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{{Short description|Species of fungus}}
{{stack begin}}
{{stack begin}}
{{Speciesbox
{{Taxobox
| image = Lactarius alnicola 6936.jpg
| image = Lactarius alnicola 6936.jpg
⚫
| genus = Lactarius
| image_width = 234px
⚫
| species = alnicola
| regnum = [[Fungus|Fungi]]
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| authority = [[Alexander H. Smith|A.H.Sm.]] (1960)
| divisio = [[Basidiomycota]]
| classis = [[Agaricomycetes]]
| ordo = [[Russulales]]
| familia = [[Russulaceae]]
⚫
| genus = ''[[Lactarius]]''
⚫
| species = '''''L. alnicola'''''
| binomial = ''Lactarius alnicola''
⚫
| binomial_authority = [[Alexander H. Smith|A.H.Sm.]] (1960)
}}
}}
{{Mycomorphbox
{{mycomorphbox
| name = ''Lactarius alnicola''
| name = ''Lactarius alnicola''
| whichGills = adnate
| whichGills = adnate
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}}
}}
{{stack end}}
{{stack end}}

'''''Lactarius alnicola''''', commonly known as the '''golden milkcap''', is a species of [[fungus]] in the [[Russulaceae]] family. The [[basidiocarp|fruit bodies]] produced by the fungus are characterized by a sticky, vanilla-colored [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] up to {{convert|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide with a mixture of yellow tones arranged in faint concentric bands. The [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] is up to {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and has yellow-brown spots. When it is cut or injured, the mushroom oozes a white [[latex]], which has an intensely peppery taste. The acrid taste of the fruit bodies renders them unpalatable. The fungus is found in the western United States and Mexico, where it grows in [[mycorrhiza]]l associations with various [[coniferous]] trees species, such as [[spruce]], [[pine]] and [[fir]], and [[deciduous]] species such as [[oak]] and [[alder]]. It has also been collected in India. Two [[variety (botany)|varieties]] have been named: var. ''pitkinensis'', known from [[Colorado]], and var. ''pungens'', from [[Michigan]].
'''''Lactarius alnicola''''', commonly known as the '''golden milkcap''', is a species of [[fungus]] in the family [[Russulaceae]]. The [[basidiocarp|fruit bodies]] produced by the fungus are characterized by a sticky, vanilla-colored [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] up to {{convert|20|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}} wide with a mixture of yellow tones arranged in faint concentric bands. The [[stipe (mycology)|stem]] is up to {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=4}} long and has yellow-brown spots. When it is cut or injured, the mushroom oozes a white [[latex]], which has an intensely peppery taste. The acrid taste of the fruit bodies renders them unpalatable. Two [[variety (botany)|varieties]] have been named: var. ''pitkinensis'', known from [[Colorado]], and var. ''pungens'', from [[Michigan]].

The fungus is found in the western United States and Mexico, where it grows in [[mycorrhiza]]l associations with various [[coniferous]] trees species, such as [[spruce]], [[pine]] and [[fir]], and [[deciduous]] species such as [[oak]] and [[alder]]. It has also been collected in India.


==Taxonomy==
==Taxonomy==
The species was originally described by American mycologist [[Alexander H. Smith]] in 1960, from a collection made near [[Warm Lake]], [[Idaho]], two years prior. The species was originally collected under [[alders]] with [[conifer]]s nearby, and its [[specific name (botany)|specific epithet]] reflects the presumed association between the species<ref name=Hesler1960/>—''alnicola'' means "living with alder".<ref name=Gledhill2008/> Researchers subsequently discovered that the species has a relationship with conifers, not with alders, as the name implies.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46">Bessette ''et al''., 2009, pp. 145–46.</ref> The mushroom is [[common name|commonly]] known as the "golden milkcap".<ref name=Arora1986/>
The species was originally described by American mycologist [[Alexander H. Smith]] in 1960, from a collection made near [[Warm Lake]], [[Idaho]], two years prior. The species was originally collected under [[alder]]s with [[conifer]]s nearby, and its [[specific name (botany)|specific epithet]] reflects the presumed association between the species<ref name=Hesler1960/>—''alnicola'' means "living with alder".<ref name=Gledhill2008/> Researchers subsequently discovered that the species has a relationship with conifers, not with alders, as the name implies.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46">Bessette ''et al.''., 2009, pp. 145–46.</ref> The mushroom is [[common name|commonly]] known as the "golden milkcap".<ref name=Arora1986/>


''Lactarius alnicola'' is classified in subsection ''Scrobiculati'' of [[section (biology)|section]] ''Piperites'' in the genus ''[[Lactarius]]''. Species in this subsection are characterized by having a milk-white to creamy or whey-like [[latex]] that soon turns yellow upon exposure to air, and which may stain freshly cut surfaces of the fruit body yellow. Further, the cap margin is bearded, [[wikt:strigose|strigose]] (covered with sharp, straight, and stiff hairs), and coarsely [[tomentose]] or woolly when young. Other species in the subsection include ''[[Lactarius subpaludosus|L.&nbsp;subpaludosus]]'', ''[[Lactarius delicatus|L.&nbsp;delicatus]]'', ''[[Lactarius torminosus|L.&nbsp;torminosus]]'', ''[[Lactarius payettensis|L.&nbsp;payettensis]]'', ''[[Lactarius gossypinus|L.&nbsp;gossypinus]]'', ''[[Lactarius pubescens|L.&nbsp;pubescens]]'', ''[[Lactarius resimus|L.&nbsp;resimus]]'' and ''[[Lactarius scrobiculatus|L.&nbsp;scrobiculatus]]'' (the [[type species]] of the subsection).<ref>Hesler and Smith, 1979, p. 237; pp. 285–86.</ref>
''Lactarius alnicola'' is classified in subsection ''Scrobiculati'' of [[section (biology)|section]] ''Piperites'' in the genus ''[[Lactarius (fungus)|Lactarius]]''. Species in this subsection are characterized by having a milk-white to creamy or whey-like [[latex]] that soon turns yellow upon exposure to air, and which may stain freshly cut surfaces of the fruit body yellow. Further, the cap margin is bearded, [[wikt:strigose|strigose]] (covered with sharp, straight, and stiff hairs), and coarsely [[tomentose]] or woolly when young. Other species in the subsection include ''[[Lactarius subpaludosus|L.&nbsp;subpaludosus]]'', ''[[Lactarius delicatus|L.&nbsp;delicatus]]'', ''[[Lactarius torminosus|L.&nbsp;torminosus]]'', ''[[Lactarius payettensis|L.&nbsp;payettensis]]'', ''[[Lactarius gossypinus|L.&nbsp;gossypinus]]'', ''[[Lactarius pubescens|L.&nbsp;pubescens]]'', ''[[Lactarius resimus|L.&nbsp;resimus]]'' and ''[[Lactarius scrobiculatus|L.&nbsp;scrobiculatus]]'' (the [[type species]] of the subsection).<ref>Hesler and Smith, 1979, p. 237; pp. 285–86.</ref>


==Description==
==Description==
[[File:Lactarius alnicola 34217.jpg|thumb|left|The gills are forked near the stem.]]
[[File:Lactarius alnicola 34217.jpg|thumb|left|The gills are forked near the stem.]]
The [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] is {{convert|8|–|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide, initially convex but becoming depressed to funnel-shaped in maturity. The cap margin is initially rolled inward, then becomes uplifted as the cap expands. The cap surface is sticky to slimy, and near the margin there are matted "hairs" beneath the slimy or sticky layer. The color of the cap surface is yellow-[[ochre]], sometimes with concentric bands of lighter and darker shades; the color becomes paler near the margin. The [[lamella (mycology)|gills]] are [[wikt:adnate|adnate]] (squarely attached to the stem) to [[wikt:decurrent|decurrent]] (attached to and running down the length of the stem), narrow, and crowded closely together. Forked near the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]], the gills are initially whitish before becoming pale ochraceous-[[buff (color)|buff]]. There are many lamellulae—small gills that do not extend completely to the stem.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/><ref name=Arora1986/>
The [[pileus (mycology)|cap]] is {{convert|6|–|20|cm|abbr=on|frac=2}} wide, initially convex but becoming depressed to funnel-shaped in maturity. The cap margin is initially rolled inward, then becomes uplifted as the cap expands. The cap surface is sticky to slimy, and near the margin there are matted "hairs" beneath the slimy or sticky layer. The color of the cap surface is yellow-[[ochre]], sometimes with concentric bands of lighter and darker shades; the color becomes paler near the margin. The [[lamella (mycology)|gills]] are [[wikt:adnate|adnate]] (squarely attached to the stem) to [[wikt:decurrent|decurrent]] (attached to and running down the length of the stem), narrow, and crowded closely together. Forked near the [[stipe (mycology)|stem]], the gills are initially whitish before becoming pale ochraceous-[[buff (color)|buff]]. There are many lamellulae—small gills that do not extend completely to the stem.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/><ref name=Arora1986/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Davis|first=R. Michael|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/797915861|title=Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America|last2=Sommer|first2=Robert|last3=Menge|first3=John A.|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=2012|isbn=978-0-520-95360-4|location=Berkeley|pages=92|oclc=797915861}}</ref>


The stem is {{convert|3|–|6|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|–|3|cm|in|1|abbr=on}} thick, nearly equal in width throughout or tapered downward, dry, hard, coarsely pitted, and whitish to cream yellowish. It is initially solid, then becomes hollow with age. The [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is thick, hard, whitish, and slowly stains pale yellow after the mushroom has been cut open. It has no distinctive odor, while the taste is immediately [[wikt:acrid|acrid]]. The [[latex]] is sparse, white on exposure to air, and unchanging or very slowly changing color to yellow. It stains cut flesh yellow, and tastes acrid.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/> According to mycologist [[David Arora]], the oak-loving central and southern Californian population of this species has a more latent acrid taste.<ref name=Arora1986/> The [[spore print]] may range slightly in color: thin deposits are white, thick deposits are more yellow.<ref name="H&S300-304"/> The mushroom is considered inedible because of the intensely peppery taste.<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Lactarius alnicola"/>
The stem is {{convert|3|–|6|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} long and {{convert|2|–|3|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} thick, nearly equal in width throughout or tapered downward, dry, hard, coarsely pitted, and whitish to cream yellowish. It is initially solid, then becomes hollow with age. The [[trama (mycology)|flesh]] is thick, hard, whitish, and slowly stains pale yellow after the mushroom has been cut open. It has no distinctive odor, while the taste is immediately [[wikt:acrid|acrid]]. The [[latex]] is sparse, white on exposure to air, and unchanging or very slowly changing color to yellow. It stains cut flesh yellow, and tastes acrid.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/> According to mycologist [[David Arora]], the oak-loving central and southern Californian population of this species has a more latent acrid taste.<ref name=Arora1986/> The [[spore print]] may range slightly in color: thin deposits are white, thick deposits are more yellow.<ref name="H&S300-304"/> The mushroom is considered inedible because of the intensely peppery taste.<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Lactarius alnicola"/>


===Microscopic characters===
===Microscopic characters===
[[File:Lactarius alnicola 6958.jpg|thumb|right|Spores of ''L. alnicola'', viewed at 1000x; 10 divisions equal 9.75&nbsp;µm.]]
[[File:Lactarius alnicola 6958.jpg|thumb|right|Spores of ''L. alnicola'', viewed at 1000x; 10 divisions equal 9.75&nbsp;μm.]]
The [[spore]]s are 7.5–10 by 6–8.5&nbsp;[[micrometre|µm]], [[wikt:ellipsoid|ellipsoid]], and ornamented with warts and narrow bands that form a partial reticulum.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/> The surface prominences are up to 1&nbsp;µm high, but mostly in the range 0.3&ndash;0.6&nbsp;µm.<ref name="H&S300-304"/> The spores are [[hyaline]] (translucent) and [[amyloid (mycology)|amyloid]], meaning that they will adsorb [[iodine]] when [[staining|stained]] with [[Melzer's reagent]]. The [[basidia]], the spore-bearing cells, are four-spored, and measure 37–48 by 8–11&nbsp;µm. The [[pileipellis|cap cuticle]] is an [[wikt:ixocutis|ixocutis]] (a tissue layer on the surface of a mushroom made of a layer of gelatinous [[hypha]]e) made of encrusted hyphae that are 3–5&nbsp;µm wide.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/>
The [[spore]]s are 7.5–10 by 6–8.5&nbsp;[[μm]], [[wikt:ellipsoid|ellipsoid]], and ornamented with warts and narrow bands that form a partial reticulum.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/> The surface prominences are up to 1&nbsp;μm high, but mostly in the range 0.3&ndash;0.6&nbsp;μm.<ref name="H&S300-304"/> The spores are [[hyaline]] (translucent) and [[amyloid (mycology)|amyloid]], meaning that they will adsorb [[iodine]] when [[staining|stained]] with [[Melzer's reagent]]. The [[basidia]], the spore-bearing cells, are four-spored, and measure 37–48 by 8–11&nbsp;μm. The [[pileipellis|cap cuticle]] is an [[wikt:ixocutis|ixocutis]] (a tissue layer on the surface of a mushroom made of a layer of gelatinous [[hypha]]e) made of encrusted hyphae that are 3–5&nbsp;μm wide.<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/>


===Varieties===
===Varieties===
In their 1979 [[monograph]] of North American ''Lactarius'' species, [[Lexemuel Ray Hesler|Hesler]] and Smith named two [[variety (botany)|varieties]] of ''L.&nbsp;alnicola''. ''Lactarius alnicola'' var. ''pitkinensis'', reported under mixed aspen and conifers from [[Ashcroft, Colorado]], is very similar to the nominate variety, but it has a white to cream-colored cap and white, unchanging latex. It has slightly smaller fruit bodies, with caps up to {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide, and stems up to {{convert|4|cm|in|abbr=on}} long; its spores are slightly larger, measuring 9–10.5 by 7.5–9&nbsp;µm. ''Lactarius alnicola'' var. ''pungens'', reported only from mixed forests in [[Michigan]], is similar but has a tacky surface that soon dries, a dull ochraceous to ochraceous-tan cap with an ochraceous-[[tawny (color)|tawny]] center. It has whitish flesh, with a pungent odor described as "distinct and peculiar".<ref name="H&S300-304">Hesler and Smith, 1979, pp. 300–04.</ref>
In their 1979 [[monograph]] of North American ''Lactarius'' species, [[Lexemuel Ray Hesler|Hesler]] and Smith named two [[variety (botany)|varieties]] of ''L.&nbsp;alnicola''. ''Lactarius alnicola'' var. ''pitkinensis'', reported under mixed aspen and conifers from [[Ashcroft, Colorado]], is very similar to the nominate variety, but it has a white to cream-colored cap and white, unchanging latex. It has slightly smaller fruit bodies, with caps up to {{convert|10|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} wide, and stems up to {{convert|4|cm|abbr=on|frac=4}} long; its spores are slightly larger, measuring 9–10.5 by 7.5–9&nbsp;μm. ''Lactarius alnicola'' var. ''pungens'', reported only from mixed forests in [[Michigan]], is similar but has a tacky surface that soon dries, a dull ochraceous to ochraceous-tan cap with an ochraceous-[[tawny (color)|tawny]] center. It has whitish flesh, with a pungent odor described as "distinct and peculiar".<ref name="H&S300-304">Hesler and Smith, 1979, pp. 300–04.</ref>


===Similar species===
===Similar species===
[[File:Chanterelle.jpg|thumb|right|''Cantharellus cibarius'']]
[[File:Chanterelle.jpg|thumb|right|''Cantharellus cibarius'']]
Novice mushroom hunters may mistake ''L.&nbsp;alnicola'' for the [[edible mushroom|edible]] species ''[[Cantharellus cibarius]]'',<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Lactarius alnicola"/> a choice [[edible mushroom|edible]] species that has a vase-shaped fruit body with strongly decurrent gills.<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Cantharellus cibarius"/> Other similar ''Lactarius'' species include ''[[Lactarius zonarius|L.&nbsp;zonarius]]'', ''[[Lactarius payettensis|L.&nbsp;payettensis]]'', ''[[Lactarius yazooensis|L.&nbsp;yazooensis]]'', ''[[Lactarius olympianus|L.&nbsp;olympianus]]'', and [[Lactarius psammicola|''L.&nbsp;psammicola'' f. ''glaber'']].<ref name=Candusso1994/> ''L.&nbsp;olympianus'' also associates with conifers, and has a pale yellow-ochre, frequently zonate cap, but may be distinguished by its stem, which is usually covered with spots.<ref name=Evenson1997/> ''L.&nbsp;payettensis'' has a roughened, not smooth, cap margin.<ref name="urlLactarius payettensis (MushroomExpert.Com)"/> ''L.&nbsp;yazooensis'' has a zonate cap and extremely acrid flesh. Its gills change color from pale vinaceous to light pinkish-brown in maturity.<ref>Bessette ''et al''., 2009, p. 268.</ref> ''L.&nbsp;psammicola'' f. ''glaber'' has a pinkish-buff spore print.<ref>Bessette ''et al''., 2009, p. 222.</ref> Mature fruit bodies of ''L.&nbsp;scrobiculatus'' var. ''montanus'' have been confused with ''L.&nbsp;alnicola''. Its fruit bodies feature a smooth cap margin, acrid taste, white latex which slowly (over several minutes) turns yellow on exposure or stains the flesh yellow, and do not turn "clay color" when bruised.<ref name=Methven1985/>
Novice mushroom hunters may mistake ''L.&nbsp;alnicola'' for the [[edible mushroom|edible]] species ''[[Cantharellus cibarius]]'',<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Lactarius alnicola"/> which has a vase-shaped fruit body with strongly decurrent gills.<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Cantharellus cibarius"/> Other similar ''Lactarius'' species include ''[[Lactarius zonarius|L.&nbsp;zonarius]]'', ''[[Lactarius payettensis|L.&nbsp;payettensis]]'', ''[[Lactarius yazooensis|L.&nbsp;yazooensis]]'', ''[[Lactarius olympianus|L.&nbsp;olympianus]]'', and [[Lactarius psammicola|''L.&nbsp;psammicola'' f. ''glaber'']].<ref name=Candusso1994/>
''L.&nbsp;olympianus'' associates with conifers and has a pale yellow-ochre, frequently [[zonate]] cap, but may be distinguished by its stem, which is usually covered with spots.<ref name="Evenson1997" /> ''L.&nbsp;payettensis'' has a roughened, not smooth, cap margin.<ref name="urlLactarius payettensis (MushroomExpert.Com)" /> ''L.&nbsp;yazooensis'' has a zonate cap and extremely acrid flesh. Its gills change color from pale [[wine (color)|vinaceous]] to light pinkish-brown in maturity.<ref>Bessette ''et al.''., 2009, p. 268.</ref> ''L.&nbsp;psammicola'' f. ''glaber'' has a pinkish-buff spore print.<ref>Bessette ''et al.''., 2009, p. 222.</ref> Mature fruit bodies of ''L.&nbsp;scrobiculatus'' var. ''montanus'' have been confused with ''L.&nbsp;alnicola''. Its fruit bodies feature a smooth cap margin, acrid taste, white latex which slowly (over several minutes) turns yellow on exposure or stains the flesh yellow, and do not turn "clay color" when bruised.<ref name="Methven1985" />


==Ecology, habitat, and distribution==
==Ecology, habitat, and distribution==
''Lactarius alnicola'' is an [[Mycorrhiza#Types of mycorrhiza|ectomycorrhizal]] species, and engages in a [[mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] association with certain plant species. In this association, the [[hypha]]e of the fungus permeate large volumes of soil and obtain scarce [[chemical element|elements]], especially [[phosphorus]]—which is often limiting for plant growth—which they pass on to the plant in exchange for metabolic products of the plant's [[photosynthesis]]. The ectomycorrhizae that the fungus forms in association with ''[[Picea engelmannii]]'' have been shown to contain lactifers (latex-producing cells) and [[pigment]]s similar to the fruit body.<ref name=Kernaghan1997/> Fruit bodies of the fungus grow in groups on the ground under [[alder]]s and [[conifer]]s, usually appearing between July and October. It is a fairly common species in the western United States<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/> and [[Baja California]].<ref name=Candusso1994/> Additional collection locations in Mexico include [[Veracruz]], [[Villarreal]], and [[Tapia]].<ref name=Montoya1996/> A population in central and southern California is known to associate with [[oak]] trees.<ref name=Arora1986/> In the [[Rocky Mountains]] it is associated with the [[subalpine]] tree species Englemann Spruce (''[[Picea engelmannii]]''), while at lower elevations it is commonly found with white spruce (''[[Picea glauca]]'').<ref name=Currah1989/> It is also known to associate with Ponderosa Pine (''[[Pinus ponderosa]]'') and Douglas-fir (genus ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'').<ref name=Barroetavena12007/> The mushroom has also been collected from [[Bageshwar]], in the state of [[Uttarakhand]], India.<ref name=Mukeriji2010/>
''Lactarius alnicola'' is an [[Mycorrhiza#Types|ectomycorrhizal]] species, and engages in a [[mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] association with certain plant species. In this association, the [[hypha]]e of the fungus permeate large volumes of soil and obtain scarce [[chemical element|elements]], especially [[phosphorus]]—which is often limiting for plant growth—which they pass on to the plant in exchange for metabolic products of the plant's [[photosynthesis]]. The ectomycorrhizae that the fungus forms in association with ''[[Picea engelmannii]]'' have been shown to contain lactifers (latex-producing cells) and [[pigment]]s similar to the fruit body.<ref name=Kernaghan1997/> Fruit bodies of the fungus grow in groups on the ground under [[alder]]s and [[conifer]]s, usually appearing between July and October. It is a fairly common species in the western United States<ref name="Bessette pp. 145-46"/> and [[Baja California]].<ref name=Candusso1994/> Additional collection locations in Mexico include [[Veracruz]], [[Villarreal, Nuevo León|Villarreal]], and [[Tapia, Oaxaca|Tapia]].<ref name=Montoya1996/> A population in central and southern California is known to associate with [[oak]] trees.<ref name=Arora1986/> In the [[Rocky Mountains]] it is associated with the [[subalpine]] tree species Engelmann Spruce (''[[Picea engelmannii]]''), while at lower elevations it is commonly found with white spruce (''[[Picea glauca]]'').<ref name=Currah1989/> It is also known to associate with Ponderosa Pine (''[[Pinus ponderosa]]'') and Douglas-fir (genus ''[[Pseudotsuga]]'').<ref name=Barroetavena12007/> The mushroom has also been collected from [[Bageshwar]], in the state of [[Uttarakhand]], India.<ref name=Mukeriji2010/> Lactarius alnicola generally establishes symbiotic associations with alder trees (Alnus spp.) in humid, wooded environments. As a mycorrhizal fungus, it improves the intake of nutrients for the tree by promoting nitrogen absorption from the soil.


==See also==
==See also==
{{Portal|Fungi}}
*[[List of Lactarius species|List of ''Lactarius'' species]]
*[[List of Lactarius species|List of ''Lactarius'' species]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
⚫
<ref name=Arora1986>{{cite book |author=Arora D. |title=Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley, California |year=1986 |pages=71–72|isbn=978-0-89815-169-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=86tM01VsFG0C&pg=PA72}}</ref>


<ref name=Barroetavena12007>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barroetaveña C, Cázares E, Rajchenberg M |year=2007 |title=Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir: a comparison of species richness in native western North American forests and Patagonian plantations from Argentina |journal=Mycorrhiza |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=355–73 |pmid=17345105 |doi=10.1007/s00572-007-0121-x|s2cid=195074175 }}</ref>
⚫
<ref name=Arora1986>{{cite book |author=Arora D. |title=Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley, California |year=1986 |pages=71–72|isbn=0-89815-169-4 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=86tM01VsFG0C&pg=PA72}}</ref>


<ref name=Barroetavena12007>{{cite journal |author=Barroetaveña C, Cázares E, Rajchenberg M. |year=2007 |title=Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir: a comparison of species richness in native western North American forests and Patagonian plantations from Argentina |journal=Mycorrhiza |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=355–73 |pmid=17345105 |doi=10.1007/s00572-007-0121-x}}</ref>
<ref name=Candusso1994>{{cite journal |vauthors=Candusso M, Gennari A, Ayala N |year=1994 |title=Agaricales of Baja California – Mexico |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=50 |pages=175–88 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0050/0175.htm}}</ref>


⚫
<ref name=Currah1989>{{Cite report |title=Cultural and taxonomic studies of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with lodgepole pine and white spruce in Alberta |vauthors=Currah RS, Sigler L, Abbott S, Flis A |year=1989 |publisher=Alberta Forest Development Research Trust Report, Devonian Botanic Garden, University of Alberta}}</ref>
<ref name=Candusso1994>{{cite journal |author=Candusso M, Gennari A, Ayala N. |year=1994 |title=Agaricales of Baja California – Mexico |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=50 |pages=175–88 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0050/0175.htm}}</ref>


<ref name=Gledhill2008>{{cite book |author=Gledhill D. |title=The Names of Plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2008 |page=43 |isbn=978-0-521-86645-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC&pg=PA43}}</ref>
⚫
<ref name=Currah1989>{{Cite report |title=Cultural and taxonomic studies of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with lodgepole pine and white spruce in Alberta |url= |author=Currah RS, Sigler L, Abbott S, Flis A. |year=1989 |publisher=Alberta Forest Development Research Trust Report, Devonian Botanic Garden, University of Alberta}}</ref>


<ref name=Gledhill2008>{{cite book |author=Gledhill D. |title=The Names of Plants |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2008 |page=43 |isbn=0-521-86645-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=NJ6PyhVuecwC&pg=PA43}}</ref>
<ref name=Evenson1997>{{cite book |title=Mushrooms of Colorado and the Southern Rocky Mountains |last=Evenson VS. |year=1997 |publisher=Westcliffe Publishers |isbn=978-1-56579-192-3 |page=79 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EAeDeyqZLq0C&pg=PA80}}</ref>


<ref name=Hesler1960>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hesler LR, Smith AH |year=1960 |title=Studies of ''Lactarius'' – II. The North American Species of Sections ''Scrobiculus'', ''Crocei'', ''Theiogali'' and ''Vellus'' |journal=Brittonia |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=305–60 |jstor=2805123 | doi = 10.2307/2805123 |s2cid=1928365 }}</ref>
<ref name=Evenson1997>{{cite book |title=Mushrooms of Colorado and the Southern Rocky Mountains |last=Evenson VS. |year=1997 |publisher=Westcliffe Publishers |location= |isbn=978-1565791923 |page=79 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=EAeDeyqZLq0C&pg=PA80}}</ref>


<ref name=Hesler1960>{{cite journal |author=Hesler LR, Smith AH. |year=1960 |title=Studies of ''Lactarius'' – II. The North American Species of Sections ''Scrobiculus'', ''Crocei'', ''Theiogali'' and ''Vellus'' |journal=Brittonia |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=305–60 |jstor=805123}}</ref>
<ref name=Kernaghan1997>{{cite journal |vauthors=Kernaghan G, Currah RS, Bayer RJ |year=1997 |title=Russulaceous ectomycorrhizae of ''Abies lasiocarpa'' and ''Picea engelmannii'' |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=75 |issue=11 |pages=1843–50 |doi=10.1139/b97-896}}</ref>

<ref name=Kernaghan1997>{{cite journal |author=Kernaghan G, Currah RS, Bayer RJ. |year=1997 |title=Russulaceous ectomycorrhizae of ''Abies lasiocarpa'' and ''Picea engelmannii'' |journal=Canadian Journal of Botany |volume=75 |issue=11 |pages=1843–50 |doi=10.1139/b97-896}}</ref>


<ref name=Methven1985>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3793204 |author=Methven AS. |year=1985 |title=New and interesting species of ''Lactarius'' from California |jstor=3793204 |journal=Mycologia |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=472–72}}</ref>
<ref name=Methven1985>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/3793204 |author=Methven AS. |year=1985 |title=New and interesting species of ''Lactarius'' from California |jstor=3793204 |journal=Mycologia |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=472–72}}</ref>


<ref name=Montoya1996>{{cite journal |author=Montoya L, Bandala VM. |year=1996 |title=Additional new records on ''Lactarius'' from Mexico |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=57 |pages=425–50 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0057/0425.htm}}</ref>
<ref name=Montoya1996>{{cite journal |vauthors=Montoya L, Bandala VM |year=1996 |title=Additional new records on ''Lactarius'' from Mexico |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=57 |pages=425–50 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0057/0425.htm}}</ref>


<ref name=Mukeriji2010>{{cite book |title=Taxonomy and Ecology of Indian Fungi |author=Mukeriji KG, Manoharachary C. |year=2010 |publisher=I K International Publishing House |location= |isbn=978-9380026923 |page=174 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=aLggbxFH93IC&pg=PA174}}</ref>
<ref name=Mukeriji2010>{{cite book |title=Taxonomy and Ecology of Indian Fungi |vauthors=Mukeriji KG, Manoharachary C |year=2010 |publisher=I K International Publishing House |isbn=978-93-8002-692-3 |page=174 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aLggbxFH93IC&pg=PA174}}</ref>


<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Cantharellus cibarius">{{cite web |url=http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Cantharellus_cibarius.html |title=''Cantharellus cibarius'' |author=Wood M, Stevens F |work=California Fungi |accessdate=2010-07-14}}</ref>
<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Cantharellus cibarius">{{cite web |url=http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Cantharellus_cibarius.html |title=''Cantharellus cibarius'' |vauthors=Wood M, Stevens F |work=California Fungi |access-date=2010-07-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107084059/http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Cantharellus_cibarius.html |archive-date=2010-11-07 }}</ref>


<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Lactarius alnicola">{{cite web |url=http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Lactarius_alnicola.html |title=''Lactarius alnicola'' |author=Wood M, Stevens F |publisher=MykoWeb |work=California Fungi |accessdate=2010-07-11}}</ref>
<ref name="urlCalifornia Fungi: Lactarius alnicola">{{cite web |url=http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Lactarius_alnicola.html |title=''Lactarius alnicola'' |vauthors=Wood M, Stevens F |publisher=MykoWeb |work=California Fungi |access-date=2010-07-11}}</ref>


<ref name="urlLactarius payettensis (MushroomExpert.Com)">{{cite web |url=http://www.mushroomexpert.com/lactarius_payettensis.html |title=''Lactarius payettensis'' |author=Kuo M. |date=February 2011 |work=MushroomExpert.Com |accessdate=2011-06-06}}</ref>
<ref name="urlLactarius payettensis (MushroomExpert.Com)">{{cite web |url=http://www.mushroomexpert.com/lactarius_payettensis.html |title=''Lactarius payettensis'' |author=Kuo M. |date=February 2011 |work=MushroomExpert.Com |access-date=2011-06-06}}</ref>


}}
}}


===Cited books===
===Cited books===
*{{cite book |author=Bessette AR, Bessette A, Harris DM. |title=Milk Mushrooms of North America: A Field Guide to the Genus ''Lactarius'' |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse |year=2009 |isbn=0-8156-3229-0}}
*{{cite book |vauthors=Bessette AR, Bessette A, Harris DM |title=Milk Mushrooms of North America: A Field Guide to the Genus ''Lactarius'' |publisher=Syracuse University Press |location=Syracuse |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8156-3229-0}}
*{{cite book |title=North American Species of ''Lactarius'' |last=Hesler LR, Smith AH. |year=1979 |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Michigan |isbn=0-472-08440-2}}
*{{cite book |title=North American Species of ''Lactarius'' |vauthors=Hesler LR, Smith AH |year=1979 |publisher=The University of Michigan Press |location=Michigan |isbn=978-0-472-08440-1}}


==External links==
==External links==
*{{IndexFungorum|332867}}
*{{IndexFungorum|332867}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Lactarius alnicola|''Lactarius alnicola''}}

{{Good article}}
{{Good article}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q3295056}}


[[Category:Fungi described in 1960]]
[[Category:Fungi described in 1960]]
[[Category:Lactarius|alnicola]]
[[Category:Lactarius|alnicola]]
[[Category:Fungi of Asia]]
[[Category:Fungi of India]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Inedible fungi]]
[[Category:Inedible fungi]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Alexander H. Smith]]

[[Category:Fungus species]]
{{Link GA|pt}}

[[pt:Lactarius alnicola]]

Latest revision as of 06:48, 20 December 2024

Lactarius alnicola
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Russulales
Family: Russulaceae
Genus: Lactarius
Species:
L. alnicola
Binomial name
Lactarius alnicola
A.H.Sm. (1960)
Lactarius alnicola
View the Mycomorphbox template that generates the following list
Gills on hymenium
Cap is depressed
Hymenium is adnate or decurrent
Stipe is bare
Spore print is white to yellow
Ecology is mycorrhizal
Edibility is inedible

Lactarius alnicola, commonly known as the golden milkcap, is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae. The fruit bodies produced by the fungus are characterized by a sticky, vanilla-colored cap up to 20 cm (8 in) wide with a mixture of yellow tones arranged in faint concentric bands. The stem is up to 5 cm (2 in) long and has yellow-brown spots. When it is cut or injured, the mushroom oozes a white latex, which has an intensely peppery taste. The acrid taste of the fruit bodies renders them unpalatable. Two varieties have been named: var. pitkinensis, known from Colorado, and var. pungens, from Michigan.

The fungus is found in the western United States and Mexico, where it grows in mycorrhizal associations with various coniferous trees species, such as spruce, pine and fir, and deciduous species such as oak and alder. It has also been collected in India.

Taxonomy

[edit]

The species was originally described by American mycologist Alexander H. Smith in 1960, from a collection made near Warm Lake, Idaho, two years prior. The species was originally collected under alders with conifers nearby, and its specific epithet reflects the presumed association between the species[1]—alnicola means "living with alder".[2] Researchers subsequently discovered that the species has a relationship with conifers, not with alders, as the name implies.[3] The mushroom is commonly known as the "golden milkcap".[4]

Lactarius alnicola is classified in subsection Scrobiculati of section Piperites in the genus Lactarius. Species in this subsection are characterized by having a milk-white to creamy or whey-like latex that soon turns yellow upon exposure to air, and which may stain freshly cut surfaces of the fruit body yellow. Further, the cap margin is bearded, strigose (covered with sharp, straight, and stiff hairs), and coarsely tomentose or woolly when young. Other species in the subsection include L. subpaludosus, L. delicatus, L. torminosus, L. payettensis, L. gossypinus, L. pubescens, L. resimus and L. scrobiculatus (the type species of the subsection).[5]

Description

[edit]
The gills are forked near the stem.

The cap is 6–20 cm (2+1⁄2–8 in) wide, initially convex but becoming depressed to funnel-shaped in maturity. The cap margin is initially rolled inward, then becomes uplifted as the cap expands. The cap surface is sticky to slimy, and near the margin there are matted "hairs" beneath the slimy or sticky layer. The color of the cap surface is yellow-ochre, sometimes with concentric bands of lighter and darker shades; the color becomes paler near the margin. The gills are adnate (squarely attached to the stem) to decurrent (attached to and running down the length of the stem), narrow, and crowded closely together. Forked near the stem, the gills are initially whitish before becoming pale ochraceous-buff. There are many lamellulae—small gills that do not extend completely to the stem.[3][4][6]

The stem is 3–6 cm (1+1⁄4–2+1⁄4 in) long and 2–3 cm (3⁄4–1+1⁄4 in) thick, nearly equal in width throughout or tapered downward, dry, hard, coarsely pitted, and whitish to cream yellowish. It is initially solid, then becomes hollow with age. The flesh is thick, hard, whitish, and slowly stains pale yellow after the mushroom has been cut open. It has no distinctive odor, while the taste is immediately acrid. The latex is sparse, white on exposure to air, and unchanging or very slowly changing color to yellow. It stains cut flesh yellow, and tastes acrid.[3] According to mycologist David Arora, the oak-loving central and southern Californian population of this species has a more latent acrid taste.[4] The spore print may range slightly in color: thin deposits are white, thick deposits are more yellow.[7] The mushroom is considered inedible because of the intensely peppery taste.[8]

Microscopic characters

[edit]
Spores of L. alnicola, viewed at 1000x; 10 divisions equal 9.75 μm.

The spores are 7.5–10 by 6–8.5 μm, ellipsoid, and ornamented with warts and narrow bands that form a partial reticulum.[3] The surface prominences are up to 1 μm high, but mostly in the range 0.3–0.6 μm.[7] The spores are hyaline (translucent) and amyloid, meaning that they will adsorb iodine when stained with Melzer's reagent. The basidia, the spore-bearing cells, are four-spored, and measure 37–48 by 8–11 μm. The cap cuticle is an ixocutis (a tissue layer on the surface of a mushroom made of a layer of gelatinous hyphae) made of encrusted hyphae that are 3–5 μm wide.[3]

Varieties

[edit]

In their 1979 monograph of North American Lactarius species, Hesler and Smith named two varieties of L. alnicola. Lactarius alnicola var. pitkinensis, reported under mixed aspen and conifers from Ashcroft, Colorado, is very similar to the nominate variety, but it has a white to cream-colored cap and white, unchanging latex. It has slightly smaller fruit bodies, with caps up to 10 cm (4 in) wide, and stems up to 4 cm (1+1⁄2 in) long; its spores are slightly larger, measuring 9–10.5 by 7.5–9 μm. Lactarius alnicola var. pungens, reported only from mixed forests in Michigan, is similar but has a tacky surface that soon dries, a dull ochraceous to ochraceous-tan cap with an ochraceous-tawny center. It has whitish flesh, with a pungent odor described as "distinct and peculiar".[7]

Similar species

[edit]
Cantharellus cibarius

Novice mushroom hunters may mistake L. alnicola for the edible species Cantharellus cibarius,[8] which has a vase-shaped fruit body with strongly decurrent gills.[9] Other similar Lactarius species include L. zonarius, L. payettensis, L. yazooensis, L. olympianus, and L. psammicola f. glaber.[10]

L. olympianus associates with conifers and has a pale yellow-ochre, frequently zonate cap, but may be distinguished by its stem, which is usually covered with spots.[11] L. payettensis has a roughened, not smooth, cap margin.[12] L. yazooensis has a zonate cap and extremely acrid flesh. Its gills change color from pale vinaceous to light pinkish-brown in maturity.[13] L. psammicola f. glaber has a pinkish-buff spore print.[14] Mature fruit bodies of L. scrobiculatus var. montanus have been confused with L. alnicola. Its fruit bodies feature a smooth cap margin, acrid taste, white latex which slowly (over several minutes) turns yellow on exposure or stains the flesh yellow, and do not turn "clay color" when bruised.[15]

Ecology, habitat, and distribution

[edit]

Lactarius alnicola is an ectomycorrhizal species, and engages in a mutualistic association with certain plant species. In this association, the hyphae of the fungus permeate large volumes of soil and obtain scarce elements, especially phosphorus—which is often limiting for plant growth—which they pass on to the plant in exchange for metabolic products of the plant's photosynthesis. The ectomycorrhizae that the fungus forms in association with Picea engelmannii have been shown to contain lactifers (latex-producing cells) and pigments similar to the fruit body.[16] Fruit bodies of the fungus grow in groups on the ground under alders and conifers, usually appearing between July and October. It is a fairly common species in the western United States[3] and Baja California.[10] Additional collection locations in Mexico include Veracruz, Villarreal, and Tapia.[17] A population in central and southern California is known to associate with oak trees.[4] In the Rocky Mountains it is associated with the subalpine tree species Engelmann Spruce (Picea engelmannii), while at lower elevations it is commonly found with white spruce (Picea glauca).[18] It is also known to associate with Ponderosa Pine (Pinus ponderosa) and Douglas-fir (genus Pseudotsuga).[19] The mushroom has also been collected from Bageshwar, in the state of Uttarakhand, India.[20] Lactarius alnicola generally establishes symbiotic associations with alder trees (Alnus spp.) in humid, wooded environments. As a mycorrhizal fungus, it improves the intake of nutrients for the tree by promoting nitrogen absorption from the soil.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Hesler LR, Smith AH (1960). "Studies of Lactarius – II. The North American Species of Sections Scrobiculus, Crocei, Theiogali and Vellus". Brittonia. 12 (4): 305–60. doi:10.2307/2805123. JSTOR 2805123. S2CID 1928365.
  2. ^ Gledhill D. (2008). The Names of Plants. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-521-86645-3.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Bessette et al.., 2009, pp. 145–46.
  4. ^ a b c d Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-5.
  5. ^ Hesler and Smith, 1979, p. 237; pp. 285–86.
  6. ^ Davis, R. Michael; Sommer, Robert; Menge, John A. (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-520-95360-4. OCLC 797915861.
  7. ^ a b c Hesler and Smith, 1979, pp. 300–04.
  8. ^ a b Wood M, Stevens F. "Lactarius alnicola". California Fungi. MykoWeb. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
  9. ^ Wood M, Stevens F. "Cantharellus cibarius". California Fungi. Archived from the original on 2010-11-07. Retrieved 2010-07-14.
  10. ^ a b Candusso M, Gennari A, Ayala N (1994). "Agaricales of Baja California – Mexico". Mycotaxon. 50: 175–88.
  11. ^ Evenson VS. (1997). Mushrooms of Colorado and the Southern Rocky Mountains. Westcliffe Publishers. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-56579-192-3.
  12. ^ Kuo M. (February 2011). "Lactarius payettensis". MushroomExpert.Com. Retrieved 2011-06-06.
  13. ^ Bessette et al.., 2009, p. 268.
  14. ^ Bessette et al.., 2009, p. 222.
  15. ^ Methven AS. (1985). "New and interesting species of Lactarius from California". Mycologia. 77 (3): 472–72. doi:10.2307/3793204. JSTOR 3793204.
  16. ^ Kernaghan G, Currah RS, Bayer RJ (1997). "Russulaceous ectomycorrhizae of Abies lasiocarpa and Picea engelmannii". Canadian Journal of Botany. 75 (11): 1843–50. doi:10.1139/b97-896.
  17. ^ Montoya L, Bandala VM (1996). "Additional new records on Lactarius from Mexico". Mycotaxon. 57: 425–50.
  18. ^ Currah RS, Sigler L, Abbott S, Flis A (1989). Cultural and taxonomic studies of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with lodgepole pine and white spruce in Alberta (Report). Alberta Forest Development Research Trust Report, Devonian Botanic Garden, University of Alberta.
  19. ^ Barroetaveña C, Cázares E, Rajchenberg M (2007). "Ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir: a comparison of species richness in native western North American forests and Patagonian plantations from Argentina". Mycorrhiza. 17 (5): 355–73. doi:10.1007/s00572-007-0121-x. PMID 17345105. S2CID 195074175.
  20. ^ Mukeriji KG, Manoharachary C (2010). Taxonomy and Ecology of Indian Fungi. I K International Publishing House. p. 174. ISBN 978-93-8002-692-3.

Cited books

[edit]
  • Bessette AR, Bessette A, Harris DM (2009). Milk Mushrooms of North America: A Field Guide to the Genus Lactarius. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-3229-0.
  • Hesler LR, Smith AH (1979). North American Species of Lactarius. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08440-1.
[edit]

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