exhibit lower pollination efficiency, fruit sizes were not significantly affected. In addition, their low price and their harmlessness make them ideal candidates for low income farmers or those concerned about the safety risk associated with stinging honey bees.[citation needed]
Medicinal honey
[edit]T. iridipennis stores its honey in pots which are within a food storage zone of the nest. The food storage zone contains a honey storage pot and a pollen storage pot, but these are often intermixed.[9] The honey of T. iridipennis is a rich source of antioxidant flavanoids. This is because workers collect honey from medicinally important herbal plants and flowers. The quantity of honey produced is a relatively small 600-700 grams per year.[citation needed]
Propolis
[edit]
While T. iridipennis gathers propolis to reinforce its nest, people have harvested it and discovered it to have a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. Propolis exhibits notable antibacterial and antiviral properties.[10] The pharmacological properties of propolis are dependent on a variety of factors including plants visited by the T. iridipennis hive and the amount of pollution present in their environment.[citation needed]
References
[edit]- ^ "Tetragonula iridipennis - -- Discover Life".
- ^ a b c d Rasmussen, Claus (2013-05-10). "Stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini) of the Indian subcontinent: Diversity, taxonomy and current status of knowledge". Zootaxa. 3647 (3): 401–428. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3647.3.1. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 26295116.
- ^ Rahman, Khan A. S. Singh. 1940. Beekeeping in India. Indian Farming 1: 10-17
- ^ a b Vijayakumar, K.; Jeyaraaj, R. (2014). "Taxonomic notes on stingless bee Trigona (Tetragonula) iridipennis Smith (Hymenoptera: Apidae) from India". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 6 (11): 6480–6484. doi:10.11609/jott.o3773.6480-4.
- ^ a b c F., SAKAGAMI, Shôichi (June 1978). "Tetragonula Stingless Bees of the Continental Asia and Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera, Apidae) (With 124 Text-figures, 1 Plate and 36 Tables)". 北海道大學理學部紀要. 21 (2): 165–247. hdl:2115/27635.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Danaraddi, C.S. (2009). "Morphological studies on the stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis Smith". Journal of Agricultural Science.
- ^ Sudaryadi, Ignatius; Firdausya, Salma Alifah; Rahmah, Affinsyah Arrafiqah; Rasyiid, Mustafid (2020). "Pollen diversity as feed source of stingless bee, Tetragonula iridipennis (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in the forest of biology faculty, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia": 040021. doi:10.1063/5.0015853.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Inoue, Tamiji; Sakagami, Shoichi F.; Salmah, Siti; Yamane, Soichi (1984-06-01). "The Process of Colony Multiplication in the Sumatran Stingless Bee Trigona (Tetragonula) laeviceps". Biotropica. 16 (2): 100–111. doi:10.2307/2387841. JSTOR 2387841.
- ^ a b Danaraddi, C. S.; Viraktamath, Shashidhar; Basavanagoud, K.; Bhat, A. R. S. (2010-05-24). "Nesting habits and nest structure of stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis Smith at Dharwad, Karnataka". Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 22 (2).
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External links
[edit]- http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Tetragonula_iridipennis/classification/
- https://www.academia.edu/7390502/AN_UPDATED_CHECKLIST_OF_BEES_OF_SRI_LANKA_WITH_NEW_RECORDS
- https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=764099
- http://www.threatenedtaxa.in/index.php/JoTT/article/view/1624
- Choudhari, Milind K.; Haghniaz, Reihaneh; Rajwade, Jyutika M.; Paknikar, Kishore M. (2013). "Anticancer Activity of Indian Stingless Bee Propolis: An In Vitro Study". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2013/928280. PMC 3670519. PMID 23762169.
- http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/13867/1/IJTK%2011(2)%20342-345.pdf