Cinereous vulture: Difference between revisions

Cinereous vulture; Temporal range: Miocene-recent
Conservation status
	; Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Accipitriformes
Family:	Accipitridae
Genus:	Aegypius
Species:	A. monachus
Binomial name
	Aegypius monachus; (Linnaeus, 1766)
	Range of A. monachus Breeding Resident Passage Non-breeding Extinct Extant & Reintroduced (resident)
Synonyms
	Vultur monachus Linnaeus, 1766

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The cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) is a large raptor in the family Accipitridae and distributed through much of temperate Eurasia. It is also known as the black vulture, monk vulture and Eurasian black vulture. With a body length of 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in), 3.1 m (10 ft) across the wings and a maximum weight of 14 kg (31 lb), it is the largest Old World vulture and largest member of the Accipitridae family.

Aegypius monachus is one of the largest birds of prey and it plays a huge role in its various ecosystems by eating carcasses, which in turn reduces the spread of diseases. The vultures are constantly exposed to many pathogens because of their eating habits. A study of the cinereous vulture's gastric and immune defense systems conducted in 2015 sequenced the bird's entire genome. The study compared cinereous vultures to bald eagles, finding positively selected genetic variations associated with respiration and the ability of the vulture's immune defense responses and gastric acid secretion to digest carcasses.

Taxonomy

The genus name Aegypius is a Greek word (αἰγυπιός) for 'vulture', or a bird not unlike one; Aelian describes the aegypius as "halfway between a vulture (gyps) and an eagle". Some authorities think this a good description of a lammergeier; others do not. Aegypius is the eponym of the species, whatever it was in ancient Greek.^[3] The English name 'black vulture' refers to the plumage colour, while 'monk vulture', a direct translation of its German name Mönchsgeier, refers to the bald head and ruff of neck feathers like a monk's cowl. 'Cinereous vulture' (Latin cineraceus, ash-coloured; pale, whitish grey), was a deliberate attempt to rename it with a new name distinct from the American black vulture.^[4]

This bird is an Old World vulture, and as such is only distantly related to the New World vultures, which are in a separate family, Cathartidae, of the same order. It is, therefore, not closely related to the much smaller American black vulture (Coragyps atratus) despite the similar name and coloration.

Description

The cinereous vulture measures 98–120 cm (39–47 in) in total length with a 2.5–3.1 m (8 ft 2 in – 10 ft 2 in) wingspan. Males can weigh from 6.3 to 11.5 kg (14 to 25 lb), whereas females can weigh from 7.5 to 14 kg (17 to 31 lb). It is thus one of the world's heaviest flying birds.^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9] Average weights were long not known to have been published for this species but the median weight figures from two sources were 9.42 kg (20.8 lb) and 9.55 kg (21.1 lb).^[6]^[7]^[10] However in a Korean study, a large survey of wild cinereous vultures was found to have weighed an average of 9.6 kg (21 lb) with a mean total length of 113 cm (44 in), this standing as the only attempt to attain the average sizes of free-flying mature birds of the species, as opposed to nestlings or captive specimens.^[11] Unlike most accipitrids, males can broadly overlap in size with the females, although not uncommonly the females may be slightly heavier.^[6] These are one of the two largest extant Old World vultures and accipitrids, with similar total length and perhaps wingspans recorded in the Himalayan vulture (Gyps himalayensis), as indicated by broadly similar wing and tail proportions, but the cinereous appears to be slightly heavier as well as slightly larger in tarsus and bill length.^[5]^[6]^[12] Superficially similar but unrelated New World condors can either be of similar wing area and bulk or slightly larger in these aspects.^[13]^[14] Despite limited genetic variation in the species, body size increases from west to east based on standard measurements, with the birds from southwest Europe (Spain and south France) averaging about 10% smaller than the vultures from central Asia (Manchuria, Mongolia and northern China).^[5] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 73–89 cm (29–35 in), the tail is 33–41 cm (13–16 in) and the tarsus is 12–14.6 cm (4.7–5.7 in).^[5]

The cinereous vulture is distinctly dark, with the whole body being brown excepting the pale head in adults, which is covered in fine blackish down. This down is absent in the closely related lappet-faced vulture (Torgos tracheliotos).^[5]^[6] The skin of the head and neck is bluish-gray and a paler whitish color above the eye. The adult has brown eyes, a purplish cere, a blue-gray bill and pale blue-gray legs.^[5]^[6] The primary quills are often actually black.^[6] From a distance, flying birds can easily appear all black. The immature plumage is sepia-brown above, with a much paler underside than in adults. Immature cinereous vultures have grey down on the head, a pale mauve cere and grey legs.^[6] Its massive bill is one of the largest of any living accipitrid, a feature enhanced by the relatively small skull of the species. The exposed culmen of the cinereous vulture measures 8–9 cm (3.1–3.5 in).^[15] Only their cousin, the lappet-faced vulture, with a bill length of up to about 10 cm (3.9 in), can rival or outsize the bill of the cinereous.^[5] The wings, with serrated leading edges, are held straight or slightly arched in flight and are broad, sometimes referred to as "barn door wings". Its flight is slow and buoyant, with deep, heavy flaps when necessary. The combination of huge size and dark coloration renders the cinereous vulture relatively distinct, especially against smaller raptors such as eagles or buzzards. The most similar-shaped species, the lappet-faced vulture (with which there might be limited range overlap in the southern Middle East), is distinguished by its bare, pinkish head and contrasting plumage. On the lappet-face, the thighs and belly are whitish in adult birds against black to brownish over the remainder of the plumage. All potential Gyps vultures are distinguished by having paler, often streaky plumage, with bulging wing primaries giving them a less evenly broad-winged form.^[5] Cinereous vultures are generally very silent, with a few querulous mewing, roaring or guttural cries solely between adults and their offspring at the nest site.^[6]

Distribution and habitat

The cinereous vulture is a Eurasian species. The western limits of its range are in Spain and inland Portugal, with a reintroduced population in south France. They are found discontinuously to Greece, Turkey and throughout the central Middle East. Their range continues through Afghanistan eastwards to northern India to its eastern limits in central Asia, where they breed in northern Manchuria, Mongolia and Korea. Their range is fragmented especially throughout their European range. It is generally a permanent resident except in those parts of its range where hard winters cause limited altitudinal movement and for juveniles when they reach breeding maturity. In the eastern limits of its range, birds from the northernmost reaches may migrate down to southern Korea and China. A limited migration has also been reported in the Middle East but is not common.^[5]^[16]^[17]

This vulture is a bird of hilly, mountainous areas, especially favoring dry semi-open habitats such as meadows at high altitudes over much of the range. Nesting usually occurs near the tree line in the mountains.^[6] They are always associated with undisturbed, remote areas with limited human disturbance. They forage for carcasses over various kinds of terrain, including steppe, other grasslands, open woodlands, along riparian habitats or any kind or gradient of mountainous habitat. In their current European range and through the Caucasus and Middle East, cinereous vultures are found from 100 to 2,000 m (330 to 6,560 ft) in elevation, while in their Asian distribution, they are typically found at higher elevations.^[5] Two habitat types were found to be preferred by the species in China and Tibet. Some cinereous vultures in these areas live in mountainous forests and shrubland from 800 to 3,800 m (2,600 to 12,500 ft), while the others preferred arid or semi-arid alpine meadows and grasslands at 3,800 to 4,500 m (12,500 to 14,800 ft) in elevation.^[17] This species can fly at a very high altitude. One cinereous vulture was observed at an elevation of 6,970 m (22,870 ft) on Mount Everest.^[6] It has a specialised haemoglobin alpha^D subunit of high oxygen affinity which makes it possible to take up oxygen efficiently despite the low partial pressure in the upper troposphere.^[18]

Behaviour

The cinereous vulture is a largely solitary bird, being found alone or in pairs much more frequently than most other Old World vultures. At large carcasses or feeding sites, small groups may congregate. Such groups can rarely include up to 12 to 20 vultures, with some older reports of up to 30 or 40.^[5]^[6]

Breeding

In Europe, the cinereous vulture return to the nesting ground in January or February.^[6] In Spain and Algeria, they start nesting in February in March, in Crimea in early March, in northwestern India in February or April, in northeastern India in January, and in Turkestan in January.^[6] They breed in loose colonies, with nests rarely being found in the same tree or rock formation, unlike other Old World vultures which often nest in tight-knit colonies. In Spain, nests have been found from 300 m (980 ft) to 2 km (1.2 mi) apart from each other.^[17] The cinereous vulture breeds in high mountains and large forests, nesting in trees or occasionally on cliff ledges. The breeding season lasts from February until September or October. The most common display consists of synchronous flight movements by pairs. However, flight play between pairs and juveniles is not unusual, with the large birds interlocking talons and spiraling down through the sky. The birds use sticks and twigs as building materials, and males and females cooperate in all matters of rearing the young.^[19] The huge nest is 1.45–2 m (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 7 in) across and 1–3 m (3 ft 3 in – 9 ft 10 in) deep. The nest increases in size as a pair uses it repeatedly over the years and often comes to be decorated with dung and animal skins.^[5] The nests can range up to 1.5 to 12 m (4 ft 11 in to 39 ft 4 in) high in a large tree such as an oak, juniper,^[20] wild pear,^[20] almond or pine trees. Most nesting trees are found along cliffs. In a few cases, cinereous vultures have been recorded as nesting directly on cliffs. One cliff nest completely filled a ledge that was 3.63 m (11.9 ft) wide and 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) in depth.^[6] The egg clutch typically only a single egg, though two may be exceptionally laid. The eggs have a white or pale buff base color are often overlaid with red, purplish or red-brown marks, being almost as spotted as the egg of a falcon. Eggs measure from 83.4 to 104 mm (3.28 to 4.09 in) in height and 58 to 75 mm (2.3 to 3.0 in) in width, with an average of 90 mm × 69.7 mm (3.54 in × 2.74 in). The incubation period ranges from 50 to 62 days, averaging 50–56 days, and hatching occurs in April or May in Europe.^[6] The young are covered in greyish-white to grey-brown colored down which becomes paler with age. The first flight feathers start growing from the same sockets as the down when the nestling is around 30 days old and completely cover the down by 60 days of age.^[6] The parents feed the young by regurgitation and an active nest reportedly becomes very foul and stinking.^[6] Weights of nestlings in Mongolia increased from as little as 2 kg (4.4 lb) when they are around a month old in early June to being slightly more massive than their parents at up to nearly 16 kg (35 lb) shortly before fledging in early autumn.^[21]

The nesting success of cinereous vultures is relatively high, with around 90% of eggs successfully hatching and more than half of yearling birds known to survive to adulthood. They are devoted, active parents, with both members of a breeding pair protecting the nest and feeding the young in shifts via regurgitation.^[17] In Mongolia, Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul) and the common raven (Corvus corax) are considered potential predators of eggs in potentially both tree and cliff nests. Gray wolves (Canis lupus) and foxes are also mentioned as potential nest predators.^[21] There have been witnessed accounts of bearded vultures (Gypaetus barbatus) and Spanish imperial eagles (Aquila adalberti) attempting to kill nestlings, but in both cases they were chased off by the parents.^[22] There is a single case of a Spanish imperial eagle attacking and killing a cinereous vulture in an act of defense of its own nest in Spain.^[23] Golden eagles and Eurasian eagle-owls may rarely attempt to dispatch an older nestling or even adults in an ambush, but the species is not verified prey for either and it would be a rare event in all likelihood if it does occur. This species may live for up to 39 years, though 20 years or less is probably more common, with no regular predators of adults other than man.^[17]

Feeding

Like all vultures, the cinereous vulture eats mostly carrion. The cinereous vulture feeds on carrion of almost any type, from the largest mammals available to fish and reptiles.^[19] In Tibet, commonly eaten carcasses can include both wild and domestic yaks (Bos mutus and Bos grunniens), Bharal, Tibetan gazelles (Pseudois nayaur), kiangs (Equus kiang), woolly hares (Lepus oiostolus), Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayana), domestic sheep (Ovis aries), and even humans, mainly those at their celestial burial grounds.^[17] Reportedly in Mongolia, Tarbagan marmots (Marmota sibirica) comprised the largest part of the diet, although that species is now endangered as it is preferred in the diet of local people, wild prey ranging from corsac fox (Vulpes corsac) to Argali (Ovis ammon) may be eaten additionally in Mongolia.^[17]^[24] Historically, cinereous vultures in the Iberian Peninsula fed mostly on European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) carcasses, but since viral hemorrhagic pneumonia (VHP) devastated the once abundant rabbit population there, the vultures now rely on the carrion of domestic sheep, supplemented by pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) and deer.^[25] In Turkey, the dietary preferences were argali (Ovis ammon) (92 carrion items), wild boar (Sus scrofa) (53 items), chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) (27 items), gray wolves (13 items) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) (13 items). Unusually, a large amount of plant material was found in pellets from Turkey, especially pine cones.^[26] Among the vultures in its range, the cinereous is best equipped to tear open tough carcass skins thanks to its powerful bill. It can even break apart bones, such as ribs, to access the flesh of large animals. It is dominant over other scavengers in its range, even over other large vultures such as Gyps vultures, bearded vultures or fierce ground predators such as foxes.^[6] While the noisy Gyps vultures squawk and fly around, the often silent cinereous vultures will keep them well at bay until they are satisfied and have had their own fill.^[15] A series of photos taken recently show a cinereous vulture attacking a Himalayan griffon in flight for unknown reasons, although the griffon was not seriously injured.^[27] Cinereous vultures frequently bully and dominate steppe eagles (Aquila nipalensis) when the two species are attracted to the same prey and carrion while wintering in Asia.^[28] A rare successful act of kleptoparasitism on a cinereous vulture was filmed in Korea when a Steller's sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus) stole food from the vulture.^[29]

Its closest living relative is probably the lappet-faced vulture, which takes live prey on occasion.^[5] Occasionally, the cinereous vulture has been recorded as preying on live prey as well. Live animals reportedly taken by cinereous vultures include calves of yaks and domestic cattle (Bos primigenius taurus), piglets, domestic lambs and puppies (Canis lupus familiaris), foxes, lambs of wild sheep, together with nestling and fledglings of large birds such as geese, swans and pheasants, various rodents and rarely amphibians and reptiles.^[30] This species has hunted tortoises (which the vultures are likely to kill by carrying in flight and dropping on rocks to penetrate the shell; cf. Aeschylus#Death) and lizards.^[17] Although rarely observed in the act of killing ungulates, cinereous vultures have been recorded as flying low around herds and feeding on recently killed wild ungulates they are believed to have killed. Mainly neonatal lambs or calves are hunted, especially sickly ones. Although not normally thought to be a threat to healthy domestic lambs, rare predation on apparently healthy lambs has been confirmed.^[31] Species believed to be hunted by cinereous vultures have included argali, saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) and Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsonii).^[32]^[33]^[34]

Status and conservation

The cinereous vulture has declined over most of its range in the last 200 years in part due to poisoning by eating poisoned bait put out to kill dogs and other predators, and to higher hygiene standards reducing the amount of available carrion; it is currently listed as Near Threatened. Vultures of all species, although not the target of poisoning operations, may be shot on sight by locals. Trapping and hunting of cinereous vultures is particularly prevalent in China and Russia,^[17] although the poaching for trophy hunting are also known for Armenia, and probably other countries in Caucasus.^[20] Perhaps an even greater threat to this desolation-loving species is development and habitat destruction. Nests, often fairly low in the main fork of a tree, are relatively easy to access and thus have been historically compromised by egg and firewood collectors regularly.^[17] The decline has been the greatest in the western half of the range, with extinction in many European countries (France, Italy, Austria, Poland, Slovakia, Albania, Moldova, Romania) and its entire breeding range in northwest Africa (Morocco and Algeria). They no longer nest in Israel. Turkey holds the second largest population of this species in the Western Palearctic. Despite the recent demographic bottleneck, this population has maintained moderate levels of genetic diversity, with no significant genetic structuring indicating that this is a single meta-population connected by frequent dispersal.^[35] More recently, protection and deliberate feeding schemes have allowed some local recoveries in numbers, particularly in Spain, where numbers increased to about 1,000 pairs by 1992 after an earlier decline to 200 pairs in 1970. This colony have now spread its breeding grounds to Portugal. Elsewhere in Europe, very small but increasing numbers breed in Bulgaria and Greece, and a re-introduction scheme is under way in France. Trends in the small populations in Ukraine (Crimea) and European Russia, and in Asian populations, are not well recorded. In the former USSR, it is still threatened by illegal capture for zoos, and in Tibet by rodenticides. It is a regular winter visitor around the coastal areas of Pakistan in small numbers. As of the turn of the 21st century, the worldwide population of cinereous vultures is estimated at 4,500–5,000 individuals.^[5]^[16]^[17]

The most recent global population estimate for Cinereous Vulture (according to Bird Life International (2017)) is 7,800-10,500 pairs, roughly equating to 15,600-21,000 mature individuals. This consists of 2,300-2,500 pairs in Europe (2004) and 5,500-8,000 pairs in Asia.^[36]

Culture and mythology

The Hebrew word for "eagle" is also used for the cinereous vulture.^[37] As such, Biblical passages alluding to eagles might actually be referring to this or other vultures.

References

^ "Aegypius monachus Linnaeus 1766 (cinereous vulture)". Fossilworks.org.
^ BirdLife International (2021). "Aegypius monachus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695231A154915043. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695231A154915043.en. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
^ Celoria, Francis, ed. (1992). The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis : a translation with a commentary. London and New York: Routledge. p. 116 (note 60). ISBN 978-0-415-06896-3.
^ Sibley, Dr. Charles G.; Monroe, Burt L. Jr. (1991). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04969-5.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001). Raptors of the World. Illustrated by Kim Franklin, David Mead, and Philip Burton. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World by Leslie Brown & Dean Amadon. The Wellfleet Press (1986), ISBN 978-1555214722.
^ ^a ^b Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., Bauer, K. M., & Bezzel, E. (1980). Handbuch der vögel mitteleuropas. Aula, Wiesbaden.
^ "Cinereous Vulture – Aegypius monachus : WAZA : World Association of Zoos and Aquariums". WAZA. Archived from the original on 2012-01-15. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
^ Chandler, K. P. (2013). The distribution and status of cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) at Jorbeer, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India: A study of near threatened monk vulture. Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences, 1(1), 17-21.
^ Del Moral, J. C., de la Puente, J. (2014). Buitre negro – Aegypius monachus. En: Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles. Salvador, A., Morales, M. B. (Eds.). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid.
^ Kim, J. T., Park, C. M., Kim, Y. J., & Pak, I. C. (2007). Survey on the actual injured condition and wintery ecology of Black vulture (Aegypius monachus). Korean Journal of Veterinary Service, 30(3), 467-472.
^ Mohapatra, R. K., Sahu, S. K., Panda, S., Das, J. K., & Upadhyay, H. S. (2019). Himalayan Griffon: rescue and treatment of Gyps himalayensis in Odisha, India. ZOO'S PRINT, 34(3), 24-27.
^ Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
^ Dunning, John B. Jr., ed. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.
^ ^a ^b Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) Archived 2013-04-15 at archive.today. indianbiodiversity.org
^ ^a ^b Snow, David W.; Perrins, Christopher M. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Concise ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J., eds. (1994). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. p. 107. ISBN 84-87334-15-6.
^ Weber, Roy E.; Hiebl, Inge; Braunitzer, Gerhard (1988). "High Altitude and Hemoglobin Function in the Vultures Gyps rueppellii and Aegypius monachus". Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler. 369 (4): 233–240. doi:10.1515/bchm3.1988.369.1.233. PMID 3401328.
^ ^a ^b Cinereous Vulture Fact Sheet Archived 2014-02-09 at the Wayback Machine. Lincoln Park Zoo
^ ^a ^b ^c "Eurasian Black Vulture in Armenia". Armenian Bird Census. Armenian Bird Census, TSE NGO. Archived from the original on November 11, 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ ^a ^b Reading, R. P.; Amgalanbaatar, S.; Kenny, D. & Dashdemberel, B. (2005). "Cinereous Vulture nesting ecology in Ikh Nartyn Chuluu Nature Reserve, Mongolia". Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences. 3 (1): 13–19. doi:10.22353/mjbs.2005.02.02.
^ Aykurt, A.; Kira, C.O. (2001). "Apparent predation attempt by Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus on Black Vulture Aegypius monachus chick in Turkey". Sandgrouse. 23: 140.
^ Oria, J. (1999). "Spanish Imperial Eagle Aquila adalberti attacks and kills a Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus". Vulture News. 40: 37.
^ Clark, H. O.; Murdoch Jr, J. D.; Newman, D. P. & Sillero-Zubiri, C. (2009). "Vulpes corsac (Carnivora: Canidae)". Mammalian Species. 832: 1–8. doi:10.1644/832.1.
^ Costillo, E.; Corbacho, C.; Morán, R. & Villegas, A. (2007). "The diet of the black vulture Aegypius monachus in response to environmental changes in Extremadura (1970–2000)" (PDF). Ardeola. 54 (2): 197–204.
^ Yamaç, E., & Günyel, E. (2010). Diet of the Eurasian Black Vulture, Aegypius monachus Linnaeus, 1766, in Turkey and implications for its conservation: (Aves: Falconiformes). Zoology in the Middle East, 51(1), 15–22.
^ "Pounce- Cinereous Vulture attacks Himalayan Griffon- Two". Flickr. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 2013-05-23.
^ Tingay, R. E.; Sureda, N. & Gilbert, M. (2008). "Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) Foraging Behavior in Mongolia: A Combined Use of Diversionary and Covert Ambush Tactics". Journal of Raptor Research. 42 (2): 155–156. doi:10.3356/JRR-07-52.1. S2CID 84630689.
^ "Birds Korea- Bird News January 2006". Birds Korea. Retrieved 2013-05-22.
^ Xiao-Ti, Y. (1991). "Distribution and status of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in China" (PDF). Birds of Prey. 4: 51–56.
^ Richford, A. S. (1976). "Black Vultures in Mallorca". Oryx. 13 (4): 383–386. doi:10.1017/S0030605300014125.
^ Fedosenko, Alexander K.; Blank, David A. (2005). "Ovis ammon" (PDF). Mammalian Species. 773: 1–15. doi:10.1644/1545-1410(2005)773[0001:oa]2.0.co;2. S2CID 198969231.
^ Olson, K. A.; Fuller, T. K.; Schaller, G. B.; Lhagvasuren, B. & Odonkhuu, D. (2005). "Reproduction, neonatal weights, and first-year survival of Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa)" (PDF). Journal of Zoology. 265 (3): 227–233. doi:10.1017/S0952836904006284. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-04. Retrieved 2014-09-01.
^ Buuveibaatar, B.; Young, J. K.; Berger, J.; Fine, A. E.; Lkhagvasuren, B.; Zahler, P. & Fuller, T. K. (2013). "Factors affecting survival and cause-specific mortality of saiga calves in Mongolia" (PDF). Journal of Mammalogy. 94 (1): 127–136. doi:10.1644/11-MAMM-A-077.1.
^ Çakmak, E.; Pekşen, C.A.; Kİrazli, C.; Yamaç, E.; Bensch, S.; Bİlgİn, C.C. (2019). "Genetic diversity is retained in a bottlenecked Cinereous Vulture population in Turkey". Ibis. 161 (4): 793–805. doi:10.1111/ibi.12685. S2CID 92401817.
^ "FLYWAY ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THE CINEREOUS VULTURE" (PDF). Cms.int. Retrieved 2021-08-22.
^ "Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible" (PDF). Friendsofsabbath.org. Retrieved 2022-03-06.

[1] "Aegypius monachus Linnaeus 1766 (cinereous vulture)". Fossilworks.org.

[2] BirdLife International (2021). "Aegypius monachus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695231A154915043. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695231A154915043.en. Retrieved 6 June 2022.

[Celoria-3] Celoria, Francis, ed. (1992). The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis : a translation with a commentary. London and New York: Routledge. p. 116 (note 60). ISBN 978-0-415-06896-3.

[Sibley-4] Sibley, Dr. Charles G.; Monroe, Burt L. Jr. (1991). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04969-5.

[Ferguson-5] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001). Raptors of the World. Illustrated by Kim Franklin, David Mead, and Philip Burton. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7.

[Brown-6] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World by Leslie Brown & Dean Amadon. The Wellfleet Press (1986), ISBN 978-1555214722.

[Glutz-7] Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., Bauer, K. M., & Bezzel, E. (1980). Handbuch der vögel mitteleuropas. Aula, Wiesbaden.

[8] "Cinereous Vulture – Aegypius monachus : WAZA : World Association of Zoos and Aquariums". WAZA. Archived from the original on 2012-01-15. Retrieved 2013-05-23.

[9] Chandler, K. P. (2013). The distribution and status of cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) at Jorbeer, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India: A study of near threatened monk vulture. Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences, 1(1), 17-21.

[10] Del Moral, J. C., de la Puente, J. (2014). Buitre negro – Aegypius monachus. En: Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles. Salvador, A., Morales, M. B. (Eds.). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid.

[11] Kim, J. T., Park, C. M., Kim, Y. J., & Pak, I. C. (2007). Survey on the actual injured condition and wintery ecology of Black vulture (Aegypius monachus). Korean Journal of Veterinary Service, 30(3), 467-472.

[12] Mohapatra, R. K., Sahu, S. K., Panda, S., Das, J. K., & Upadhyay, H. S. (2019). Himalayan Griffon: rescue and treatment of Gyps himalayensis in Odisha, India. ZOO'S PRINT, 34(3), 24-27.

[Wood-13] Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.

[14] Dunning, John B. Jr., ed. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-6444-5.

[IndianBio-15] Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) Archived 2013-04-15 at archive.today. indianbiodiversity.org

[Snow-16] Snow, David W.; Perrins, Christopher M. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Concise ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.

[Hoyo-17] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J., eds. (1994). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 2. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. p. 107. ISBN 84-87334-15-6.

[18] Weber, Roy E.; Hiebl, Inge; Braunitzer, Gerhard (1988). "High Altitude and Hemoglobin Function in the Vultures Gyps rueppellii and Aegypius monachus". Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler. 369 (4): 233–240. doi:10.1515/bchm3.1988.369.1.233. PMID 3401328.

[LPZCinereousVulture-19] Cinereous Vulture Fact Sheet Archived 2014-02-09 at the Wayback Machine. Lincoln Park Zoo

[ABCC-20] "Eurasian Black Vulture in Armenia". Armenian Bird Census. Armenian Bird Census, TSE NGO. Archived from the original on November 11, 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)

[Reading-21] Reading, R. P.; Amgalanbaatar, S.; Kenny, D. & Dashdemberel, B. (2005). "Cinereous Vulture nesting ecology in Ikh Nartyn Chuluu Nature Reserve, Mongolia". Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences. 3 (1): 13–19. doi:10.22353/mjbs.2005.02.02.

[22] Aykurt, A.; Kira, C.O. (2001). "Apparent predation attempt by Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus on Black Vulture Aegypius monachus chick in Turkey". Sandgrouse. 23: 140.

[23] Oria, J. (1999). "Spanish Imperial Eagle Aquila adalberti attacks and kills a Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus". Vulture News. 40: 37.

[24] Clark, H. O.; Murdoch Jr, J. D.; Newman, D. P. & Sillero-Zubiri, C. (2009). "Vulpes corsac (Carnivora: Canidae)". Mammalian Species. 832: 1–8. doi:10.1644/832.1.

[25] Costillo, E.; Corbacho, C.; Morán, R. & Villegas, A. (2007). "The diet of the black vulture Aegypius monachus in response to environmental changes in Extremadura (1970–2000)" (PDF). Ardeola. 54 (2): 197–204.

[26] Yamaç, E., & Günyel, E. (2010). Diet of the Eurasian Black Vulture, Aegypius monachus Linnaeus, 1766, in Turkey and implications for its conservation: (Aves: Falconiformes). Zoology in the Middle East, 51(1), 15–22.

[27] "Pounce- Cinereous Vulture attacks Himalayan Griffon- Two". Flickr. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 2013-05-23.

[28] Tingay, R. E.; Sureda, N. & Gilbert, M. (2008). "Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis) Foraging Behavior in Mongolia: A Combined Use of Diversionary and Covert Ambush Tactics". Journal of Raptor Research. 42 (2): 155–156. doi:10.3356/JRR-07-52.1. S2CID 84630689.

[29] "Birds Korea- Bird News January 2006". Birds Korea. Retrieved 2013-05-22.

[30] Xiao-Ti, Y. (1991). "Distribution and status of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in China" (PDF). Birds of Prey. 4: 51–56.

[31] Richford, A. S. (1976). "Black Vultures in Mallorca". Oryx. 13 (4): 383–386. doi:10.1017/S0030605300014125.

[32] Fedosenko, Alexander K.; Blank, David A. (2005). "Ovis ammon" (PDF). Mammalian Species. 773: 1–15. doi:10.1644/1545-1410(2005)773[0001:oa]2.0.co;2. S2CID 198969231.

[33] Olson, K. A.; Fuller, T. K.; Schaller, G. B.; Lhagvasuren, B. & Odonkhuu, D. (2005). "Reproduction, neonatal weights, and first-year survival of Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa)" (PDF). Journal of Zoology. 265 (3): 227–233. doi:10.1017/S0952836904006284. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-04. Retrieved 2014-09-01.

[34] Buuveibaatar, B.; Young, J. K.; Berger, J.; Fine, A. E.; Lkhagvasuren, B.; Zahler, P. & Fuller, T. K. (2013). "Factors affecting survival and cause-specific mortality of saiga calves in Mongolia" (PDF). Journal of Mammalogy. 94 (1): 127–136. doi:10.1644/11-MAMM-A-077.1.

[35] Çakmak, E.; Pekşen, C.A.; Kİrazli, C.; Yamaç, E.; Bensch, S.; Bİlgİn, C.C. (2019). "Genetic diversity is retained in a bottlenecked Cinereous Vulture population in Turkey". Ibis. 161 (4): 793–805. doi:10.1111/ibi.12685. S2CID 92401817.

[36] "FLYWAY ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THE CINEREOUS VULTURE" (PDF). Cms.int. Retrieved 2021-08-22.

[37] "Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible" (PDF). Friendsofsabbath.org. Retrieved 2022-03-06.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
+{{Short description|Species of bird}}
-{{speciesbox
+{{Speciesbox
-|fossil_range = [[Miocene]]-recent <ref>{{cite web |title=Aegypius monachus Linnaeus 1766 (cinereous vulture) |url=http://fossilworks.org/?a=referenceInfo&reference_no=59350 |website=Fossilworks.org}}</ref>
+|fossil_range = [[Miocene]]-recent<ref>{{cite web |title=Aegypius monachus Linnaeus 1766 (cinereous vulture) |url=http://www.fossilworks.org/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?a=referenceInfo&reference_no=59350 |website=Fossilworks.org}}</ref>
 | status = NT
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
-| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22695231/0 |title=''Aegypius monachus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2013 |accessdate=26 November 2013|ref=harv}}</ref>
+| status_ref = <ref>{{cite iucn |title=''Aegypius monachus'' |author=BirdLife International |author-link=BirdLife International |year=2021 |page=e.T22695231A154915043 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695231A154915043.en |access-date=6 June 2022}}</ref>
 | image = Buitre negro (1).jpg
 | genus = Aegypius
@@ Line 13: / Line 14: @@
 }}
-The '''cinereous vulture''' (''Aegypius monachus'') is a large [[raptorial]] bird that is distributed through much of temperate [[Palearctic|Eurasia]]. It is also known as the '''black vulture''', '''monk vulture''', or '''Eurasian black vulture'''. It is a member of the family [[Accipitridae]], which also includes many other diurnal [[Bird of prey|raptor]]s such as [[kite (bird)|kite]]s, [[buzzard]]s and [[harrier (bird)|harrier]]s. It is one of the [[List of largest birds|two largest]] [[Old World vulture]]s, attaining a maximum size of 14&nbsp;kg, (roughly 30&nbsp;lbs), 1.2 m long (almost 4&nbsp;ft) and 3.1 m (a bit over 10&nbsp;ft) across the wings.
+The '''cinereous vulture''' ('''''Aegypius monachus''''') is a large [[Raptor (bird)|raptor]] in the family [[Accipitridae]] and distributed through much of temperate [[Eurasia]]. It is also known as the '''black vulture''', '''monk vulture''' and '''Eurasian black vulture'''. With a body length of {{cvt|1.2|m}}, {{cvt|3.1|m}} across the wings and a maximum weight of {{cvt|14|kg}}, it is the largest [[Old World vulture]] and largest member of the [[Accipitridae]] family.
+''Aegypius monachus'' is one of the largest birds of prey and it plays a huge role in its various ecosystems by eating carcasses, which in turn reduces the spread of diseases. The vultures are constantly exposed to many pathogens because of their eating habits. A study of the cinereous vulture's gastric and immune defense systems conducted in 2015 sequenced the bird's entire genome. The study compared cinereous vultures to bald eagles, finding positively selected genetic variations associated with respiration and the ability of the vulture's immune defense responses and gastric acid secretion to digest carcasses.
 ==Taxonomy ==
@@ Line 23: / Line 26: @@
 [[File:2xcinereous.vultures.jpg|thumb|right|A pair in captivity]]
 [[File:Aegypius monachus, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India.jpg|thumb|A portrait of the cinereous vulture, also known as the Eurasian black vulture]]
-The cinereous vulture measures {{convert|98|–|120|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} in total length with a {{convert|2.5|–|3.1|m|ftin|abbr=on}} wingspan. Males can weigh from {{convert|6.3|to|11.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, whereas females can weigh from {{convert|7.5|to|14|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. It is thus one of the world's heaviest flying birds.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/><ref name= Glutz>Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., Bauer, K. M., & Bezzel, E. (1980). ''Handbuch der vögel mitteleuropas''. Aula, Wiesbaden.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/birds-of-prey-1254385523/aegypius-monachus |title=Cinereous Vulture – Aegypius monachus : WAZA : World Association of Zoos and Aquariums |publisher=WAZA |accessdate=2013-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115030217/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/birds-of-prey-1254385523/aegypius-monachus |archive-date=2012-01-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Chandler, K. P. (2013). ''The distribution and status of cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) at Jorbeer, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India: A study of near threatened monk vulture.'' Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences, 1(1), 17-21.</ref> Average weights are not known to have been published for this species but the median weight figures from two sources were {{convert|9.42|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|9.55|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Brown"/><ref name= Glutz/><ref>Del Moral, J. C., de la Puente, J. (2014). ''Buitre negro – Aegypius monachus. En: Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles''. Salvador, A., Morales, M. B. (Eds.). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid.</ref> Unlike most [[Accipitridae|accipitrids]], males can broadly overlap in size with the females, although not uncommonly the females may be slightly heavier.<ref name="Brown"/> These are one of the two largest extant [[Old World vulture]]s and accipitrids, with similar total length and perhaps wingspans recorded in the [[Himalayan vulture]] (''Gyps himalayensis'') , as indicated by broadly similar wing and tail proportions, but the cinereous appears to be slightly heavier as well as slightly larger in tarsus and bill length.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/><ref>Mohapatra, R. K., Sahu, S. K., Panda, S., Das, J. K., & Upadhyay, H. S. (2019). ''Himalayan Griffon: rescue and treatment of Gyps himalayensis in Odisha, India''. ZOO'S PRINT, 34(3), 24-27.</ref> Superficially similar but unrelated New World [[condor]]s can either be of [[California condor|similar]] wing area and bulk or [[Andean condor|slightly larger]] in these aspects.<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |title=''The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats'' |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' |edition=2nd |editor-first=John B. Jr. |editor-last=Dunning |publisher=CRC Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4200-6444-5}}</ref>  Despite limited genetic variation in the species, body size increases from west to east based on standard measurements, with the birds from southwest Europe ([[Spain]] and south [[France]]) averaging about 10% smaller than the vultures from central Asia ([[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]] and northern [[China]]).<ref name=Ferguson/> Among standard measurements, the wing chord is {{convert|73|-|89|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the tail is {{convert|33|-|41|cm|in|abbr=on}} and the tarsus is {{convert|12|-|14.6|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Ferguson/>
+The cinereous vulture measures {{cvt|98|-|120|cm}} in total length with a {{cvt|2.5|-|3.1|m|ftin}} wingspan. Males can weigh from {{cvt|6.3|to|11.5|kg}}, whereas females can weigh from {{cvt|7.5|to|14|kg}}. It is thus one of the world's heaviest flying birds.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/><ref name= Glutz>Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., Bauer, K. M., & Bezzel, E. (1980). ''Handbuch der vögel mitteleuropas''. Aula, Wiesbaden.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/birds-of-prey-1254385523/aegypius-monachus |title=Cinereous Vulture – Aegypius monachus : WAZA : World Association of Zoos and Aquariums |publisher=WAZA |access-date=2013-05-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115030217/http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/visit-the-zoo/birds-of-prey-1254385523/aegypius-monachus |archive-date=2012-01-15 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Chandler, K. P. (2013). ''The distribution and status of cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) at Jorbeer, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India: A study of near threatened monk vulture.'' Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences, 1(1), 17-21.</ref> Average weights were long not known to have been published for this species but the median weight figures from two sources were {{cvt|9.42|kg}} and {{cvt|9.55|kg}}.<ref name="Brown"/><ref name= Glutz/><ref>Del Moral, J. C., de la Puente, J. (2014). ''Buitre negro – Aegypius monachus. En: Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles''. Salvador, A., Morales, M. B. (Eds.). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid.</ref> However in a [[Korea]]n study, a large survey of wild cinereous vultures was found to have weighed an average of {{cvt|9.6|kg}} with a mean total length of {{cvt|113|cm}}, this standing as the only attempt to attain the average sizes of free-flying mature birds of the species, as opposed to nestlings or captive specimens.<ref>Kim, J. T., Park, C. M., Kim, Y. J., & Pak, I. C. (2007). ''Survey on the actual injured condition and wintery ecology of Black vulture (Aegypius monachus)''. Korean Journal of Veterinary Service, 30(3), 467-472.</ref> Unlike most [[Accipitridae|accipitrids]], males can broadly overlap in size with the females, although not uncommonly the females may be slightly heavier.<ref name="Brown"/> These are one of the two largest extant [[Old World vulture]]s and accipitrids, with similar total length and perhaps wingspans recorded in the [[Himalayan vulture]] (''Gyps himalayensis''), as indicated by broadly similar wing and tail proportions, but the cinereous appears to be slightly heavier as well as slightly larger in tarsus and bill length.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/><ref>Mohapatra, R. K., Sahu, S. K., Panda, S., Das, J. K., & Upadhyay, H. S. (2019). ''Himalayan Griffon: rescue and treatment of ''Gyps himalayensis'' in Odisha, India''. ZOO'S PRINT, 34(3), 24-27.</ref> Superficially similar but unrelated New World [[condor]]s can either be of [[California condor|similar]] wing area and bulk or [[Andean condor|slightly larger]] in these aspects.<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Gerald |title=''The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats'' |year=1983 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' |edition=2nd |editor-first=John B. Jr. |editor-last=Dunning |publisher=CRC Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4200-6444-5}}</ref>  Despite limited genetic variation in the species, body size increases from west to east based on standard measurements, with the birds from southwest Europe ([[Spain]] and south [[France]]) averaging about 10% smaller than the vultures from central Asia ([[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]] and northern [[China]]).<ref name=Ferguson/> Among standard measurements, the wing chord is {{cvt|73|-|89|cm}}, the tail is {{cvt|33|-|41|cm}} and the tarsus is {{cvt|12|-|14.6|cm}}.<ref name=Ferguson/>
-The cinereous vulture is distinctly dark, with the whole body being brown excepting the pale head in adults, which is covered in fine blackish [[down feather|down]]. This down is absent in the closely related [[lappet-faced vulture]] (''Torgos tracheliotos'').<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/> The skin of the head and neck is bluish-gray and a paler whitish color above the eye. The adult has brown eyes, a purplish cere, a blue-gray bill and pale blue-gray legs.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/> The primary quills are often actually black.<ref name="Brown"/> From a distance, flying birds can easily appear all black. The immature plumage is sepia-brown above, with a much paler underside than in adults. Immature cinereous vultures have grey down on the head, a pale mauve cere and grey legs.<ref name="Brown"/> The massive bill is one of the largest of any living [[Accipitriformes|accipiterid]], a feature enhanced by the relatively small skull of the species. The exposed [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] of the cinereous vulture measures {{convert|8|-|9|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name=IndianBio>[http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org/fauna-of-british-india-2nd-ed-vol-v-1928/cinereous-vulture-aegypius-monachus.html Cinereous Vulture (''Aegypius monachus'')] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.is/20130415012355/http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org/fauna-of-british-india-2nd-ed-vol-v-1928/cinereous-vulture-aegypius-monachus.html |date=2013-04-15 }}. indianbiodiversity.org</ref> Only their cousin, the lappet-faced vulture, with a bill length of up to about {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}}, can rival or outsize the bill of the cinereous.<ref name=Ferguson/> The wings, with serrated leading edges, are held straight or slightly arched in flight and are broad, sometimes referred to as "barn door wings". Their flight is slow and buoyant, with deep, heavy flaps when necessary. The combination of huge size and dark coloration renders the cinereous vulture relatively distinct, especially against smaller raptors such as [[eagle]]s or [[Buteo|buzzard]]s. The most similar-shaped species, the [[lappet-faced vulture]] (with which there might be limited range overlap in the southern Middle East), is distinguished by its bare, pinkish head and contrasting plumage. On the lappet-face, the thighs and belly are whitish in adult birds against black to brownish over the remainder of the plumage. All potential ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures are distinguished by having paler, often streaky plumage, with bulging wing primaries giving them a less evenly broad-winged form.<ref name=Ferguson/> Cinereous vultures are generally very silent, with a few querulous mewing, roaring or guttural cries solely between adults and their offspring at the nest site.<ref name="Brown"/>
+The cinereous vulture is distinctly dark, with the whole body being brown excepting the pale head in adults, which is covered in fine blackish [[down feather|down]]. This down is absent in the closely related [[lappet-faced vulture]] (''Torgos tracheliotos'').<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/> The skin of the head and neck is bluish-gray and a paler whitish color above the eye. The adult has brown eyes, a purplish cere, a blue-gray bill and pale blue-gray legs.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name="Brown"/> The primary quills are often actually black.<ref name="Brown"/> From a distance, flying birds can easily appear all black. The immature plumage is sepia-brown above, with a much paler underside than in adults. Immature cinereous vultures have grey down on the head, a pale mauve cere and grey legs.<ref name="Brown"/> Its massive bill is one of the largest of any living [[Accipitriformes|accipitrid]], a feature enhanced by the relatively small skull of the species. The exposed [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] of the cinereous vulture measures {{cvt|8|-|9|cm}}.<ref name=IndianBio>[http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org/fauna-of-british-india-2nd-ed-vol-v-1928/cinereous-vulture-aegypius-monachus.html Cinereous Vulture (''Aegypius monachus'')] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130415012355/http://avis.indianbiodiversity.org/fauna-of-british-india-2nd-ed-vol-v-1928/cinereous-vulture-aegypius-monachus.html |date=2013-04-15 }}. indianbiodiversity.org</ref> Only their cousin, the lappet-faced vulture, with a bill length of up to about {{cvt|10|cm}}, can rival or outsize the bill of the cinereous.<ref name=Ferguson/> The wings, with serrated leading edges, are held straight or slightly arched in flight and are broad, sometimes referred to as "barn door wings". Its flight is slow and buoyant, with deep, heavy flaps when necessary. The combination of huge size and dark coloration renders the cinereous vulture relatively distinct, especially against smaller raptors such as [[eagle]]s or [[Buteo|buzzard]]s. The most similar-shaped species, the [[lappet-faced vulture]] (with which there might be limited range overlap in the southern Middle East), is distinguished by its bare, pinkish head and contrasting plumage. On the lappet-face, the thighs and belly are whitish in adult birds against black to brownish over the remainder of the plumage. All potential ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures are distinguished by having paler, often streaky plumage, with bulging wing primaries giving them a less evenly broad-winged form.<ref name=Ferguson/> Cinereous vultures are generally very silent, with a few querulous mewing, roaring or guttural cries solely between adults and their offspring at the nest site.<ref name="Brown"/>
 ==Distribution and habitat==
@@ Line 38: / Line 41: @@
 The cinereous vulture is a Eurasian species. The western limits of its range are in [[Spain]] and inland [[Portugal]], with a reintroduced population in south [[France]]. They are found discontinuously to [[Greece]], [[Turkey]] and throughout the central [[Middle East]]. Their range continues through [[Afghanistan]] eastwards to northern [[India]] to its eastern limits in central [[Asia]], where they breed in northern [[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]] and [[Korea]]. Their range is fragmented especially throughout their European range. It is generally a permanent resident except in those parts of its range where hard winters cause limited altitudinal movement and for juveniles when they reach breeding maturity. In the eastern limits of its range, birds from the northernmost reaches may migrate down to southern Korea and China. A limited migration has also been reported in the Middle East but is not common.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name=Snow/><ref name=Hoyo/>
-This vulture is a bird of hilly, mountainous areas, especially favoring dry semi-open habitats such as meadows at high altitudes over much of the range. Nesting usually occurs near the [[tree line]] in the mountains.<ref name="Brown">''Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World'' by Leslie Brown & Dean Amadon. The Wellfleet Press (1986), {{ISBN|978-1555214722}}.</ref> They are always associated with undisturbed, remote areas with limited human disturbance. They forage for carcasses over various kinds of terrain, including [[steppe]], grasslands, open woodlands, along [[riparian]] habitats or any kind of mountainous habitat. In their current European range and through the [[Caucasus]] and [[Middle East]], cinereous vultures are found from {{convert|100|to|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}} in elevation, while in their Asian distribution, they are typically found at higher elevations.<ref name=Ferguson/> Two habitat types were found to be preferred by the species in [[China]] and [[Tibet]]. Some cinereous vultures in these areas live in mountainous forests and shrubland from {{convert|800|to|3800|m|ft|abbr=on}}, while the others preferred arid or semi-arid alpine meadows and grasslands at {{convert|3800|to|4500|m|ft|abbr=on}} in elevation.<ref name=Hoyo/><ref name=Gavashelishvili9>{{cite journal |author1=Gavashelishvili, A. |author2=McGrady, M. J. |author3=Javakhishvili, Z. |year=2006 |title=Planning the conservation of the breeding population of cinereous vultures (''Aegypius monachus'') in the Republic of Georgia |journal=Oryx |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=76–83 |doi=10.1017/S0030605306000081|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Gavashelishvili6>{{cite journal |author1=Gavashelishvili, A. |author2=McGrady, M. J. |year=2006 |title=Geographic information system-based modelling of vulture response to carcass appearance in the Caucasus |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=269 |issue=3 |pages=365–372 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00062.x}}</ref> This species can fly at a very high altitude. One cinereous vulture was observed at an elevation of {{convert|6970|m|ft|abbr=on}} on [[Mount Everest]].<ref name="Brown"/> It has a specialised [[haemoglobin]] alpha<sup>D</sup> subunit of high oxygen affinity which makes it possible to take up oxygen efficiently despite the low [[partial pressure]] in the upper [[troposphere]].<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1515/bchm3.1988.369.1.233| last = Weber| first = Roy E.| last2 = Hiebl| first2 = Inge| last3 = Braunitzer| first3 = Gerhard| year = 1988| title = High Altitude and Hemoglobin Function in the Vultures ''Gyps rueppellii'' and ''Aegypius monachus''| journal = Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler| volume = 369| issue = 4| pages = 233–240| pmid = 3401328}}</ref> Juvenile and immature cinereous vultures, especially those in the northern stretches of the species range, may move large distances across undeveloped open-dry habitats in response to snowfall or high summer temperatures.<ref name="Brown"/><ref name=Gavashelishvili19>{{cite journal |author1=Gavashelishvili, A. |author2=McGrady, M. |author3=Ghasabian, M. |author4=Bildstein, K. L. |year=2012 |title= Movements and habitat use by immature Cinereous Vultures (''Aegypius monachus'') from the Caucasus |journal= Bird Study |volume= iFirst |issue=4 | pages=1–14 |doi=10.1080/00063657.2012.728194}}</ref>
+This vulture is a bird of [[hill]]y, [[Montane ecosystems|mountainous areas]], especially favoring [[Semi-arid climate|dry]] semi-open habitats such as [[meadow]]s at high altitudes over much of the range. Nesting usually occurs near the [[tree line]] in the mountains.<ref name="Brown">''Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World'' by Leslie Brown & Dean Amadon. The Wellfleet Press (1986), {{ISBN|978-1555214722}}.</ref> They are always associated with undisturbed, remote areas with limited human disturbance. They forage for carcasses over various kinds of terrain, including [[steppe]], other [[grassland]]s, open [[woodland]]s, along [[riparian]] habitats or any kind or gradient of mountainous habitat. In their current European range and through the [[Caucasus]] and [[Middle East]], cinereous vultures are found from {{convert|100|to|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}} in elevation, while in their Asian distribution, they are typically found at higher elevations.<ref name=Ferguson/> Two habitat types were found to be preferred by the species in [[China]] and [[Tibet]]. Some cinereous vultures in these areas live in mountainous forests and shrubland from {{convert|800|to|3800|m|ft|abbr=on}}, while the others preferred arid or semi-arid alpine meadows and grasslands at {{convert|3800|to|4500|m|ft|abbr=on}} in elevation.<ref name=Hoyo/> This species can fly at a very high altitude. One cinereous vulture was observed at an elevation of {{convert|6970|m|ft|abbr=on}} on [[Mount Everest]].<ref name="Brown"/> It has a specialised [[haemoglobin]] alpha<sup>{{Langr|mis|D}}</sup> subunit of high oxygen affinity which makes it possible to take up oxygen efficiently despite the low [[partial pressure]] in the upper [[troposphere]].<ref>{{cite journal| doi = 10.1515/bchm3.1988.369.1.233| last1 = Weber| first1 = Roy E.| last2 = Hiebl| first2 = Inge| last3 = Braunitzer| first3 = Gerhard| year = 1988| title = High Altitude and Hemoglobin Function in the Vultures ''Gyps rueppellii'' and ''Aegypius monachus''| journal = Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler| volume = 369| issue = 4| pages = 233–240| pmid = 3401328}}</ref>
 ==Behaviour==
@@ Line 47: / Line 50: @@
 ===Breeding===
 [[File:Vautour moine MHNT.jpg|thumb|right|An egg]]
-In Europe, the cinereous vulture return to the nesting ground in January or February.<ref name="Brown"/> In [[Spain]] and [[Algeria]], they start nesting in February in March, in [[Crimea]] in early March, in northwestern [[India]] in February or April, in northeastern India in January, and in [[Turkestan]] in January.<ref name="Brown"/> They breed in loose colonies, with nests rarely being found in the same tree or rock formation, unlike other Old World vultures which often nest in tight-knit colonies. In Spain, nests have been found from {{convert|300|m|ft|abbr=on}} to {{convert|2|km|ft|abbr=on}} apart from each other.<ref name=Hoyo/> The cinereous vulture breeds in high mountains and large forests, nesting in trees or occasionally on cliff ledges. The breeding season lasts from February until September or October. The most common display consists of synchronous flight movements by pairs. However, flight play between pairs and juveniles is not unusual, with the large birds interlocking talons and spiraling down through the sky. The birds use sticks and twigs as building materials, and males and females cooperate in all matters of rearing the young.<ref name ="LPZCinereousVulture">[http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/cinereous-vulture Cinereous Vulture Fact Sheet]. Lincoln Park Zoo</ref> The huge nest is {{convert|1.45|-|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} across and {{convert|1|-|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep. The nest increases in size as a pair uses it repeatedly over the years and often comes to be decorated with dung and animal skins.<ref name=Ferguson/> The nests can range up to {{convert|1.5|to|12|m|ft|abbr=on}} high in a large tree such as an [[oak]], [[juniper]],<ref name="ABCC"/> [[wild pear]],<ref name="ABCC"/> [[almond]] or [[pine tree]]s. Most nesting trees are found along cliffs. In a few cases, cinereous vultures have been recorded as nesting directly on cliffs. One cliff nest completely filled a ledge that was {{convert|3.63|m|ft|abbr=on}} wide and {{convert|2.5|m|ft|abbr=on}} in depth.<ref name="Brown"/> The egg clutch typically only a single egg, though two may be exceptionally laid. The eggs have a white or pale buff base color are often overlaid with red, purplish or red-brown marks, being almost as spotted as the egg of a [[falcon]]. Eggs measure from {{convert|83.4|to|104|mm|in|abbr=on}} in height and {{convert|58|to|75|mm|in|abbr=on}} in width, with an average of {{convert|90|x|69.7|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Brown"/> The incubation period can range from 50 to 62 days, averaging 50–56 days. Normally hatching occurs in April or May in Europe.<ref name="Brown"/> The newly hatched young are [[Altricial|semi-altricial]].{{citation needed|date=August 2017}} The young are covered in greyish-white to grey-brown colored down which becomes paler with age. The first flight feathers start growing from the same sockets as the down when the nestling is around 30 days old and completely cover the down by 60 days of age.<ref name="Brown"/> The parents feed the young by regurgitation and an active nest reportedly becomes very foul and stinking.<ref name="Brown"/> Weights of nestlings in Mongolia increased from as little as {{convert|2|kg|lb|abbr=on}} when they are around a month old in early June to being slightly more massive than their parents at up to nearly {{convert|16|kg|lb|abbr=on}} shortly before fledging in early autumn.<ref name="Reading">{{cite journal |author1=Reading, R. P. |author2=Amgalanbaatar, S. |author3=Kenny, D. |author4=Dashdemberel, B. |name-list-style=amp|year=2005 |title=Cinereous Vulture Nesting Ecology in Ikh Nartyn Chuluu Nature Reserve, Mongolia |journal=Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |url=http://www.espa.biology.mn/?p=product&viewby=single&id=55 |doi=10.22353/mjbs.2005.02.02 |doi-access=free |access-date=2014-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903114840/http://www.espa.biology.mn/?p=product&viewby=single&id=55 |archive-date=2014-09-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Fledging is reported when the nestlings are 104–120 days old, though dependence on parents can continue for another two months. Radio-satellite tracking suggests the age of independence of juveniles from their parents to be 5.7–7 months after hatching (i.e. 2–3 months after fledging).<ref name="Gavashelishvili19"/>
+In Europe, the cinereous vulture return to the nesting ground in January or February.<ref name="Brown"/> In [[Spain]] and [[Algeria]], they start nesting in February in March, in [[Crimea]] in early March, in northwestern [[India]] in February or April, in northeastern India in January, and in [[Turkestan]] in January.<ref name="Brown"/> They breed in loose colonies, with nests rarely being found in the same tree or rock formation, unlike other Old World vultures which often nest in tight-knit colonies. In Spain, nests have been found from {{cvt|300|m}} to {{cvt|2|km}} apart from each other.<ref name=Hoyo/> The cinereous vulture breeds in high mountains and large forests, nesting in trees or occasionally on cliff ledges. The breeding season lasts from February until September or October. The most common display consists of synchronous flight movements by pairs. However, flight play between pairs and juveniles is not unusual, with the large birds interlocking talons and spiraling down through the sky. The birds use sticks and twigs as building materials, and males and females cooperate in all matters of rearing the young.<ref name ="LPZCinereousVulture">[http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/cinereous-vulture Cinereous Vulture Fact Sheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209165354/http://www.lpzoo.org/animals/factsheet/cinereous-vulture |date=2014-02-09 }}. Lincoln Park Zoo</ref> The huge nest is {{cvt|1.45|-|2|m}} across and {{cvt|1|-|3|m}} deep. The nest increases in size as a pair uses it repeatedly over the years and often comes to be decorated with dung and animal skins.<ref name=Ferguson/> The nests can range up to {{cvt|1.5|to|12|m}} high in a large tree such as an [[oak]], [[juniper]],<ref name="ABCC"/> [[wild pear]],<ref name="ABCC"/> [[almond]] or [[pine tree]]s. Most nesting trees are found along cliffs. In a few cases, cinereous vultures have been recorded as nesting directly on cliffs. One cliff nest completely filled a ledge that was {{cvt|3.63|m}} wide and {{cvt|2.5|m}} in depth.<ref name="Brown"/> The egg clutch typically only a single egg, though two may be exceptionally laid. The eggs have a white or pale buff base color are often overlaid with red, purplish or red-brown marks, being almost as spotted as the egg of a [[falcon]]. Eggs measure from {{cvt|83.4|to|104|mm}} in height and {{cvt|58|to|75|mm}} in width, with an average of {{cvt|90|x|69.7|mm}}. The incubation period ranges from 50 to 62 days, averaging 50–56 days, and hatching occurs in April or May in Europe.<ref name="Brown"/>
+The young are covered in greyish-white to grey-brown colored down which becomes paler with age. The first flight feathers start growing from the same sockets as the down when the nestling is around 30 days old and completely cover the down by 60 days of age.<ref name="Brown"/> The parents feed the young by regurgitation and an active nest reportedly becomes very foul and stinking.<ref name="Brown"/> Weights of nestlings in Mongolia increased from as little as {{cvt|2|kg}} when they are around a month old in early June to being slightly more massive than their parents at up to nearly {{cvt|16|kg}} shortly before fledging in early autumn.<ref name="Reading">{{cite journal |author1=Reading, R. P. |author2=Amgalanbaatar, S. |author3=Kenny, D. |author4=Dashdemberel, B. |name-list-style=amp|year=2005 |title=Cinereous Vulture nesting ecology in Ikh Nartyn Chuluu Nature Reserve, Mongolia |journal=Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=13–19 |doi=10.22353/mjbs.2005.02.02 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
-The nesting success of cinereous vultures is relatively high, with around 90% of eggs successfully hatching and more than half of yearling birds known to survive to adulthood. They are devoted, active parents, with both members of a breeding pair protecting the nest and feeding the young in shifts via regurgitation.<ref name=Hoyo/> In Mongolia, [[Pallas's cat]] (''Otocolobus manul'') and the [[common raven]] (''Corvus corax'') are considered potential predators of eggs in potentially both tree and cliff nests. [[Wolf|Gray wolves]] (''Canis lupus'') and [[fox]]es are also mentioned as potential nest predators, but since neither one can climb trees and there are also no incidents of predation on inaccessible cliff nests, this seems unlikely.<ref name="Reading"/> There have been witnessed accounts of [[bearded vulture]]s (''Gypaetus barbatus'') and [[Spanish imperial eagle]]s (''Aquila adalberti'') attempting to kill nestlings, but in both cases they were chased off by the parents.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Aykurt A, Kira CO |year=2001|title=Apparent predation attempt by Lammergeier ''Gypaetus barbatus'' on Black Vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' chick in Turkey|journal=Sandgrouse|volume= 23|pages= 140}}</ref> There is a single case of a [[Spanish imperial eagle]] attacking and killing a cinereous vulture in an act of defense of its own nest in Spain.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Oria, J |year=1999|title=Spanish Imperial Eagle ''Aquila adalberti'' attacks and kills a Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus|journal= Vulture News|volume= 40|pages= 37}}</ref> [[Golden eagle]]s and [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]s may rarely attempt to dispatch an older nestling or even adults in an ambush, but the species is not verified prey for either and it would be a rare event in all likelihood if it does occur. This species may live for up to 39 years, though 20 years or less is probably more common, with no regular predators of adults other than man.<ref name=Hoyo/>
+The nesting success of cinereous vultures is relatively high, with around 90% of eggs successfully hatching and more than half of yearling birds known to survive to adulthood. They are devoted, active parents, with both members of a breeding pair protecting the nest and feeding the young in shifts via regurgitation.<ref name=Hoyo/> In Mongolia, [[Pallas's cat]] (''Otocolobus manul'') and the [[common raven]] (''Corvus corax'') are considered potential predators of eggs in potentially both tree and cliff nests. [[Wolf|Gray wolves]] (''Canis lupus'') and [[fox]]es are also mentioned as potential nest predators.<ref name="Reading"/> There have been witnessed accounts of [[bearded vulture]]s (''Gypaetus barbatus'') and [[Spanish imperial eagle]]s (''Aquila adalberti'') attempting to kill nestlings, but in both cases they were chased off by the parents.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Aykurt, A. |author2=Kira, C.O. |year=2001|title=Apparent predation attempt by Lammergeier ''Gypaetus barbatus'' on Black Vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' chick in Turkey|journal=Sandgrouse|volume=23|pages=140}}</ref> There is a single case of a [[Spanish imperial eagle]] attacking and killing a cinereous vulture in an act of defense of its own nest in Spain.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Oria, J. |year=1999|title=Spanish Imperial Eagle ''Aquila adalberti'' attacks and kills a Cinereous Vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' |journal=Vulture News |volume=40 |page=37}}</ref> [[Golden eagle]]s and [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]s may rarely attempt to dispatch an older nestling or even adults in an ambush, but the species is not verified prey for either and it would be a rare event in all likelihood if it does occur. This species may live for up to 39 years, though 20 years or less is probably more common, with no regular predators of adults other than man.<ref name=Hoyo/>
 ===Feeding===
 [[File:6 Aegypius monachus, 2 Gyps fulvus.jpg|thumb|Six cinereous vultures with the smaller Eurasian griffons]]
-Like all vultures, the cinereous vulture eats mostly carrion. The cinereous vulture feeds on carrion of almost any type, from the largest [[mammal]]s available to [[fish]] and [[reptile]]s.<ref name ="LPZCinereousVulture" /> In Tibet, commonly eaten carcasses can include both [[Wild yak|wild]] and [[domestic yak]]s (''Bos mutus'' and ''Bos grunniens''), [[Bharal]], [[Goa (antelope)|Tibetan gazelles]] (''Pseudois nayaur''), [[kiang]]s (''Equus kiang''), [[woolly hare]]s (''Lepus oiostolus''), [[Himalayan marmot]]s (''Marmota himalayana''), [[domestic sheep]] (''Ovis aries''), and even [[human]]s, mainly those at their [[Sky burial|celestial burial grounds]].<ref name=Hoyo/> Reportedly in [[Mongolia]], [[Tarbagan marmot]]s (''Marmota sibirica'') comprised the largest part of the diet, although that species is now endangered as it is preferred in the diet of local people, wild prey ranging from [[corsac fox]] (''Vulpes corsac'') to [[Argali]] (''Ovis ammon'') may be eaten additionally in Mongolia.<ref name=Hoyo/><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Clark, H. O. |author2=Murdoch Jr, J. D. |author3=Newman, D. P. |author4=Sillero-Zubiri, C. |name-list-style=amp|year=2009|title=''Vulpes corsac'' (Carnivora: Canidae)|journal=Mammalian Species|volume=832 |pages= 1–8|doi=10.1644/832.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> Historically, cinereous vultures in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] fed mostly on [[European rabbit]] (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') carcasses, but since [[Viral hemorrhagic fever|viral hemorrhagic pneumonia]] (VHP) devastated the once abundant rabbit population there, the vultures now rely on the carrion of domestic sheep, supplemented by [[pig]]s (''Sus scrofa domesticus'') and [[deer]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Costillo, E. |author2=Corbacho, C. |author3=Morán, R. |author4=Villegas, A. |name-list-style=amp|year=2007|title=The diet of the black vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' in response to environmental changes in Extremadura (1970–2000)|journal= Ardeola|volume= 54|issue=2|pages=197–204|url=http://www.ardeola.org/files/1317.pdf}}</ref> In Turkey, the dietary preferences were [[argali]] (''Ovis ammon'') (92 carrion items), [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa'') (53 items), [[chicken]]s (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') (27 items), [[Wolf|gray wolves]] (13 items) and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'') (13 items). Unusually, a large amount of plant material was found in pellets from Turkey, especially [[pine cone]]s.<ref>Yamaç, E., & Günyel, E. (2010). ''Diet of the Eurasian Black Vulture, Aegypius monachus Linnaeus, 1766, in Turkey and implications for its conservation: (Aves: Falconiformes)''. Zoology in the Middle East, 51(1), 15–22.</ref> Among the vultures in its range, the cinereous is best equipped to tear open tough carcass skins thanks to its powerful bill. It can even break apart bones, such as ribs, to access the flesh of large animals. It is dominant over other scavengers in its range, even over other large vultures such as ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures, [[bearded vulture]]s or fierce ground predators such as [[fox]]es.<ref name="Brown"/> While the noisy ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures squawk and fly around, the often silent cinereous vultures will keep them well at bay until they are satisfied and have had their own fill.<ref name= IndianBio/><ref name="Gavashelishvili6"/> A series of photos taken recently show a cinereous vulture attacking a [[Himalayan griffon]] in flight for unknown reasons, although the griffon was not seriously injured.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/paulbjones/8168163903/ |title=Pounce- Cinereous Vulture attacks Himalayan Griffon- Two |publisher=Flickr |accessdate=2013-05-23}}</ref> Cinereous vultures frequently bully and dominate [[steppe eagle]]s (''Aquila nipalensis'') when the two species are attracted to the same prey and carrion while wintering in [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Tingay, R. E. |author2=Sureda, N. |author3=Gilbert, M. |name-list-style=amp|year=2008|title=Steppe Eagle (''Aquila nipalensis'') Foraging Behavior in Mongolia: A Combined Use of Diversionary and Covert Ambush Tactics|journal= Journal of Raptor Research|volume= 42|issue=2|pages=155–156|doi=10.3356/JRR-07-52.1 }}</ref> A rare successful act of [[kleptoparasitism]] on a cinereous vulture was filmed in [[Korea]] when a [[Steller's sea eagle]] (''Haliaeetus pelagicus'') stole food from the vulture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdskorea.org/Birds/Birdnews/BK-BN-birdnews-2006-01.shtml |title=Birds Korea- Bird News January 2006 |publisher=Birds Korea |accessdate=2013-05-22}}</ref>
+Like all vultures, the cinereous vulture eats mostly carrion. The cinereous vulture feeds on carrion of almost any type, from the largest [[mammal]]s available to [[fish]] and [[reptile]]s.<ref name ="LPZCinereousVulture" /> In Tibet, commonly eaten carcasses can include both [[Wild yak|wild]] and [[domestic yak]]s (''Bos mutus'' and ''Bos grunniens''), [[Bharal]], [[Goa (antelope)|Tibetan gazelles]] (''Pseudois nayaur''), [[kiang]]s (''Equus kiang''), [[woolly hare]]s (''Lepus oiostolus''), [[Himalayan marmot]]s (''Marmota himalayana''), [[domestic sheep]] (''Ovis aries''), and even [[human]]s, mainly those at their [[Sky burial|celestial burial grounds]].<ref name=Hoyo/> Reportedly in [[Mongolia]], [[Tarbagan marmot]]s (''Marmota sibirica'') comprised the largest part of the diet, although that species is now endangered as it is preferred in the diet of local people, wild prey ranging from [[corsac fox]] (''Vulpes corsac'') to [[Argali]] (''Ovis ammon'') may be eaten additionally in Mongolia.<ref name=Hoyo/><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Clark, H. O. |author2=Murdoch Jr, J. D. |author3=Newman, D. P. |author4=Sillero-Zubiri, C. |name-list-style=amp|year=2009|title=''Vulpes corsac'' (Carnivora: Canidae)|journal=Mammalian Species|volume=832 |pages= 1–8|doi=10.1644/832.1|doi-access=free }}</ref> Historically, cinereous vultures in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] fed mostly on [[European rabbit]] (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') carcasses, but since [[Viral hemorrhagic fever|viral hemorrhagic pneumonia]] (VHP) devastated the once abundant rabbit population there, the vultures now rely on the carrion of domestic sheep, supplemented by [[pig]]s (''Sus scrofa domesticus'') and [[deer]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Costillo, E. |author2=Corbacho, C. |author3=Morán, R. |author4=Villegas, A. |name-list-style=amp|year=2007|title=The diet of the black vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' in response to environmental changes in Extremadura (1970–2000)|journal= Ardeola|volume= 54|issue=2|pages=197–204|url=http://www.ardeola.org/files/1317.pdf}}</ref> In Turkey, the dietary preferences were [[argali]] (''Ovis ammon'') (92 carrion items), [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa'') (53 items), [[chicken]]s (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') (27 items), [[Wolf|gray wolves]] (13 items) and [[red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'') (13 items). Unusually, a large amount of plant material was found in pellets from Turkey, especially [[pine cone]]s.<ref>Yamaç, E., & Günyel, E. (2010). ''Diet of the Eurasian Black Vulture, Aegypius monachus Linnaeus, 1766, in Turkey and implications for its conservation: (Aves: Falconiformes)''. Zoology in the Middle East, 51(1), 15–22.</ref> Among the vultures in its range, the cinereous is best equipped to tear open tough carcass skins thanks to its powerful bill. It can even break apart bones, such as ribs, to access the flesh of large animals. It is dominant over other scavengers in its range, even over other large vultures such as ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures, [[bearded vulture]]s or fierce ground predators such as [[fox]]es.<ref name="Brown"/> While the noisy ''[[Gyps]]'' vultures squawk and fly around, the often silent cinereous vultures will keep them well at bay until they are satisfied and have had their own fill.<ref name= IndianBio/> A series of photos taken recently show a cinereous vulture attacking a [[Himalayan griffon]] in flight for unknown reasons, although the griffon was not seriously injured.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/paulbjones/8168163903/ |title=Pounce- Cinereous Vulture attacks Himalayan Griffon- Two |date=26 June 2012 |publisher=Flickr |access-date=2013-05-23}}</ref> Cinereous vultures frequently bully and dominate [[steppe eagle]]s (''Aquila nipalensis'') when the two species are attracted to the same prey and carrion while wintering in [[Asia]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Tingay, R. E. |author2=Sureda, N. |author3=Gilbert, M. |name-list-style=amp|year=2008|title=Steppe Eagle (''Aquila nipalensis'') Foraging Behavior in Mongolia: A Combined Use of Diversionary and Covert Ambush Tactics|journal= Journal of Raptor Research|volume= 42|issue=2|pages=155–156|doi=10.3356/JRR-07-52.1 |s2cid=84630689 }}</ref> A rare successful act of [[kleptoparasitism]] on a cinereous vulture was filmed in [[Korea]] when a [[Steller's sea eagle]] (''Haliaeetus pelagicus'') stole food from the vulture.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdskorea.org/Birds/Birdnews/BK-BN-birdnews-2006-01.shtml |title=Birds Korea- Bird News January 2006 |publisher=Birds Korea |access-date=2013-05-22}}</ref>
 [[File:Aegypius monachus, Estremadura, Spain 0002 (15280998997).jpg|thumb|A cinereous vulture feeding in Spain]]
-Its closest living relative is probably the lappet-faced vulture, which takes live prey on occasion.<ref name=Ferguson/> Occasionally, the cinereous vulture has been recorded as preying on live prey as well. Live animals reportedly taken by cinereous vultures include calves of [[yak]]s and [[domestic cattle]] (''Bos primigenius taurus''), [[pig]]lets, domestic [[Sheep|lamb]]s and [[Dog|puppies]] (''Canis lupus familiaris''), [[fox]]es, lambs of [[wild sheep]], together with nestling and fledglings of large birds such as [[Goose|geese]], [[swan]]s and [[pheasant]]s, various [[rodent]]s and rarely [[amphibian]]s and [[reptile]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Xiao-Ti, Y. |year=1991|title=Distribution and status of the Cinereous Vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' in China|journal= Birds of Prey|volume= 4|pages= 51–56|url=http://www.raptors-international.org/book/birds_of_prey_1991/Xiao-Ti_1991_51-56.pdf }}</ref> This species has hunted [[tortoise]]s (which the vultures are likely to kill by carrying in flight and dropping on rocks to penetrate the shell; cf. [[Aeschylus#Death]]) and [[lizard]]s.<ref name=Hoyo/> Although rarely observed in the act of killing ungulates, cinereous vultures have been recorded as flying low around herds and feeding on recently killed wild ungulates they are believed to have killed. Mainly neonatal lambs or calves are hunted, especially sickly ones. Although not normally thought to be a threat to healthy domestic lambs, rare predation on apparently healthy lambs has been confirmed.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Richford, A. S. |year=1976|title=Black Vultures in Mallorca|journal= Oryx|volume= 13|issue=4|pages=383–386|doi=10.1017/S0030605300014125}}</ref> Species believed to be hunted by cinereous vultures have included [[argali]], [[saiga antelope]] (''Saiga tatarica''), [[Mongolian gazelle]] (''Procapra gutturosa'') and [[Tibetan antelope]] (''Pantholops hodgsonii'').<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/773_Ovis_ammon.pdf|journal=Mammalian Species|volume=773|pages=1–15|title=Ovis ammon|author1=Fedosenko, Alexander K.  |author2=Blank, David A. |year=2005|doi=10.1644/1545-1410(2005)773[0001:oa]2.0.co;2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Olson, K. A.|author2=Fuller, T. K.|author3=Schaller, G. B.|author4=Lhagvasuren, B.|author5=Odonkhuu, D.|name-list-style=amp|year=2005|title=Reproduction, neonatal weights, and first‐year survival of Mongolian gazelles (''Procapra gutturosa'')|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=265|issue=3|pages=227–233|doi=10.1017/S0952836904006284|url=https://www.panthera.org/sites/default/files/Olson_Fuller_Schaller_Lhagvasuren_Odonkhuu_2005_Reproductionneonatalweightgazelles.pdf|access-date=2014-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704020840/http://www.panthera.org/sites/default/files/Olson_Fuller_Schaller_Lhagvasuren_Odonkhuu_2005_Reproductionneonatalweightgazelles.pdf|archive-date=2012-07-04|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Buuveibaatar, B. |author2=Young, J. K. |author3=Berger, J. |author4=Fine, A. E. |author5=Lkhagvasuren, B. |author6=Zahler, P. |author7=Fuller, T. K. |name-list-style=amp|title=Factors affecting survival and cause-specific mortality of saiga calves in Mongolia|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/13pubs/young131.pdf|volume=94|issue=1|pages=127–136|year= 2013|doi=10.1644/11-MAMM-A-077.1}}</ref>
+Its closest living relative is probably the lappet-faced vulture, which takes live prey on occasion.<ref name=Ferguson/> Occasionally, the cinereous vulture has been recorded as preying on live prey as well. Live animals reportedly taken by cinereous vultures include calves of [[yak]]s and [[domestic cattle]] (''Bos primigenius taurus''), [[pig]]lets, domestic [[Sheep|lamb]]s and [[Dog|puppies]] (''Canis lupus familiaris''), [[fox]]es, lambs of [[wild sheep]], together with nestling and fledglings of large birds such as [[Goose|geese]], [[swan]]s and [[pheasant]]s, various [[rodent]]s and rarely [[amphibian]]s and [[reptile]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Xiao-Ti, Y. |year=1991|title=Distribution and status of the Cinereous Vulture ''Aegypius monachus'' in China|journal= Birds of Prey|volume= 4|pages= 51–56|url=http://www.raptors-international.org/book/birds_of_prey_1991/Xiao-Ti_1991_51-56.pdf }}</ref> This species has hunted [[tortoise]]s (which the vultures are likely to kill by carrying in flight and dropping on rocks to penetrate the shell; cf. [[Aeschylus#Death]]) and [[lizard]]s.<ref name=Hoyo/> Although rarely observed in the act of killing ungulates, cinereous vultures have been recorded as flying low around herds and feeding on recently killed wild ungulates they are believed to have killed. Mainly neonatal lambs or calves are hunted, especially sickly ones. Although not normally thought to be a threat to healthy domestic lambs, rare predation on apparently healthy lambs has been confirmed.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Richford, A. S. |year=1976|title=Black Vultures in Mallorca|journal= Oryx|volume= 13|issue=4|pages=383–386|doi=10.1017/S0030605300014125|doi-access=free}}</ref> Species believed to be hunted by cinereous vultures have included [[argali]], [[saiga antelope]] (''Saiga tatarica''), [[Mongolian gazelle]] (''Procapra gutturosa'') and [[Tibetan antelope]] (''Pantholops hodgsonii'').<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/773_Ovis_ammon.pdf|journal=Mammalian Species|volume=773|pages=1–15|title=Ovis ammon|author1=Fedosenko, Alexander K.  |author2=Blank, David A. |year=2005|doi=10.1644/1545-1410(2005)773[0001:oa]2.0.co;2|s2cid=198969231 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Olson, K. A.|author2=Fuller, T. K.|author3=Schaller, G. B.|author4=Lhagvasuren, B.|author5=Odonkhuu, D.|name-list-style=amp|year=2005|title=Reproduction, neonatal weights, and first-year survival of Mongolian gazelles (''Procapra gutturosa'')|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=265|issue=3|pages=227–233|doi=10.1017/S0952836904006284|url=https://www.panthera.org/sites/default/files/Olson_Fuller_Schaller_Lhagvasuren_Odonkhuu_2005_Reproductionneonatalweightgazelles.pdf|access-date=2014-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704020840/http://www.panthera.org/sites/default/files/Olson_Fuller_Schaller_Lhagvasuren_Odonkhuu_2005_Reproductionneonatalweightgazelles.pdf|archive-date=2012-07-04|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Buuveibaatar, B. |author2=Young, J. K. |author3=Berger, J. |author4=Fine, A. E. |author5=Lkhagvasuren, B. |author6=Zahler, P. |author7=Fuller, T. K. |name-list-style=amp|title=Factors affecting survival and cause-specific mortality of saiga calves in Mongolia|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/13pubs/young131.pdf|volume=94|issue=1|pages=127–136|year= 2013|doi=10.1644/11-MAMM-A-077.1|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 == Status and conservation ==
 [[File:Aegypius monachus - 2.jpg|thumb|A cinereous vulture flying over [[Mount Carmel]] on a rare visit in Israel (2016)]]
-The cinereous vulture has declined over most of its range in the last 200 years in part due to poisoning by eating poisoned bait put out to kill dogs and other predators, and to higher hygiene standards reducing the amount of available carrion; it is currently listed as Near Threatened. Vultures of all species, although not the target of poisoning operations, may be shot on sight by locals. Trapping and hunting of cinereous vultures is particularly prevalent in [[China]] and [[Russia]],<ref name=Hoyo/> although the poaching for trophy hunting are also known for Armenia, and probably other countries in Caucasus.<ref name="ABCC"/> Perhaps an even greater threat to this desolation-loving species is development and habitat destruction. Nests, often fairly low in the main fork of a tree, are relatively easy to access and thus have been historically compromised by egg and firewood collectors regularly.<ref name=Hoyo/><ref name="Gavashelishvili9"/> The decline has been the greatest in the western half of the range, with extinction in many European countries ([[France]], [[Italy]], [[Austria]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], [[Albania]], [[Moldova]], [[Romania]]) and its entire breeding range in northwest Africa ([[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]]). They no longer nest in [[Israel]]. Turkey holds the second largest population of this species in the Western Palearctic. Despite the recent demographic bottleneck, this population has maintained moderate levels of genetic diversity, with no significant genetic structuring indicating that this is a single meta-population connected by frequent dispersal.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Çakmak, E. |author2= Pekşen, C.A. | author3= Kİrazli, C. | author4= Yamaç, E. | author5= Bensch, S. | author6= Bİlgİn, C.C. | year=2019| title= Genetic diversity is retained in a bottlenecked Cinereous Vulture population in Turkey| journal=Ibis| volume=161| pages= 793–805| doi= 10.1111/ibi.12685| issue=4}}</ref> More recently, protection and deliberate feeding schemes have allowed some local recoveries in numbers, particularly in Spain, where numbers increased to about 1,000 pairs by 1992 after an earlier decline to 200 pairs in 1970. This colony have now spread its breeding grounds to Portugal. Elsewhere in Europe, very small but increasing numbers breed in [[Bulgaria]] and [[Greece]], and a re-introduction scheme is under way in [[France]]. Trends in the small populations in Ukraine (Crimea) and European Russia, and in Asian populations, are not well recorded. In the former USSR, it is still threatened by illegal capture for zoos, and in Tibet by rodenticides. It is a regular winter visitor around the coastal areas of [[Pakistan]] in small numbers. As of the turn of the 21st century, the worldwide population of cinereous vultures is estimated at 4,500–5,000 individuals.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name=Snow/><ref name=Hoyo/>
+The cinereous vulture has declined over most of its range in the last 200 years in part due to poisoning by eating poisoned bait put out to kill dogs and other predators, and to higher hygiene standards reducing the amount of available carrion; it is currently listed as Near Threatened. Vultures of all species, although not the target of poisoning operations, may be shot on sight by locals. Trapping and hunting of cinereous vultures is particularly prevalent in [[China]] and [[Russia]],<ref name=Hoyo/> although the poaching for trophy hunting are also known for Armenia, and probably other countries in Caucasus.<ref name="ABCC"/> Perhaps an even greater threat to this desolation-loving species is development and habitat destruction. Nests, often fairly low in the main fork of a tree, are relatively easy to access and thus have been historically compromised by egg and firewood collectors regularly.<ref name=Hoyo/> The decline has been the greatest in the western half of the range, with extinction in many European countries ([[France]], [[Italy]], [[Austria]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], [[Albania]], [[Moldova]], [[Romania]]) and its entire breeding range in northwest Africa ([[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]]). They no longer nest in [[Israel]]. Turkey holds the second largest population of this species in the Western Palearctic. Despite the recent demographic bottleneck, this population has maintained moderate levels of genetic diversity, with no significant genetic structuring indicating that this is a single meta-population connected by frequent dispersal.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Çakmak, E. |author2= Pekşen, C.A. | author3= Kİrazli, C. | author4= Yamaç, E. | author5= Bensch, S. | author6= Bİlgİn, C.C. | year=2019| title= Genetic diversity is retained in a bottlenecked Cinereous Vulture population in Turkey| journal=Ibis| volume=161| pages= 793–805| doi= 10.1111/ibi.12685| issue=4|s2cid= 92401817 }}</ref> More recently, protection and deliberate feeding schemes have allowed some local recoveries in numbers, particularly in Spain, where numbers increased to about 1,000 pairs by 1992 after an earlier decline to 200 pairs in 1970. This colony have now spread its breeding grounds to Portugal. Elsewhere in Europe, very small but increasing numbers breed in [[Bulgaria]] and [[Greece]], and a re-introduction scheme is under way in [[France]]. Trends in the small populations in Ukraine (Crimea) and European Russia, and in Asian populations, are not well recorded. In the former USSR, it is still threatened by illegal capture for zoos, and in Tibet by rodenticides. It is a regular winter visitor around the coastal areas of [[Pakistan]] in small numbers. As of the turn of the 21st century, the worldwide population of cinereous vultures is estimated at 4,500–5,000 individuals.<ref name=Ferguson/><ref name=Snow/><ref name=Hoyo/>
+The most recent global population estimate for Cinereous Vulture (according to Bird Life International (2017)) is 7,800-10,500 pairs, roughly equating to
+,600-21,000 mature individuals. This consists of 2,300-2,500 pairs in Europe (2004) and 5,500-8,000 pairs in Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FLYWAY ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THE CINEREOUS VULTURE|url=https://www.cms.int/sites/default/files/document/cms_cop12_doc.24.1.4-annex3_vulture-msap-annex5_cvfap_e.pdf|access-date=2021-08-22|website=Cms.int}}</ref>
 == Culture and mythology ==
+{{Commons category|Aegypius monachus}}
-The Hebrew word for "eagle" is also used for the cinereous vulture.<ref>[http://www.friendsofsabbath.org/Further_Research/e-books/Dictionary-of-Deities-and-Demons-in-the-Bible.pdf]</ref> As such, [[Golden eagles in human culture#Religion|Biblical passages]] alluding to eagles might actually be referring to this bird instead.
+{{Wikispecies|Aegypius monachus}}
+The Hebrew word for "eagle" is also used for the cinereous vulture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.friendsofsabbath.org/Further_Research/e-books/Dictionary-of-Deities-and-Demons-in-the-Bible.pdf|title=Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible|website=Friendsofsabbath.org|access-date=2022-03-06}}</ref> As such, [[Golden eagles in human culture#Religion|Biblical passages]] alluding to eagles might actually be referring to this or other vultures.
 == References ==
-{{Reflist|35em|refs =
+{{Reflist|refs =
 <ref name=Celoria>{{cite book
@@ Line 80: / Line 89: @@
 <ref name=Ferguson>{{cite book
-  | last = Ferguson-Lees
+  | last1 = Ferguson-Lees
-  | first = James
+  | first1 = James
   | author-link = James Ferguson-Lees
   | last2 = Christie
@@ Line 90: / Line 99: @@
   | publisher = Houghton Mifflin
   | isbn = 978-0-618-12762-7
-  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hlIztc05HTQC&lpg=PP1
+  | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hlIztc05HTQC&pg=PP1
   }}</ref>
@@ Line 110: / Line 119: @@
  }}</ref>
 <ref name=Sibley>{{cite book
-  | last = Sibley
+  | last1 = Sibley
-  | first = Dr. Charles G.
+  | first1 = Dr. Charles G.
   | last2 = Monroe
   | first2 = Burt L. Jr.
@@ Line 121: / Line 130: @@
 <ref name=Snow>{{cite book
-  | last = Snow
+  | last1 = Snow
-  | first = David W.
+  | first1 = David W.
   | last2 = Perrins
   | first2 = Christopher M.
@@ Line 133: / Line 142: @@
  }}</ref>
-<ref name="ABCC">{{cite web|title=Eurasian Black Vulture in Armenia|url=http://www.abcc-am.org/black-vulture.html|website=Armenian Bird Census|publisher=Armenian Bird Census, TSE NGO|accessdate=11 November 2017}}</ref>
+<ref name="ABCC">{{cite web|title=Eurasian Black Vulture in Armenia|url=http://www.abcc-am.org/black-vulture.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171111152035/http://www.abcc-am.org/black-vulture.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=November 11, 2017|website=Armenian Bird Census|publisher=Armenian Bird Census, TSE NGO|access-date=11 November 2017}}</ref>
 }}
-{{Commons category|Aegypius monachus}}
-{{Wikispecies|Aegypius monachus}}
 {{Vulture}}
 {{Taxonbar|from=Q168677}}
+{{Authority control}}
-{{DEFAULTSORT:vulture, cinereous}}
 [[Category:Aegypius|cinereous vulture]]
 [[Category:Old World vultures|cinereous vulture]]
 [[Category:Birds of prey of Eurasia]]
 [[Category:Birds described in 1766|cinereous vulture]]
+[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus|cinereous vulture]]