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{{short description|Sixteenth book of the Mahabharata}}
{{short description|Sixteenth book of the Mahabharata}}
[[File:Yadavas killing themselves.jpg|thumb|Yadavas killing themselves, with [[Krishna]] (blue figure) and his brother [[Balarama]] depicted at right. Painting by [[M. V. Dhurandhar]]]]
[[File:Yadavas killing themselves.jpg|thumb|Yadavas killing themselves, with [[Krishna]] (blue figure) and his brother [[Balarama]] depicted at right. Painting by [[M. V. Dhurandhar]]]]
The '''Mausala Parva''' (lit. Episode of [[Flail (weapon)|Flails]])<ref>https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/parva#:~:text=Parva%20means%20'episode'.,ceremonies%2C%20various%20arts%20and%20sciences.</ref><ref>https://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=musala</ref> is the sixteenth of the eighteen books of the ancient Indian epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''. It traditionally has nine chapters.<ref name="kmg">Ganguli, K.M. (1883-1896) "[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m16/index.htm Mausala Parva]" in ''The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa'' (12 Volumes). Calcutta</ref><ref name="mnd">Dutt, M.N. (1905) ''The Mahabharata (Volume 16): Mausala Parva''. Calcutta: Elysium Press</ref> The [[critical edition]] has eight chapters.<ref>van Buitenen, J.A.B. (1973) ''The Mahabharata: Book 1: The Book of the Beginning''. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, p 478</ref><ref>Debroy, B. (2010) ''The Mahabharata, Volume 1''. Gurgaon: Penguin Books India, pp xxiii - xxvi</ref> One of the 3 shortest books within the epic, the Mausala Parva describes the demise of [[Krishna]] in the 36th year after the [[Kurukshetra War]] had ended, the submersion of [[Dvārakā|Dvaraka]] under the sea, the death of [[Balarama]] by drowning in the sea, [[Vasudeva]]'s death, and a civil war fought among the [[Yadava]] clan that killed many of them.<ref name="Doniger 263">{{cite book |last= Doniger| first=Wendy |title=The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology |publisher = University of California| page = 263 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ug_9cVR4lW8C&q=mahabharatha+surviving+yadava+vajra&pg=PA263|access-date=17 October 2013| isbn=9780520040984 | date=1980-10-13 }}</ref><ref name="Menon 2005 526">{{cite book |last=Menon | first=Ramesh |title=The Mahabharata: A Modern Rendering, Volume 2|year=2005 |publisher = Iuniverse USA| isbn = 978-0-595-40188-8| page = 526 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GgCZqN_hAgC&q=Mahabharatha+arjuna+abhira&pg=PA526|access-date=17 October 2013}}</ref> The story of infighting of the Yadavas<ref name="Menon 2005 526" /><ref name="Doniger 2010 332">{{cite book |last= Doniger| first=Wendy |title=Jaya: An Illustrated Retelling of the Mahabharata |publisher = Penguin Books| page = 332 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzN2_fu0mIYC&q=mahabharatha+surviving+yadava+vajra&pg=PA332|access-date=17 October 2013| isbn=9780143104254 | year=2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Singh | first=Sarva Daman |title=Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period |publisher = University of Lucknow| page = 163 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dc0UAAAAIAAJ&q=Mausala+parva+abhira&pg=PA163|access-date=17 October 2013| year=1965 }}</ref> becomes the reason why the Pandava brothers renounce their kingdom and begin their walk towards [[Svarga|heaven]], events recited in the last two books of the Mahabharata.<ref name="mnd" /><ref name="jm">John Murdoch (1898), The Mahabharata - An English Abridgment, Christian Literature Society for India, London, pages 132-137</ref>
The '''Mausala Parva''' (lit. Episode of [[Flail (weapon)|Flails]])<ref>https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/parva#:~:text=Parva%20means%20'episode'.,ceremonies%2C%20various%20arts%20and%20sciences.</ref><ref>https://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=musala</ref> is the sixteenth of the eighteen episodes of the ancient Indian epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''. It traditionally has nine chapters.<ref name="kmg">Ganguli, K.M. (1883-1896) "[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m16/index.htm Mausala Parva]" in ''The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa'' (12 Volumes). Calcutta</ref><ref name="mnd">Dutt, M.N. (1905) ''The Mahabharata (Volume 16): Mausala Parva''. Calcutta: Elysium Press</ref> The [[critical edition]] has eight chapters.<ref>van Buitenen, J.A.B. (1973) ''The Mahabharata: Book 1: The Book of the Beginning''. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, p 478</ref><ref>Debroy, B. (2010) ''The Mahabharata, Volume 1''. Gurgaon: Penguin Books India, pp xxiii - xxvi</ref> One of the 3 shortest episodes within the epic, the Mausala Parva describes the demise of [[Krishna]] in the 36th year after the [[Kurukshetra War]] had ended, the submersion of [[Dvārakā|Dvaraka]] under the sea, the death of [[Balarama]] by drowning in the sea, [[Vasudeva]]'s death, and a civil war fought among the [[Yadava]] clan that killed many of them.<ref name="Doniger 263">{{cite book |last= Doniger| first=Wendy |title=The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology |publisher = University of California| page = 263 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ug_9cVR4lW8C&q=mahabharatha+surviving+yadava+vajra&pg=PA263|access-date=17 October 2013| isbn=9780520040984 | date=1980-10-13 }}</ref><ref name="Menon 2005 526">{{cite book |last=Menon | first=Ramesh |title=The Mahabharata: A Modern Rendering, Volume 2|year=2005 |publisher = Iuniverse USA| isbn = 978-0-595-40188-8| page = 526 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GgCZqN_hAgC&q=Mahabharatha+arjuna+abhira&pg=PA526|access-date=17 October 2013}}</ref> The story of infighting of the Yadavas<ref name="Menon 2005 526" /><ref name="Doniger 2010 332">{{cite book |last= Doniger| first=Wendy |title=Jaya: An Illustrated Retelling of the Mahabharata |publisher = Penguin Books| page = 332 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gzN2_fu0mIYC&q=mahabharatha+surviving+yadava+vajra&pg=PA332|access-date=17 October 2013| isbn=9780143104254 | year=2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Singh | first=Sarva Daman |title=Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period |publisher = University of Lucknow| page = 163 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dc0UAAAAIAAJ&q=Mausala+parva+abhira&pg=PA163|access-date=17 October 2013| year=1965 }}</ref> becomes the reason why the [[Pandava]] brothers renounce their kingdom and begin their walk towards [[Svarga|heaven]], events recited in the last two books of the Mahabharata.<ref name="mnd" /><ref name="jm">John Murdoch (1898), The Mahabharata - An English Abridgment, Christian Literature Society for India, London, pages 132-137</ref>


The Mausala Parva is significant for serving as a basis of archaeological studies for the Mahabharata, as well as being one of the eight ''Parvas'' found in Hindu culture of [[Java]] and [[Bali]], Indonesia.
The Mausala Parva is significant for serving as a basis of archaeological studies for the Mahabharata, as well as being one of the eight ''Parvas'' found in Hindu culture of [[Java]] and [[Bali]], Indonesia.


==Structure and chapters==
==Structure and chapters==
Mausala [[Mahabharata#The 18 parvas or books|Parva]] (episode) traditionally has 9 adhyayas (sections, chapters) and has no secondary sub-parvas (parts or little episodes).<ref name=kmg/> Of the 80,000 verses in the critical edition of the Mahabharata - Mausala Parva represents about 0.25% of all verses of the Epic. This makes it one of the smallest books of the Epic.<ref name=bd/>
Mausala [[Mahabharata#The 18 parvas or books|Parva]] (episode) traditionally has 9 adhyayas (sections, chapters) and has no secondary sub-parvas (parts or little episodes).<ref name=kmg/> Of the 80,000 verses in the critical edition of the Mahabharata - Mausala Parva represents about 0.25% of all verses of the Epic. This makes it one of the smallest episodes of the Epic.<ref name=bd/>


===Background to the Mausala Parva===
===Background to the Mausala Parva===
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===Plot summary===
===Plot summary===
The chapter begins with the announcement at the court of Pandavas that many Yadavas men were killed<ref name="Doniger 263"/><ref name="Doniger 2010 332"/> in an internecine war fought with clubs made of ''eraká'' grass. Yudhishthira asks for details. Mausala Parva then recites the details.
The chapter begins with the announcement at the court of the Pandavas that many Yadava men were killed<ref name="Doniger 263"/><ref name="Doniger 2010 332"/> in an internecine war fought with flails made of ''eraká'' grass. Yudhishthira asks for details. Mausala Parva then recites the details.


The events start near the city of [[Dvārakā]] 36 years after the end of the Kurukshetra war. The kingdom is peaceful and prosperous, the youth of Yadavas have become frivolous and hedonistic. Krishna's son [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]] dresses up as a woman and his friends meet Rishi [[Vishwamitra|Vishvamitra]], [[Durvasa]], [[Vashista]], [[Narada]], and other [[rishi]]s (sages), who were visiting Dvaraka for an audience with Krishna. The young man playfully pretending to be a woman and claimed that he is pregnant and asks the rishis to predict the gender of the baby.<ref name=mnd/>
The events start near the city of [[Dvārakā]] 36 years after the end of the Kurukshetra war. The kingdom is peaceful and prosperous, the youth of Yadavas have become frivolous and hedonistic. Krishna's son [[Samba (Krishna's son)|Samba]] dresses up as a woman and his friends meet Rishi [[Vishwamitra|Vishvamitra]], [[Durvasa]], [[Vashista]], [[Narada]], and other [[rishi]]s (sages), who were visiting Dvaraka for an audience with Krishna. The young man playfully pretended to be a woman and claimed that he is pregnant and asks the rishis to predict the gender of the baby.<ref name=mnd/>


One ''rishi'' sees through the prank. In a fit of rage, he curses Samba will give birth to an iron bolt that will destroy his entire race. The frightened youth inform Krishna what has happened, Krishna was aware of the impending destruction of the Yadava clan and didn't wish to ordain or prevent it, Samba summoned and reported to Krishna and [[Ugrasena]] and it was asked to pulverize the iron bolt into a powder and cast it into the Prabhasa sea and to prevent the distribution of intoxicating spirits in the kingdom.<ref>Ushasri (2001), Bharatam (Dviteeya Bhagam), Telugu Edition, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam's Religious Publication Series. No.: 111, Page 493</ref><ref>C Rajagopalachari (2008), Mahabharata, 52nd Edition, Bhavan's Book University. {{ISBN|81-7276-368-9}}, Page 436</ref>
One ''rishi'' sees through the prank. In a fit of rage, he curses that Samba will give birth to an iron bolt that will destroy his entire clan. The frightened youth inform Krishna about what had happened, Krishna was aware of the impending destruction of the Yadava clan and didn't wish to ordain or prevent it, Samba summoned and reported to Krishna and [[Ugrasena]] and it was asked to pulverize the iron bolt into a powder and cast it into the Prabhasa sea and to prevent the distribution of intoxicating spirits in the kingdom.<ref>Ushasri (2001), Bharatam (Dviteeya Bhagam), Telugu Edition, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam's Religious Publication Series. No.: 111, Page 493</ref><ref>C Rajagopalachari (2008), Mahabharata, 52nd Edition, Bhavan's Book University. {{ISBN|81-7276-368-9}}, Page 436</ref>


The town then witnesses several dark omens, including the disappearance of the [[Sudarshana Chakra]], the [[Panchajanya]] (Krishna's conch), Krishna's [[Ratha|chariot]] and the plough weapon of [[Balarama]]. Pests multiply. Sinful acts multiply, yet no one feels any shame. Wives deceive their husbands, and husbands deceive their wives. Everyone has the same terrifying dreams. People insult and humiliate their seniors and teachers. Krishna asks everyone to go on a pilgrimage to the [[sacred waters]] of the Prabhasa sea. They do. When they arrive, the Yadavas revel in merrymaking, dance and drink much alcohol.<ref>Ushasri (2001), Bharatam (Dviteeya Bhagam), Telugu Edition, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam's Religious Publication Series. No.: 111, Page 494</ref><ref>C Rajagopalachari (2008), Mahabharata, 52nd Edition, Bhavan's Book University. {{ISBN|81-7276-368-9}}, Page 437</ref>
The city then witnesses several dark omens, including the disappearance of the [[Sudarshana Chakra]], the [[Panchajanya]] (Krishna's conch), Krishna's [[Ratha|chariot]] and the plough weapon of [[Balarama]]. Pests multiply. Sinful acts multiply, yet no one feels any shame. Wives deceive their husbands, and husbands deceive their wives. Everyone has the same terrifying dreams. People insult and humiliate their seniors and teachers. Krishna asks everyone to go on a pilgrimage to the [[sacred waters]] of the Prabhasa sea. They do. When they arrive, the Yadavas revel in merrymaking, dance and drink much alcohol.<ref>Ushasri (2001), Bharatam (Dviteeya Bhagam), Telugu Edition, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam's Religious Publication Series. No.: 111, Page 494</ref><ref>C Rajagopalachari (2008), Mahabharata, 52nd Edition, Bhavan's Book University. {{ISBN|81-7276-368-9}}, Page 437</ref>


[[Satyaki]], inebriated with wine, goes over to [[Kritavarma]], criticizes him for scheming with [[Ashwatthama]] and killing the remaining Pandavas' army while they were sleeping (see [[Sauptika Parva]]). [[Pradyumna]] (son of Krishna) applauds Satyaki's words and disregards Kritavarma. Kritavarma in return reminds Satyaki how he (Satyaki) cruelly slayed the unarmed [[Bhurishravas]] who, on the field of battle, sat in prayer. Krishna glances angrily at Kritavarma. They begin to argue about who did more wrong during the Kurukshetra War. In the ensuing fracas, Satyaki decapitates Kritavarma with his sword, then begins striking down others present there. Krishna runs over to prevent him from doing further voilence. However, others are impelled by fate in the face of Krishna to slay Satyaki and [[Pradyumna]], who tries to save Satyaki. Krishna beholding his own slain son Pradyumna as well as Satyaki, takes up, in wrath, ''erakā'' grass in his hand, which miraculously becomes a bolt of iron<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, {{Google books|1Hp1MX8d8osC|A Sanskrit-English Dictionary|page=186}}, see Column 1, entry for Eraka</ref> - it is with this iron rod that he begins to slay the violent. Others try to imitate him by plucking the grass, which transforms into iron bolts in their hands due to the curse. Everyone, inebriated with alcohol, attacks everyone else. Soon everyone who is battling is dead, except for Vabhru, [[Daruka]] (Krishna's charioteer) and Krishna. Balarama survives because he withdrew from that spot before the fight. Krishna asks Daruka to go to the Pandavas, tell them what had happened and to ask Arjuna to come with help. While Daruka was gone, Krishna sends Vabhru to protect the ladies of his kingdom from robbers tempted by wealth. However, as soon as he proceeds to a distance, an iron bolt flies and impales Vabhru, killing him. Krishna goes to Dvaraka and consoles his father Vasudeva, before returning to his brother Balarama in the forest. He sees him departing from this world, giving up his life through [[yoga]]. Krishna who had the foresight of everything that had happened, concludes that the hour of his departure from this world has come. Restraining his senses, he sits in high yoga. Some of the powder cast into the Prabhasa sea had been swallowed by a fish. Inside the fish, the powder had become a metal piece. Jara (skt. 'old age'), a hunter, catches that fish and finds the metal. He sharpens it to make an arrow and goes for hunting, during which, seeing red marks on Krishna's left foot, and mistaking it for a deer's eye, shoots the arrow at it. On approaching the supposed prey to capture it, he beheld Krishna rapt in yoga, and touches his feet for being an offender. Krishna comforts him and then ascends upwards to the heavens, filling the entire sky with splendor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedabase.com/en/sb/11/31/6|title=Bhagvata Purana}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m16/m16004.htm |title =Mahabharata}}</ref>
[[Satyaki]], inebriated with wine, goes over to [[Kritavarma]], criticizes him for scheming with [[Ashwatthama]] and killing the remaining Pandavas' army while they were sleeping (see [[Sauptika Parva]]). [[Pradyumna]] (son of Krishna) applauds Satyaki's words and disregards Kritavarma. Kritavarma in return reminds Satyaki how he (Satyaki) cruelly slayed the unarmed [[Bhurishravas]] who, on the field of battle, sat in prayer. Krishna glances angrily at Kritavarma. They begin to argue about who did more wrong during the Kurukshetra War. In the ensuing fracas, Satyaki decapitates Kritavarma with his sword, then begins striking down others present there. Krishna runs over to prevent him from doing further violence. However, others are impelled by fate in the face of Krishna to slay Satyaki and [[Pradyumna]], who tries to save Satyaki. Krishna beholding his own slain son Pradyumna as well as Satyaki, takes up, in wrath, ''erakā'' grass in his hand, which miraculously becomes a bolt of iron<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, {{Google books|1Hp1MX8d8osC|A Sanskrit-English Dictionary|page=186}}, see Column 1, entry for Eraka</ref> - it is with this iron rod that he begins to slay the violent. Others try to imitate him by plucking the grass, which transforms into iron bolts in their hands due to the curse. Everyone, inebriated with alcohol, attacks everyone else. Soon everyone who is battling is dead, except for Vabhru, [[Daruka]] (Krishna's charioteer) and Krishna. Balarama survives because he withdrew from that spot before the fight. Krishna asks Daruka to go to the Pandavas, tell them what had happened and to ask [[Arjuna]] to come with help. While Daruka was gone, Krishna sends Vabhru to protect the ladies of his kingdom from robbers tempted by wealth. However, as soon as he proceeds to a distance, an iron bolt flies and impales Vabhru, killing him. Krishna goes to Dvaraka and consoles his father Vasudeva, before returning to his brother Balarama in the forest. He sees him departing from this world, giving up his life through [[yoga]]. Krishna who had the foresight of everything that had happened, concludes that the hour of his departure from this world has come. Restraining his senses, he sits in high yoga. Some of the powder cast into the Prabhasa sea had been swallowed by a fish. Inside the fish, the powder had become a metal piece. Jara (skt. 'old age'), a hunter, catches that fish and finds the metal. He sharpens it to make an arrow and goes for hunting, during which, seeing red marks on Krishna's left foot, and mistaking it for a deer's eye, shoots the arrow at it. On approaching the supposed prey to capture it, he beheld Krishna rapt in yoga, and touches his feet for being an offender. Krishna comforts him and then ascends upwards to the heavens, filling the entire sky with splendor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vedabase.com/en/sb/11/31/6|title=Bhagvata Purana}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m16/m16004.htm |title =Mahabharata}}</ref>


Daruka reaches to Pandavas and tells them the whole incident. [[Arjuna]] set out for seeing them. He met there Vasudeva and 500,000 people who killed each other lying there. He tells them to prepare for their leave within a week. [[Vasudeva]] dies the next day while he is meditating, while his wives [[Sati (practice)|join him in a funeral pyre]]. Then Arjuna made rites who died there, according to their order of seniority. With Yadava old men, women and children who are the only survivors, including the 16,000 devotees (women who were saved by Krishna, from [[Narakasura]] and made into his queens) of Krishna, together set off for [[Indraprastha]]. As they are leaving, waters rise, Dvaraka sinks into the sea. Arjuna proceeded by slow marches, causing the [[Vrishni]] women to rest in pleasant forests, mountains and by the sides of delightful streams. Arrived at the country of five waters, they made an encampment there. Bandits overwhelmed by cupidity and temptation attack them, seeing them being protected by only one bowman. The son of [[Kunti]], ceasing turned, with his followers, towards the place where bandits attacked. Smiling the while, Arjuna addresses them but they disregarded his words, fell upon him. With great difficulty, he succeeded in activating his bow. When the battle had become furious, he tries to invoke his [[Astra (weapon)|celestial weapons]], which did not appear at his bidding. The concourse was very large, the bandits assailed it at different points, Arjuna tries his best to protect it, but fails. In his very sight, ladies were dragged away, while some went away with bandits of their own accord, when they found none to save them. Supported by servants, Arjuna struck the bandits with his shafts sped from [[Gandiva]] bow, but soon however his inexhaustible quivers were out of shafts. Then afflicted with grief, he tries to fight with his bow, but until that time those bandits had retreated, taking ladies away with them. Arjuna regarded it all as the work of destiny, while thinking of his non-appearance of celestial weapons, refusal of his bow to obey him; and exhaustion of his shafts. Taking with him the remnant of the Vrishni women, and the wealth that was still with them, reached [[Kurukshetra]]. He installs warriors at different positions at different locations. [[Rukmini]], Saivaya, Haimavatu, and [[Jambavati]], ascended the funeral pyre. [[Satyabhama]] and others entered the woods to practice penances.
Daruka reaches to Pandavas and tells them the whole incident. Arjuna sets out for seeing them. He met there Vasudeva and 500,000 people who killed each other lying there. He tells them to prepare for their leave within a week. [[Vasudeva]] dies the next day while he is meditating, while his wives [[Sati (practice)|join him in a funeral pyre]]. Then Arjuna made rites who died there, according to their order of seniority. With Yadava old men, women and children who are the only survivors, including the 16,000 devotees (women who were saved by Krishna, from [[Narakasura]] and made into his queens) of Krishna, together set off for [[Indraprastha]]. As they are leaving, waters rise, Dvaraka sinks into the sea. Arjuna proceeded by slow marches, causing the [[Vrishni]] women to rest in pleasant forests, mountains and by the sides of delightful streams. Arrived at the country of five waters, they made an encampment there. Bandits overwhelmed by cupidity and temptation attack them, seeing them being protected by only one bowman. The son of [[Kunti]], ceasing turned, with his followers, towards the place where bandits attacked. Smiling the while, Arjuna addresses them but they disregarded his words, fell upon him. With great difficulty, he succeeded in activating his bow. When the battle had become furious, he tries to invoke his [[Astra (weapon)|celestial weapons]], which did not appear at his bidding. The concourse was very large, the bandits assailed it at different points, Arjuna tries his best to protect it, but fails. In his very sight, ladies were dragged away, while some went away with bandits of their own accord, when they found none to save them. Supported by servants, Arjuna struck the bandits with his shafts sped from [[Gandiva]] bow, but soon however his inexhaustible quivers were out of shafts. Then afflicted with grief, he tries to fight with his bow, but until that time those bandits had retreated, taking ladies away with them. Arjuna regarded it all as the work of destiny, while thinking of his non-appearance of celestial weapons, refusal of his bow to obey him; and exhaustion of his shafts. Taking with him the remnant of the Vrishni women, and the wealth that was still with them, reached [[Kurukshetra]]. He installs warriors at different positions at different locations. [[Rukmini]], Saivaya, Haimavatu, and [[Jambavati]], ascended the funeral pyre. [[Satyabhama]] and others entered the woods to practice penances.




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==English translations==
==English translations==
Mausala Parva was composed in Sanskrit. Several translations in English are available. Two translations from 19th century, now in public domain, are those by [[Kisari Mohan Ganguli]]<ref name=kmg/> and Manmatha Nath Dutt.<ref name=mnd/> The translations vary with each translator's interpretations.
Mausala Parva was composed in Sanskrit. Several translations in English are available. Two translations from the 19th century, now in public domain, are those by [[Kisari Mohan Ganguli]]<ref name=kmg/> and Manmatha Nath Dutt.<ref name=mnd/> The translations vary with each translator's interpretations.


Debroy, in 2011, notes<ref name=bd>Bibek Debroy, The Mahabharata : Volume 3, {{ISBN|978-0143100157}}, Penguin Books, page xxiii - xxiv of Introduction</ref> that updated critical edition of Mausala Parva, after removing verses generally accepted so far as spurious and inserted into the original, has 9 adhyayas (chapters) and 273 [[Shloka|shlokas]] (verses).
Debroy, in 2011, notes<ref name=bd>Bibek Debroy, The Mahabharata : Volume 3, {{ISBN|978-0143100157}}, Penguin Books, page xxiii - xxiv of Introduction</ref> that updated critical edition of Mausala Parva, after removing verses generally accepted so far as spurious and inserted into the original, has 9 adhyayas (chapters) and 273 [[Shloka|shlokas]] (verses).
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===Archaeological studies on the Mahabharata===
===Archaeological studies on the Mahabharata===
The details in Mausala Parva have served as a source for scholarly studies on whether the Mahabharata is entirely fictional, or it is partly based on an ancient war in India. The chapters in Mausala Parva that describe Dwarka, its submergence in the Prabhasa sea, and others books of the Mahabharata have attracted the attention of scholars.<ref>Asko Parpola (2002), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3087631 Πανδαιη and Sītā: On the Historical Background of the Sanskrit Epics], Journal of the American Oriental Society, pages 361-373</ref><ref>Rao, S. R., Tripati, S., & Gaur, A. S. (1992), A preliminary exploration of Prabhasa-Somnath, Journal of Marine Archaeology, 3, pages 13-16</ref> It has led to the hypothesis that if any city named Dwarka existed in ancient India, it is likely to have been in the modern Indian state of [[Gujarat]] or [[Maharashtra]].<ref>S. Bhan (1997), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3517757 Recent Trends in Indian Archaeology], Social Scientist, pages 3-15</ref> With funding from the [[Government of India]] (GoI), the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI) and [[National Institute of Oceanography, India|National Institute of Oceanography]] conducted various studies since 1955, particularly since late 1970s. These studies found remnants of various temples in Gujarat, variously dated to be from 9th century, 1st century and 1st millennium BC. The studies have also found ceramic artifacts, votive jars with inscriptions praising the sea god at [[Bet Dwarka]], an island near [[Dwarka]], Gujarat. These have been dated to be between 500 BC and 1500 BC.<ref>Nayak & Rao (1992), Existence And Location Of Dvaraka City of Mahãbhãrata Era And Its Subsequent Submergence—A Reality or A Myth?. New Trends in Indian Art and Archaeology, SR Rao's 70th Birthday Felicitation Volume, New Delhi, published by [[National Institute of Oceanography, India|National Institute of Oceanography]], pages 479-490</ref><ref>Iyengar, R. N., & Radhakrishna, B. P. (2005), Evolution of the Western Coastline of India and the probable location of Dwaraka of Krsna: Geological perspectives, Journal of the Geological Society of India, 66(3), pages 285-292</ref>
The details in Mausala Parva have served as a source for scholarly studies on whether the Mahabharata is entirely fictional, or if it is partly based on an ancient war in India. The chapters in Mausala Parva that describe Dwarka, its submergence in the Prabhasa sea, and others episodes of the Mahabharata have attracted the attention of scholars.<ref>Asko Parpola (2002), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3087631 Πανδαιη and Sītā: On the Historical Background of the Sanskrit Epics], Journal of the American Oriental Society, pages 361-373</ref><ref>Rao, S. R., Tripati, S., & Gaur, A. S. (1992), A preliminary exploration of Prabhasa-Somnath, Journal of Marine Archaeology, 3, pages 13-16</ref> It has led to the hypothesis that if any city named Dwarka existed in ancient India, it is likely to have been in the modern Indian state of [[Gujarat]] or [[Maharashtra]].<ref>S. Bhan (1997), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3517757 Recent Trends in Indian Archaeology], Social Scientist, pages 3-15</ref> With funding from the [[Government of India]] (GoI), the [[Archaeological Survey of India]] (ASI) and the [[National Institute of Oceanography, India|National Institute of Oceanography]] conducted various studies since 1955, particularly since late 1970s. These studies found remnants of various temples in Gujarat, variously dated to be from 9th century, 1st century and 1st millennium BC. The studies have also found ceramic artifacts, votive jars with inscriptions praising the sea god at [[Bet Dwarka]], an island near [[Dwarka]], Gujarat. These have been dated to be between 500 BC and 1500 BC.<ref>Nayak & Rao (1992), Existence And Location Of Dvaraka City of Mahãbhãrata Era And Its Subsequent Submergence—A Reality or A Myth?. New Trends in Indian Art and Archaeology, SR Rao's 70th Birthday Felicitation Volume, New Delhi, published by [[National Institute of Oceanography, India|National Institute of Oceanography]], pages 479-490</ref><ref>Iyengar, R. N., & Radhakrishna, B. P. (2005), Evolution of the Western Coastline of India and the probable location of Dwaraka of Krsna: Geological perspectives, Journal of the Geological Society of India, 66(3), pages 285-292</ref>
Archaeological investigations at Dwarka, both on shore and offshore in the [[Arabian Sea]], have been conducted by the ASI. The first investigations carried out on land in 1963 revealed many artifacts.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/article1801011.ece| title = Significant finds at Dwaraka - Today's Paper - The Hindu| website = [[The Hindu]]}} </ref> The objective of the investigations conducted by the Marine Archaeology Unit of the National Institute of Oceanography and the [[Government of Gujarat]] was to reconstruct the history of maritime trade, shipbuilding and cultural status of ancient city of Dwarka. Excavations done at two sites on the seaward side of Dwarka brought to light submerged settlements, stone-built jetty of large size and triangular stone anchors with three holes. The settlements are in the form of exterior and interior walls, and fort bastions.<ref name="SettarKorisettar2002">{{cite book|last1=Settar|first1=S. |last2=Korisettar|first2=Ravi |title=Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Archaeology and historiography: history, theory, and method|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wp7pAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Indian Council of Historical Research|isbn=978-81-7304-322-2|page=361}}</ref>
Archaeological investigations at Dwarka, both on shore and offshore in the [[Arabian Sea]], have been conducted by the ASI. The first investigations carried out on land in 1963 revealed many artifacts.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/article1801011.ece| title = Significant finds at Dwaraka - Today's Paper - The Hindu| website = [[The Hindu]]}} </ref> The objective of the investigations conducted by the Marine Archaeology Unit of the National Institute of Oceanography and the [[Government of Gujarat]] was to reconstruct the history of maritime trade, shipbuilding and cultural status of the ancient city of Dwarka. Excavations done at two sites on the seaward side of Dwarka brought to light submerged settlements, a stone-built jetty of large size and triangular stone anchors with three holes. The settlements are in the form of exterior and interior walls, and fort bastions.<ref name="SettarKorisettar2002">{{cite book|last1=Settar|first1=S. |last2=Korisettar|first2=Ravi |title=Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Archaeology and historiography: history, theory, and method|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wp7pAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Indian Council of Historical Research|isbn=978-81-7304-322-2|page=361}}</ref>


===Chronology and spread of Mahabharata ===
===Chronology and spread of Mahabharata ===
Mausala Parva is one of the eight books that were discovered in parts of [[Indonesia]]. In islands of Indonesia, [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]] colonial officials discovered the Epic to consist of only eight books, instead of eighteen. It is unclear if this implies the original Epic had only eight books as and when it arrived in Indonesia, or some books were lost as the Epic spread in [[Southeast Asia]]. D. Van Hinloopen Labberton reports the eight parvas as: [[Adi Parva|Adi]], [[Virata Parva|Virata]], [[Udyoga Parva|Udyoga]], [[Bhishma Parva|Bhishma]], [[Ashramavasika Parva|Ashramavasika]], '''Mausala''', [[Mahaprasthanika Parva|Prasthdnika]] and [[Svargarohana Parva|Svargarohana]].<ref>D. Van Hinloopen Labberton (1913), The Mahabharata in Mediaeval Javanese, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 1-22</ref>
Mausala Parva is one of the eight books that were discovered in parts of [[Dutch Indonesia|Indonesia]]. In islands of Indonesia, [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]] colonial officials discovered the Epic to consist of only eight books, instead of eighteen. It is unclear if this implies the original Epic had only eight books as and when it arrived in Indonesia, or some books were lost as the Epic spread in [[Southeast Asia]]. D. Van Hinloopen Labberton reports the eight parvas as: [[Adi Parva|Adi]], [[Virata Parva|Virata]], [[Udyoga Parva|Udyoga]], [[Bhishma Parva|Bhishma]], [[Ashramavasika Parva|Ashramavasika]], '''Mausala''', [[Mahaprasthanika Parva|Prasthdnika]] and [[Svargarohana Parva|Svargarohana]].<ref>D. Van Hinloopen Labberton (1913), The Mahabharata in Mediaeval Javanese, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 1-22</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Latest revision as of 03:25, 20 December 2024

Yadavas killing themselves, with Krishna (blue figure) and his brother Balarama depicted at right. Painting by M. V. Dhurandhar

The Mausala Parva (lit. Episode of Flails)[1][2] is the sixteenth of the eighteen episodes of the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata. It traditionally has nine chapters.[3][4] The critical edition has eight chapters.[5][6] One of the 3 shortest episodes within the epic, the Mausala Parva describes the demise of Krishna in the 36th year after the Kurukshetra War had ended, the submersion of Dvaraka under the sea, the death of Balarama by drowning in the sea, Vasudeva's death, and a civil war fought among the Yadava clan that killed many of them.[7][8] The story of infighting of the Yadavas[8][9][10] becomes the reason why the Pandava brothers renounce their kingdom and begin their walk towards heaven, events recited in the last two books of the Mahabharata.[4][11]

The Mausala Parva is significant for serving as a basis of archaeological studies for the Mahabharata, as well as being one of the eight Parvas found in Hindu culture of Java and Bali, Indonesia.

Structure and chapters

[edit]

Mausala Parva (episode) traditionally has 9 adhyayas (sections, chapters) and has no secondary sub-parvas (parts or little episodes).[3] Of the 80,000 verses in the critical edition of the Mahabharata - Mausala Parva represents about 0.25% of all verses of the Epic. This makes it one of the smallest episodes of the Epic.[12]

Background to the Mausala Parva

[edit]

After the end of the great Kurukshetra War, Gandhari confronted Krishna, a meeting described in the Stri Parva. In anger and grief over the death of her hundred sons, her brothers, and of other members of her clan, Gandhari cursed Krishna that his Yadava kinsmen [7][9] too would die in a fratricidal strife.

Plot summary

[edit]

The chapter begins with the announcement at the court of the Pandavas that many Yadava men were killed[7][9] in an internecine war fought with flails made of eraká grass. Yudhishthira asks for details. Mausala Parva then recites the details.

The events start near the city of Dvārakā 36 years after the end of the Kurukshetra war. The kingdom is peaceful and prosperous, the youth of Yadavas have become frivolous and hedonistic. Krishna's son Samba dresses up as a woman and his friends meet Rishi Vishvamitra, Durvasa, Vashista, Narada, and other rishis (sages), who were visiting Dvaraka for an audience with Krishna. The young man playfully pretended to be a woman and claimed that he is pregnant and asks the rishis to predict the gender of the baby.[4]

One rishi sees through the prank. In a fit of rage, he curses that Samba will give birth to an iron bolt that will destroy his entire clan. The frightened youth inform Krishna about what had happened, Krishna was aware of the impending destruction of the Yadava clan and didn't wish to ordain or prevent it, Samba summoned and reported to Krishna and Ugrasena and it was asked to pulverize the iron bolt into a powder and cast it into the Prabhasa sea and to prevent the distribution of intoxicating spirits in the kingdom.[13][14]

The city then witnesses several dark omens, including the disappearance of the Sudarshana Chakra, the Panchajanya (Krishna's conch), Krishna's chariot and the plough weapon of Balarama. Pests multiply. Sinful acts multiply, yet no one feels any shame. Wives deceive their husbands, and husbands deceive their wives. Everyone has the same terrifying dreams. People insult and humiliate their seniors and teachers. Krishna asks everyone to go on a pilgrimage to the sacred waters of the Prabhasa sea. They do. When they arrive, the Yadavas revel in merrymaking, dance and drink much alcohol.[15][16]

Satyaki, inebriated with wine, goes over to Kritavarma, criticizes him for scheming with Ashwatthama and killing the remaining Pandavas' army while they were sleeping (see Sauptika Parva). Pradyumna (son of Krishna) applauds Satyaki's words and disregards Kritavarma. Kritavarma in return reminds Satyaki how he (Satyaki) cruelly slayed the unarmed Bhurishravas who, on the field of battle, sat in prayer. Krishna glances angrily at Kritavarma. They begin to argue about who did more wrong during the Kurukshetra War. In the ensuing fracas, Satyaki decapitates Kritavarma with his sword, then begins striking down others present there. Krishna runs over to prevent him from doing further violence. However, others are impelled by fate in the face of Krishna to slay Satyaki and Pradyumna, who tries to save Satyaki. Krishna beholding his own slain son Pradyumna as well as Satyaki, takes up, in wrath, erakā grass in his hand, which miraculously becomes a bolt of iron[17] - it is with this iron rod that he begins to slay the violent. Others try to imitate him by plucking the grass, which transforms into iron bolts in their hands due to the curse. Everyone, inebriated with alcohol, attacks everyone else. Soon everyone who is battling is dead, except for Vabhru, Daruka (Krishna's charioteer) and Krishna. Balarama survives because he withdrew from that spot before the fight. Krishna asks Daruka to go to the Pandavas, tell them what had happened and to ask Arjuna to come with help. While Daruka was gone, Krishna sends Vabhru to protect the ladies of his kingdom from robbers tempted by wealth. However, as soon as he proceeds to a distance, an iron bolt flies and impales Vabhru, killing him. Krishna goes to Dvaraka and consoles his father Vasudeva, before returning to his brother Balarama in the forest. He sees him departing from this world, giving up his life through yoga. Krishna who had the foresight of everything that had happened, concludes that the hour of his departure from this world has come. Restraining his senses, he sits in high yoga. Some of the powder cast into the Prabhasa sea had been swallowed by a fish. Inside the fish, the powder had become a metal piece. Jara (skt. 'old age'), a hunter, catches that fish and finds the metal. He sharpens it to make an arrow and goes for hunting, during which, seeing red marks on Krishna's left foot, and mistaking it for a deer's eye, shoots the arrow at it. On approaching the supposed prey to capture it, he beheld Krishna rapt in yoga, and touches his feet for being an offender. Krishna comforts him and then ascends upwards to the heavens, filling the entire sky with splendor.[18][19]

Daruka reaches to Pandavas and tells them the whole incident. Arjuna sets out for seeing them. He met there Vasudeva and 500,000 people who killed each other lying there. He tells them to prepare for their leave within a week. Vasudeva dies the next day while he is meditating, while his wives join him in a funeral pyre. Then Arjuna made rites who died there, according to their order of seniority. With Yadava old men, women and children who are the only survivors, including the 16,000 devotees (women who were saved by Krishna, from Narakasura and made into his queens) of Krishna, together set off for Indraprastha. As they are leaving, waters rise, Dvaraka sinks into the sea. Arjuna proceeded by slow marches, causing the Vrishni women to rest in pleasant forests, mountains and by the sides of delightful streams. Arrived at the country of five waters, they made an encampment there. Bandits overwhelmed by cupidity and temptation attack them, seeing them being protected by only one bowman. The son of Kunti, ceasing turned, with his followers, towards the place where bandits attacked. Smiling the while, Arjuna addresses them but they disregarded his words, fell upon him. With great difficulty, he succeeded in activating his bow. When the battle had become furious, he tries to invoke his celestial weapons, which did not appear at his bidding. The concourse was very large, the bandits assailed it at different points, Arjuna tries his best to protect it, but fails. In his very sight, ladies were dragged away, while some went away with bandits of their own accord, when they found none to save them. Supported by servants, Arjuna struck the bandits with his shafts sped from Gandiva bow, but soon however his inexhaustible quivers were out of shafts. Then afflicted with grief, he tries to fight with his bow, but until that time those bandits had retreated, taking ladies away with them. Arjuna regarded it all as the work of destiny, while thinking of his non-appearance of celestial weapons, refusal of his bow to obey him; and exhaustion of his shafts. Taking with him the remnant of the Vrishni women, and the wealth that was still with them, reached Kurukshetra. He installs warriors at different positions at different locations. Rukmini, Saivaya, Haimavatu, and Jambavati, ascended the funeral pyre. Satyabhama and others entered the woods to practice penances.


Arjuna becomes depressed and full of doubts about his warrior abilities. He approaches Vyasa, and explains how he feels for failing those that depended on him for their safety and security. Sage Vyasa explains that it was the destiny of those warriors, Krishna suffered it too, although he was competent to baffle the curses, Arjuna and his brothers have served the purpose of their lives, those weapons with which he achieved success no longer needs him, and had gone to the place from where they came from. So it is time for them to retire and renounce their kingdom. Arjuna takes leave of Vyasa, meets with Yudhishthira and tells them what had happened.[4]

English translations

[edit]

Mausala Parva was composed in Sanskrit. Several translations in English are available. Two translations from the 19th century, now in public domain, are those by Kisari Mohan Ganguli[3] and Manmatha Nath Dutt.[4] The translations vary with each translator's interpretations.

Debroy, in 2011, notes[12] that updated critical edition of Mausala Parva, after removing verses generally accepted so far as spurious and inserted into the original, has 9 adhyayas (chapters) and 273 shlokas (verses).

The entire parva has been "transcreated" and translated in verse by the poet Dr. Purushottama Lal published by Writers Workshop.

Significance

[edit]

Archaeological studies on the Mahabharata

[edit]

The details in Mausala Parva have served as a source for scholarly studies on whether the Mahabharata is entirely fictional, or if it is partly based on an ancient war in India. The chapters in Mausala Parva that describe Dwarka, its submergence in the Prabhasa sea, and others episodes of the Mahabharata have attracted the attention of scholars.[20][21] It has led to the hypothesis that if any city named Dwarka existed in ancient India, it is likely to have been in the modern Indian state of Gujarat or Maharashtra.[22] With funding from the Government of India (GoI), the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and the National Institute of Oceanography conducted various studies since 1955, particularly since late 1970s. These studies found remnants of various temples in Gujarat, variously dated to be from 9th century, 1st century and 1st millennium BC. The studies have also found ceramic artifacts, votive jars with inscriptions praising the sea god at Bet Dwarka, an island near Dwarka, Gujarat. These have been dated to be between 500 BC and 1500 BC.[23][24] Archaeological investigations at Dwarka, both on shore and offshore in the Arabian Sea, have been conducted by the ASI. The first investigations carried out on land in 1963 revealed many artifacts.[25] The objective of the investigations conducted by the Marine Archaeology Unit of the National Institute of Oceanography and the Government of Gujarat was to reconstruct the history of maritime trade, shipbuilding and cultural status of the ancient city of Dwarka. Excavations done at two sites on the seaward side of Dwarka brought to light submerged settlements, a stone-built jetty of large size and triangular stone anchors with three holes. The settlements are in the form of exterior and interior walls, and fort bastions.[26]

Chronology and spread of Mahabharata

[edit]

Mausala Parva is one of the eight books that were discovered in parts of Indonesia. In islands of Indonesia, Dutch colonial officials discovered the Epic to consist of only eight books, instead of eighteen. It is unclear if this implies the original Epic had only eight books as and when it arrived in Indonesia, or some books were lost as the Epic spread in Southeast Asia. D. Van Hinloopen Labberton reports the eight parvas as: Adi, Virata, Udyoga, Bhishma, Ashramavasika, Mausala, Prasthdnika and Svargarohana.[27]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/parva#:~:text=Parva%20means%20'episode'.,ceremonies%2C%20various%20arts%20and%20sciences.
  2. ^ https://sanskritdictionary.com/?q=musala
  3. ^ a b c Ganguli, K.M. (1883-1896) "Mausala Parva" in The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa (12 Volumes). Calcutta
  4. ^ a b c d e Dutt, M.N. (1905) The Mahabharata (Volume 16): Mausala Parva. Calcutta: Elysium Press
  5. ^ van Buitenen, J.A.B. (1973) The Mahabharata: Book 1: The Book of the Beginning. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, p 478
  6. ^ Debroy, B. (2010) The Mahabharata, Volume 1. Gurgaon: Penguin Books India, pp xxiii - xxvi
  7. ^ a b c Doniger, Wendy (1980-10-13). The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. University of California. p. 263. ISBN 9780520040984. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  8. ^ a b Menon, Ramesh (2005). The Mahabharata: A Modern Rendering, Volume 2. Iuniverse USA. p. 526. ISBN 978-0-595-40188-8. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  9. ^ a b c Doniger, Wendy (2010). Jaya: An Illustrated Retelling of the Mahabharata. Penguin Books. p. 332. ISBN 9780143104254. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  10. ^ Singh, Sarva Daman (1965). Ancient Indian Warfare: With Special Reference to the Vedic Period. University of Lucknow. p. 163. Retrieved 17 October 2013.
  11. ^ John Murdoch (1898), The Mahabharata - An English Abridgment, Christian Literature Society for India, London, pages 132-137
  12. ^ a b Bibek Debroy, The Mahabharata : Volume 3, ISBN 978-0143100157, Penguin Books, page xxiii - xxiv of Introduction
  13. ^ Ushasri (2001), Bharatam (Dviteeya Bhagam), Telugu Edition, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam's Religious Publication Series. No.: 111, Page 493
  14. ^ C Rajagopalachari (2008), Mahabharata, 52nd Edition, Bhavan's Book University. ISBN 81-7276-368-9, Page 436
  15. ^ Ushasri (2001), Bharatam (Dviteeya Bhagam), Telugu Edition, Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam's Religious Publication Series. No.: 111, Page 494
  16. ^ C Rajagopalachari (2008), Mahabharata, 52nd Edition, Bhavan's Book University. ISBN 81-7276-368-9, Page 437
  17. ^ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 186, at Google Books, see Column 1, entry for Eraka
  18. ^ "Bhagvata Purana".
  19. ^ "Mahabharata".
  20. ^ Asko Parpola (2002), Πανδαιη and Sītā: On the Historical Background of the Sanskrit Epics, Journal of the American Oriental Society, pages 361-373
  21. ^ Rao, S. R., Tripati, S., & Gaur, A. S. (1992), A preliminary exploration of Prabhasa-Somnath, Journal of Marine Archaeology, 3, pages 13-16
  22. ^ S. Bhan (1997), Recent Trends in Indian Archaeology, Social Scientist, pages 3-15
  23. ^ Nayak & Rao (1992), Existence And Location Of Dvaraka City of Mahãbhãrata Era And Its Subsequent Submergence—A Reality or A Myth?. New Trends in Indian Art and Archaeology, SR Rao's 70th Birthday Felicitation Volume, New Delhi, published by National Institute of Oceanography, pages 479-490
  24. ^ Iyengar, R. N., & Radhakrishna, B. P. (2005), Evolution of the Western Coastline of India and the probable location of Dwaraka of Krsna: Geological perspectives, Journal of the Geological Society of India, 66(3), pages 285-292
  25. ^ "Significant finds at Dwaraka - Today's Paper - The Hindu". The Hindu.
  26. ^ Settar, S.; Korisettar, Ravi (2002). Indian Archaeology in Retrospect: Archaeology and historiography: history, theory, and method. Indian Council of Historical Research. p. 361. ISBN 978-81-7304-322-2.
  27. ^ D. Van Hinloopen Labberton (1913), The Mahabharata in Mediaeval Javanese, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 1-22
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