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{{Short description|Spice, herbal drug}}
{{Short description|Spice, herbal drug}}
[[File:Juniperus communis fruits - Keila.jpg|thumb|Juniper berries are actually modified [[conifer cone]]s.]]
[[File:Juniperus communis fruits - Keila.jpg|thumb|Juniper berries are actually modified [[conifer cone]]s.]]
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A '''juniper berry''' is the female [[conifer cone|seed cone]] produced by the various species of [[juniper]]s. It is not a true [[berry]] but a [[Galbulus|cone]] with unusually fleshy and merged scales, which gives it a berry-like appearance. The cones from a handful of species, especially ''[[Juniperus communis]]'', are used as a [[spice]], particularly in [[European cuisine]], and also give [[gin]] its distinctive flavour. Juniper berries are among the only spices derived from [[conifer]]s,<ref name="fao">{{cite book|author=Ciesla, William M | title=Non-wood forest products from conifers|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|year=1998|isbn=978-92-5-104212-0}} [http://www.fao.org/3/x0453e/x0453e.pdf Chapter 8: Seeds, Fruits, and Cones]. Retrieved July 27, 2006.</ref> along with [[spruce]] buds.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kadoksissa ollut juomaresepti löytyi – kuusenkerkästä tehdään muutakin kuin siirappia|url=http://yle.fi/uutiset/kadoksissa_ollut_juomaresepti_loytyi__kuusenkerkasta_tehdaan_muutakin_kuin_siirappia/8926774|access-date=2021-08-08|website=Yle Uutiset|language=fi}}</ref>


⚫
A '''juniper berry''' is the female [[seed cone]] produced by the various species of [[juniper]]s. It is not a true [[berry]] but a cone with unusually fleshy and merged scales called a [[galbulus]], which gives it a berry-like appearance. The cones from a handful of species, especially ''[[Juniperus communis]]'', are used as a [[spice]], particularly in [[European cuisine]], and also give [[gin]] its distinctive flavour. Juniper berries are among the only spices derived from [[conifer]]s,<ref name="fao">{{Cite book |last=Ciesla |first=William M. |title=Non-wood forest products from conifers |date=1998 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=978-92-5-104212-0 |chapter=Chapter 8: Seeds, Fruits, and Cones |access-date=27 July 2006 |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/3/x0453e/x0453e.pdf}}</ref> along with [[spruce]] buds.<ref>{{Cite web |date=6 June 2016 |title=Kadoksissa ollut juomaresepti löytyi – kuusenkerkästä tehdään muutakin kuin siirappia |url=http://yle.fi/uutiset/kadoksissa_ollut_juomaresepti_loytyi__kuusenkerkasta_tehdaan_muutakin_kuin_siirappia/8926774 |access-date=2021-08-08 |website=Yle Uutiset |language=fi}}</ref>
==Species==
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[[File:Juniperus communis at Valjala on 2005-08-11.jpg|thumb|left|Mature [[purple]] and younger [[green]] juniper berries can be seen growing alongside one another on the same plant.]]
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All juniper species grow berries, but some are considered too bitter to eat. In addition to ''J. communis'', other edible species include ''[[Juniperus drupacea]]'',<ref name="farjon">{{cite book | author=Farjon, A. | title=A Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopityaceae | publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew | year=2005 | isbn=978-1-84246-068-9 | pages=228–400}}</ref><ref name="adams">{{cite book | author=Adams, R. P. | title=Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus | publisher=Trafford | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-4120-4250-5}}</ref> ''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'',<ref name="dalby">{{cite book | author=Dalby, A. | title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices | publisher=University of California Press | year=2002 | isbn=978-0-520-23674-5 | page=33}}</ref> ''[[Juniperus deppeana]]'', and ''[[Juniperus californica]]''.<ref name="peattie">{{cite book | author=Peattie, D., & Landacre, P. H. | title=A Natural History of Western Trees | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=1991 | isbn=978-0-395-58175-9 | page=226}}</ref> But the berries of some species, such as ''[[Juniperus sabina]]'', are toxic and consumption of them is inadvisable.<ref name="grieve">{{cite book | author=Grieve, M. | title=A Modern Herbal | publisher=Penguin | year=1984 | isbn=978-0-14-046440-5 }}</ref>


==Characteristics==
==Description==
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[[File:Juniperus communis at Valjala on 2005-08-11.jpg|thumb|left|Young green and mature purple berries can be seen growing on the same plant.]]
''Juniperus communis'' berries vary from four to twelve&nbsp;millimeters in [[diameter]]; other species are mostly similar in size, though some are larger, notably ''J. drupacea'' (20–28&nbsp;mm). Unlike the separated and woody scales of a typical pine cone, those in a juniper berry remain fleshy and merge into a unified covering surrounding the [[seed]]s. The berries are green when young, and mature to a purple-black colour over about 18 months in most species, including ''J. communis'' (shorter, 8–10 months in a few species, and about 24 months in ''J. drupacea'').<ref name="farjon"/> The mature, dark berries are usually but not exclusively used in cuisine, while [[gin]] is flavoured with fully grown but unripe berries.<ref name="fao"/>

Unlike the separated and woody scales of a typical [[pine cone]], those in a juniper berry remain fleshy and merge into a unified covering surrounding the [[seed]]s. Juniper berries are sometimes regarded as [[aril]]s,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bellamy |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PJMzIZWvklIC |title=Blooming Bellamy: Herbs and Herbal Healing |date=1993 |publisher=BBC Books |isbn=978-0-563-36725-3 |page=76 |language=en |author-link=David Bellamy}}</ref> like the berry-like cones of [[Taxaceae|yews]]. ''[[Juniperus communis]]'' berries vary from {{convert|4|mm|frac=8|abbr=off}} to {{convert|12|mm|frac=8|abbr=off}} in diameter; other species are mostly similar in size, though some are larger, notably ''[[Juniperus drupacea|J.&nbsp;drupacea]]'' ({{cvt|20–28|mm|abbr=on|frac=8|disp=or}}). The berries are green when young and mature to purple-black over about 18 months in most species, including ''J.&nbsp;communis''. Maturation occurs from as little as 8–10 months in some species up to over 24 months in ''J.&nbsp;drupacea''.<ref name="farjon">{{Cite book |last=Farjon |first=A. |title=A Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopityaceae |date=2005 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |isbn=978-1-84246-068-9 |pages=228–400}}</ref> The mature, dark berries are usually (but not exclusively) used in cuisine, while [[gin]] is flavoured with fully grown, unripe berries.<ref name="fao" />

=== Chemistry ===
Juniper berries contain diverse [[phytochemical]]s, including an [[essential oil]] in about 2% volume, a [[flavonoid]] called juniperin, [[resin]]s (about 10% of volume), [[protein]]s, and [[acetic acid|acetic]], [[malic acid|malic]] and [[formic acid|formic]] acids.<ref name="drugs">{{Cite web |date=22 November 2021 |title=Juniper |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/juniper.html |access-date=25 March 2022 |publisher=Drugs.com}}</ref> From [[extract]]s of the berries, [[fatty acid]]s, [[terpene]]s, [[aromatic compound]]s, and [[hydrocarbon]]s, such as [[pinene]], [[sabinene]], [[terpinen-4-ol]], [[limonene]], and [[myrcene]], were isolated.<ref name="drugs" />

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== Toxicity ==
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While classified as [[generally recognized as safe]] in the United States,<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 May 2017 |title=Title 21, Chapter I, Subchapter B, Part 182, Electronic Code of Federal Regulations – Substances Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS); section §182.20 Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates) |url=https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=e956d645a8b4e6b3e34e4e5d1b690209&mc=true&node=pt21.3.182&rgn=div5 |access-date=5 May 2017 |publisher=U.S. Government Publishing Office}}</ref> juniper berries may have various [[side effect]]s that have not been tested extensively in [[clinical trial]]s.<ref name="drugs" /><ref name="barnes">{{Cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Joanne |url=https://archive.org/details/herbalmedicines04barn |title=Herbal Medicines |last2=Anderson |first2=Linda A. |last3=Phillipson |first3=J. David |date=2007 |publisher=Pharmaceutical Press |isbn=978-0-85369-623-0 |edition=3rd |page=[https://archive.org/details/herbalmedicines04barn/page/n396 386] |quote=There is a lack of clinical research assessing the efficacy and safety of juniper. There is evidence that the berries are abortifacient and since this is believed not to be due to the oil there must be other toxic constituents present. In view of this, use of juniper should not exceed levels specified in food legislation. Juniper is contra-indicated during pregnancy and should not be used during lactation. {{omission}} There is a lack of clinical safety and toxicity data for juniper and further investigation of these aspects is required. |url-access=limited}}</ref> Mainly due to an increased risk of miscarriage, even in small doses, consuming juniper berries may affect pregnant or breastfeeding women, and people with [[diabetes]], [[coagulopathy|bleeding disorders]] or after surgery.<ref name="drugs" /> In [[traditional medicine]], juniper berries were thought to be useful for female [[birth control]].<ref name="nae" />

[[Allergic reactions]] are possible.<ref name="drugs" /> Consuming large amounts of juniper berries may cause [[cathartic|catharsis]], [[convulsion]]s, or harm [[kidney]] function.<ref name="drugs" /> The berries of some species, such as ''[[Juniperus sabina|J.&nbsp;sabina]]'', are toxic.<ref name="grieve">{{Cite book |last=Grieve |first=M. |title=A Modern Herbal |date=1984 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-046440-5}}</ref>


== Uses ==
== Uses ==
[[File:4628 - Bacche di ginepro al mercato di Ortigia, Siracusa - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 20 marzo 2014.jpg|thumb|Dried juniper berries at a market in [[Syracuse, Sicily]]]]
[[File:4628 - Bacche di ginepro al mercato di Ortigia, Siracusa - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 20 marzo 2014.jpg|thumb|Dried juniper berries at a market in [[Syracuse, Sicily]]]]
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The berries of some juniper species are considered too bitter to eat. In addition to ''[[Juniperus communis|J.&nbsp;communis]]'' and ''[[Juniperus drupacea|J.&nbsp;drupacea]]'',<ref name="farjon" /><ref name="adams">{{Cite book |last=Adams |first=R. P. |title=Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus |date=2004 |publisher=Trafford |isbn=978-1-4120-4250-5}}</ref> edible species include ''[[Juniperus phoenicea|J.&nbsp;phoenicea]]'',<ref name="dalby">{{Cite book |last=Dalby |first=A. |title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23674-5 |page=33}}</ref> ''[[Juniperus deppeana|J.&nbsp;deppeana]]'', and ''[[Juniperus californica|J.&nbsp;californica]]''.<ref name="peattie">{{Cite book |last1=Peattie |first1=D. |title=A Natural History of Western Trees |last2=Landacre |first2=P. H. |date=1991 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-395-58175-9 |page=226}}</ref>
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The flavor profile of young, green berries is dominated by [[pinene]]; as they mature this piney, resinous backdrop is joined by what [[Harold McGee]] describes as "green-fresh" and [[citrus]] notes.<ref name="mcgee">{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 | page=410| edition=Revised }}</ref> The outer scales of the berries are relatively flavourless, so the berries are almost always at least lightly crushed before being used as a spice. They are used both fresh and dried, but their flavour and [[odour]] are at their strongest immediately after harvest and decline during drying and storage.

⚫
The flavour profile of young, green berries is dominated by pinene; as they mature this piney, resinous backdrop is joined by what [[Harold McGee]] describes as "green-fresh" and [[citrus]] notes.<ref name="mcgee">{{Cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |title=On Food and Cooking |date=2004 |publisher=Scribner |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |edition=Revised |page=410}}</ref> The outer scales of the berries are relatively flavourless, so the berries are almost always at least lightly crushed before being used as a spice. They are used both fresh and dried, but their flavour and odour are at their strongest immediately after harvest and decline during drying and storage.


=== Flavour ===
=== Flavour ===
Juniper berries are used in northern European and particularly Scandinavian cuisine to "impart a sharp, clear flavor"<ref name="fao"/> to meat dishes, especially wild birds (including [[thrush (bird)|thrush]], [[Common Blackbird|blackbird]], and [[woodcock]]) and [[game (food)|game]] meats (including [[boar]] and [[venison]]).<ref name="larousse">{{cite book | title=The Concise Larousse Gastronomique | isbn = 978-0-600-60863-9 | publisher=Octopus | author=Montagne, Prosper|page=691}}</ref> They also season [[pork]], [[cabbage]], and [[sauerkraut]] dishes. Traditional recipes for [[choucroute garnie]], an [[Alsace|Alsatian]] dish of sauerkraut and meats, universally include juniper berries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Steingarten, Jeffrey|title=The Man Who Ate Everything|chapter=True Choucroute|year=1997|publisher=Vintage Books|isbn=978-0-375-70202-0|page=244}} The chapter is an essay first published in 1989.</ref> Besides Norwegian, Danish and Swedish dishes, juniper berries are also sometimes used in German, Austrian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian cuisine, often with roasts (such as German [[sauerbraten]]). [[Northern Italian]] cuisine, especially that of the [[South Tyrol]], also incorporates juniper berries. They are also used in the Italian region of [[Apulia]], especially to flavour brines.
Juniper berries are used in northern European and particularly Scandinavian cuisine to, according to one source, "impart a sharp, clear flavor"<ref name="fao" /><ref name=drugs/> to meat dishes, especially wild birds (including [[thrush (bird)|thrush]], [[Common Blackbird|blackbird]], and [[woodcock]]) and [[game (food)|game]] meats (including [[boar]] and [[venison]]).<ref name="larousse">{{Cite book |last=Montagne |first=Prosper |title=The Concise Larousse Gastronomique |publisher=Octopus |isbn=978-0-600-60863-9 |page=691}}</ref> They also season [[pork]], [[cabbage]], and [[sauerkraut]] dishes. Traditional recipes for [[choucroute garnie]], an [[Alsace|Alsatian]] dish of sauerkraut and meats, universally include juniper berries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Steingarten |first=Jeffrey |title=The Man Who Ate Everything |date=1997 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0-375-70202-0 |page=244 |chapter=True Choucroute}} The chapter is an essay first published in 1989.</ref> Besides Norwegian, Danish and Swedish dishes, juniper berries are also sometimes used in German, Austrian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian cuisine, often with roasts (such as German {{lang|de|[[sauerbraten]]}}). [[Northern Italian]] cuisine, especially that of the [[South Tyrol]], also incorporates juniper berries. They are also used in the Italian region of [[Apulia]], especially to flavour brines.


Juniper, typically ''[[Juniperus communis]]'', is used to flavor [[gin]], a [[distilled beverage|liquor]] developed in the 17th century in the [[Netherlands]]. The name ''gin'' itself is derived from either the [[French language|French]] ''genièvre'' or the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''[[jenever]]'', which both mean "juniper".<ref name="fao"/> Other juniper-flavoured beverages include the [[Finland|Finnish]] [[rye]]-and-juniper [[beer]] known as [[sahti]], which is flavored with both juniper berries and branches.<ref>Jackson, Michael (1995). [http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000055.html Sweating up a suitable thirst]. Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter. Retrieved 30 July 2006.</ref>
Juniper, typically ''J. communis'', is used to flavor [[gin]], a [[distilled beverage|liquor]] developed in the 17th century in the [[Netherlands]].<ref name=drugs/> The name ''gin'' itself is derived from either the [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|genièvre}} or the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] {{lang|nl|[[jenever]]}}, both of which mean "juniper".<ref name="fao" /> Other juniper-flavoured beverages include the [[Finland|Finnish]] [[rye]]-and-juniper [[beer]] known as [[sahti]], which is flavored with both juniper berries and branches.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jackson |first=Michael |date=8 September 1998 |orig-date=1 April 1995 |title=Sweating up a suitable thirst |url=http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000055.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502003329/http://www.beerhunter.com/documents/19133-000055.html |archive-date=2 May 2013 |access-date=30 July 2006 |website=Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter}}</ref>


Another drink made from the berries is a [[Julmust]], a soft drink made in [[Sweden]] mainly sold during [[Christmas]].
Another drink made from the berries is a {{lang|sv|[[julmust]]}}, a soft drink made in [[Sweden]] mainly sold during [[Christmas]].
The brand Dry Soda produces a juniper-berry soda as part of its lineup. Recently, some American distilleries have begun using 'New World' varieties of juniper such as ''[[Juniperus occidentalis]]''.<ref>Bend Distillery. [http://www.bendistillery.com/cascade-mtn-gin.html Cascade Mountain Gin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707223103/http://www.bendistillery.com/cascade-mtn-gin.html |date=2011-07-07 }}. Bend Distillery. Retrieved 10 Dec 2010.</ref>


=== Food ===
=== Food ===
A few [[North America]]n juniper species produce a seed cone with a sweeter, less resinous flavor than those typically used as a spice. For example, one field guide describes the flesh of the berries of ''Juniperus californica'' as "dry, mealy, and fibrous but sweet and without resin cells".<ref>{{cite book | title=A Natural History of Western Trees | isbn=978-0-395-58175-9 | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Field Guides |author1=Peattie, Donald |author2=Paul | year=1991 | page=226}}</ref> Such species have been used not just as a seasoning but as a nutritive food by some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]].<ref name="nae">{{cite book|author=Moerman, Daniel E|title=Native American Ethnobotany|year=1998|publisher=Timber Press|isbn=978-0-88192-453-4|pages=282–90}}</ref> In addition to medical and culinary purposes, Native Americans have also used the seeds inside juniper berries as beads for [[jewellery]] and decoration.<ref name="nae"/>
A few [[North America]]n juniper species produce a seed cone with a sweeter, less resinous flavor than those typically used as a spice. For example, one field guide describes the flesh of the berries of ''J.&nbsp;californica'' as "dry, mealy, and fibrous but sweet and without resin cells".<ref name="peattie" /> Such species have been used not just as a seasoning but as a nutritive food by some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]].<ref name="nae">{{Cite book |last=Moerman |first=Daniel E. |title=Native American Ethnobotany |date=1998 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-453-4 |pages=282–90}}</ref> The berries also have medicinal uses. For example, the [[Blackfoot]] used juniper berry tea to cure vomiting,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kindscher |first=Kelly |title=Medicinal wild plants of the prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. |date=1992 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |page=340}}</ref> while [[Crow people|Crow]] women drank juniper berry tea after childbirth to increase cleansing and healing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hart |first=Jeff A. |title=Montana native plants and early peoples |date=1976 |publisher=Montana Historical Society |location=Helena, Montana}}</ref> In addition to medicinal and culinary purposes, Native Americans have also used the seeds inside juniper berries as beads for [[jewellery]] and decoration.<ref name="nae" />

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An [[essential oil]] extracted from juniper berries is used in [[aromatherapy]], both for body massage, diffusion, and [[perfume]]ry.<ref name="dalby" />


== Culture ==
⚫
An [[essential oil]] extracted from juniper berries is used in [[aromatherapy]], both for body massage, diffusion, and [[perfume]]ry.<ref name="dalby"/>
⚫
Juniper berries, including ''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'' and ''[[Juniperus oxycedrus|J.&nbsp;oxycedrus]]'', have been found in [[ancient Egypt]]ian tombs at multiple sites. ''J.&nbsp;oxycedrus'' is not known to grow in [[Egypt]], and neither is ''[[Juniperus excelsa|J.&nbsp;excelsa]]'', which was found along with ''J.&nbsp;oxycedrus'' in the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]].<ref name="egypt">{{Cite book |last=Manniche |first=Lisa |url=https://archive.org/details/sacredluxuriesfr0000mann |title=Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy, and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt |date=1999 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-3720-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sacredluxuriesfr0000mann/page/21 21] |url-access=registration}}</ref> The berries imported into Egypt may have come from [[ancient Greece|Greece]]; the Greeks record using juniper berries as a medicine long before mentioning their use in food.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |title=Siren Feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-15657-8 |page=142}}</ref>


The Greeks used the berries in many of their Olympics events because of their belief that the berries increased physical stamina in athletes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=James |first=Lorman |title=Greek Life |date=1997 |publisher=Gregory House |location=New York |pages=76–77}}</ref>
== Health effects ==


The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] used juniper berries as a cheap domestically produced substitute for the expensive [[black pepper]] and [[long pepper]] imported from [[India]].<ref name="dalby" /> It was also used as an [[adulterant]], as reported in [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'': "pepper is adulterated with juniper berries, which have the property, to a marvellous degree, of assuming the pungency of pepper".<ref>From Bostock and Riley's 1855 translation. {{Perseus|Plin.|Nat.|12.14}}</ref> Pliny also incorrectly asserted that black pepper grew on trees that were "very similar in appearance to our junipers".
⚫
While classified as [[generally recognized as safe]] in the United States,<ref>{{cite web|title=Title 21, Chapter I, Subchapter B, Part 182, Electronic Code of Federal Regulations – Substances Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS); section §182.20 Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates)|url=https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=e956d645a8b4e6b3e34e4e5d1b690209&mc=true&node=pt21.3.182&rgn=div5|publisher=U.S. Government Publishing Office|date=3 May 2017|access-date=5 May 2017}}</ref> juniper berries may have various [[side effect]]s that have not been tested extensively in clinical trials.<ref name="barnes">{{cite book|title=Herbal Medicines|url=https://archive.org/details/herbalmedicines04barn|url-access=limited|first1=Joanne|last1=Barnes|first2=Linda A.|last2=Anderson|edition=3rd|year=2007|first3=J. David|last3=Phillipson|publisher=Pharmaceutical Press|isbn=978-0-85369-623-0|quote=There is a lack of clinical research assessing the efficacy and safety of juniper. There is evidence that the berries are abortifacient and since this is believed not to be due to the oil there must be other toxic constituents present. In view of this, use of juniper should not exceed levels specified in food legislation. Juniper is contra-indicated during pregnancy and should not be used during lactation. [...] There is a lack of clinical safety and toxicity data for juniper and further investigation of these aspects is required.|page=[https://archive.org/details/herbalmedicines04barn/page/n396 386]}}</ref> Mainly due to an increased risk of miscarriage, even in small doses, consuming juniper berries may affect pregnant or breastfeeding women<ref name=webmd>{{cite web |url=http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-724-juniper.aspx?activeingredientid=724&activeingredientname=juniper |title=Juniper: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions and Warnings |website=WebMD.com|access-date=24 December 2016}}</ref> and people with [[diabetes]], [[coagulopathy|bleeding disorders]] or after surgery.<ref name=webmd/> In [[traditional medicine]], juniper berries were used for female [[birth control]].<ref name="nae"/>


The berries were an integral part of [[Serrano people|Desert Serrano]] ([[Vanyume]]) culture and grew throughout the [[Mojave River]] region. The major village of [[Wá’peat]] was derived from the [[Serrano language|Serrano]] word for juniper berries, {{lang|ser|wa'at}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sutton |first1=Mark Q. |url=https://www.pcas.org/documents/5323DesertSerrano.pdf |title=The Desert Serrano of the Mojave River |last2=Earle |first2=David D. |publisher=Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly |pages=8}}</ref>
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== History ==
⚫
Juniper berries, including ''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]'' and ''[[Juniperus oxycedrus]]'', have been found in [[ancient Egypt]]ian tombs at multiple sites. ''J. oxycedrus'' is not known to grow in [[Egypt]], and neither is ''[[Juniperus excelsa]]'', which was found along with ''J. oxycedrus'' in the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]].<ref name="egypt">{{cite book | author=Manniche, Lisa | year=1999 | title=Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy, and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt | url=https://archive.org/details/sacredluxuriesfr0000mann | url-access=registration | publisher=Cornell University Press | isbn=978-0-8014-3720-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/sacredluxuriesfr0000mann/page/21 21]}}</ref> The berries imported into Egypt may have come from [[ancient Greece|Greece]]; the Greeks record using juniper berries as a medicine long before mentioning their use in food.<ref>{{cite book | author=Dalby, Andrew | title=Siren Feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece| year=1997 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-0-415-15657-8 | page= 142}}</ref> The Greeks used the berries in many of their Olympics events because of their belief that the berries increased physical stamina in athletes.<ref>James, Lorman. (1997) ''Greek Life''. Gregory House: New York. 76–77.</ref> The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] used juniper berries as a cheap domestically produced substitute for the expensive [[black pepper]] and [[long pepper]] imported from [[India]].<ref name="dalby"/> It was also used as an [[adulterant]], as reported in [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'': "Pepper is adulterated with juniper berries, which have the property, to a marvellous degree, of assuming the pungency of pepper."<ref>From Bostock and Riley's 1855 translation. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137&query=head%3D%23741 Text online].</ref> Pliny also incorrectly asserted that black pepper grew on trees that were "very similar in appearance to our junipers".


== References ==
== References ==
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==External links==
==External links==
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{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}
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Latest revision as of 15:46, 21 December 2024

Juniper berries are actually modified conifer cones.

A juniper berry is the female seed cone produced by the various species of junipers. It is not a true berry but a cone with unusually fleshy and merged scales called a galbulus, which gives it a berry-like appearance. The cones from a handful of species, especially Juniperus communis, are used as a spice, particularly in European cuisine, and also give gin its distinctive flavour. Juniper berries are among the only spices derived from conifers,[1] along with spruce buds.[2]

Description

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Young green and mature purple berries can be seen growing on the same plant.

Unlike the separated and woody scales of a typical pine cone, those in a juniper berry remain fleshy and merge into a unified covering surrounding the seeds. Juniper berries are sometimes regarded as arils,[3] like the berry-like cones of yews. Juniperus communis berries vary from 4 millimetres (1⁄8 inch) to 12 millimetres (1⁄2 inch) in diameter; other species are mostly similar in size, though some are larger, notably J. drupacea (20–28 mm or 3⁄4–1+1⁄8 in). The berries are green when young and mature to purple-black over about 18 months in most species, including J. communis. Maturation occurs from as little as 8–10 months in some species up to over 24 months in J. drupacea.[4] The mature, dark berries are usually (but not exclusively) used in cuisine, while gin is flavoured with fully grown, unripe berries.[1]

Chemistry

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Juniper berries contain diverse phytochemicals, including an essential oil in about 2% volume, a flavonoid called juniperin, resins (about 10% of volume), proteins, and acetic, malic and formic acids.[5] From extracts of the berries, fatty acids, terpenes, aromatic compounds, and hydrocarbons, such as pinene, sabinene, terpinen-4-ol, limonene, and myrcene, were isolated.[5]

Toxicity

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While classified as generally recognized as safe in the United States,[6] juniper berries may have various side effects that have not been tested extensively in clinical trials.[5][7] Mainly due to an increased risk of miscarriage, even in small doses, consuming juniper berries may affect pregnant or breastfeeding women, and people with diabetes, bleeding disorders or after surgery.[5] In traditional medicine, juniper berries were thought to be useful for female birth control.[8]

Allergic reactions are possible.[5] Consuming large amounts of juniper berries may cause catharsis, convulsions, or harm kidney function.[5] The berries of some species, such as J. sabina, are toxic.[9]

Uses

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Dried juniper berries at a market in Syracuse, Sicily

The berries of some juniper species are considered too bitter to eat. In addition to J. communis and J. drupacea,[4][10] edible species include J. phoenicea,[11] J. deppeana, and J. californica.[12]

The flavour profile of young, green berries is dominated by pinene; as they mature this piney, resinous backdrop is joined by what Harold McGee describes as "green-fresh" and citrus notes.[13] The outer scales of the berries are relatively flavourless, so the berries are almost always at least lightly crushed before being used as a spice. They are used both fresh and dried, but their flavour and odour are at their strongest immediately after harvest and decline during drying and storage.

Flavour

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Juniper berries are used in northern European and particularly Scandinavian cuisine to, according to one source, "impart a sharp, clear flavor"[1][5] to meat dishes, especially wild birds (including thrush, blackbird, and woodcock) and game meats (including boar and venison).[14] They also season pork, cabbage, and sauerkraut dishes. Traditional recipes for choucroute garnie, an Alsatian dish of sauerkraut and meats, universally include juniper berries.[15] Besides Norwegian, Danish and Swedish dishes, juniper berries are also sometimes used in German, Austrian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian cuisine, often with roasts (such as German sauerbraten). Northern Italian cuisine, especially that of the South Tyrol, also incorporates juniper berries. They are also used in the Italian region of Apulia, especially to flavour brines.

Juniper, typically J. communis, is used to flavor gin, a liquor developed in the 17th century in the Netherlands.[5] The name gin itself is derived from either the French genièvre or the Dutch jenever, both of which mean "juniper".[1] Other juniper-flavoured beverages include the Finnish rye-and-juniper beer known as sahti, which is flavored with both juniper berries and branches.[16]

Another drink made from the berries is a julmust, a soft drink made in Sweden mainly sold during Christmas.

Food

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A few North American juniper species produce a seed cone with a sweeter, less resinous flavor than those typically used as a spice. For example, one field guide describes the flesh of the berries of J. californica as "dry, mealy, and fibrous but sweet and without resin cells".[12] Such species have been used not just as a seasoning but as a nutritive food by some Native Americans.[8] The berries also have medicinal uses. For example, the Blackfoot used juniper berry tea to cure vomiting,[17] while Crow women drank juniper berry tea after childbirth to increase cleansing and healing.[18] In addition to medicinal and culinary purposes, Native Americans have also used the seeds inside juniper berries as beads for jewellery and decoration.[8]

An essential oil extracted from juniper berries is used in aromatherapy, both for body massage, diffusion, and perfumery.[11]

Culture

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Juniper berries, including Juniperus phoenicea and J. oxycedrus, have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs at multiple sites. J. oxycedrus is not known to grow in Egypt, and neither is J. excelsa, which was found along with J. oxycedrus in the tomb of Tutankhamun.[19] The berries imported into Egypt may have come from Greece; the Greeks record using juniper berries as a medicine long before mentioning their use in food.[20]

The Greeks used the berries in many of their Olympics events because of their belief that the berries increased physical stamina in athletes.[21]

The Romans used juniper berries as a cheap domestically produced substitute for the expensive black pepper and long pepper imported from India.[11] It was also used as an adulterant, as reported in Pliny the Elder's Natural History: "pepper is adulterated with juniper berries, which have the property, to a marvellous degree, of assuming the pungency of pepper".[22] Pliny also incorrectly asserted that black pepper grew on trees that were "very similar in appearance to our junipers".

The berries were an integral part of Desert Serrano (Vanyume) culture and grew throughout the Mojave River region. The major village of Wá’peat was derived from the Serrano word for juniper berries, wa'at.[23]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d Ciesla, William M. (1998). "Chapter 8: Seeds, Fruits, and Cones" (PDF). Non-wood forest products from conifers. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-104212-0. Retrieved 27 July 2006.
  2. ^ "Kadoksissa ollut juomaresepti löytyi – kuusenkerkästä tehdään muutakin kuin siirappia". Yle Uutiset (in Finnish). 6 June 2016. Retrieved 2021-08-08.
  3. ^ Bellamy, David (1993). Blooming Bellamy: Herbs and Herbal Healing. BBC Books. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-563-36725-3.
  4. ^ a b Farjon, A. (2005). A Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopityaceae. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. pp. 228–400. ISBN 978-1-84246-068-9.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h "Juniper". Drugs.com. 22 November 2021. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  6. ^ "Title 21, Chapter I, Subchapter B, Part 182, Electronic Code of Federal Regulations – Substances Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS); section §182.20 Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates)". U.S. Government Publishing Office. 3 May 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
  7. ^ Barnes, Joanne; Anderson, Linda A.; Phillipson, J. David (2007). Herbal Medicines (3rd ed.). Pharmaceutical Press. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-85369-623-0. There is a lack of clinical research assessing the efficacy and safety of juniper. There is evidence that the berries are abortifacient and since this is believed not to be due to the oil there must be other toxic constituents present. In view of this, use of juniper should not exceed levels specified in food legislation. Juniper is contra-indicated during pregnancy and should not be used during lactation. ... There is a lack of clinical safety and toxicity data for juniper and further investigation of these aspects is required.
  8. ^ a b c Moerman, Daniel E. (1998). Native American Ethnobotany. Timber Press. pp. 282–90. ISBN 978-0-88192-453-4.
  9. ^ Grieve, M. (1984). A Modern Herbal. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-046440-5.
  10. ^ Adams, R. P. (2004). Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus. Trafford. ISBN 978-1-4120-4250-5.
  11. ^ a b c Dalby, A. (2002). Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices. University of California Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-520-23674-5.
  12. ^ a b Peattie, D.; Landacre, P. H. (1991). A Natural History of Western Trees. Houghton Mifflin. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-395-58175-9.
  13. ^ McGee, Harold (2004). On Food and Cooking (Revised ed.). Scribner. p. 410. ISBN 978-0-684-80001-1.
  14. ^ Montagne, Prosper. The Concise Larousse Gastronomique. Octopus. p. 691. ISBN 978-0-600-60863-9.
  15. ^ Steingarten, Jeffrey (1997). "True Choucroute". The Man Who Ate Everything. Vintage Books. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-375-70202-0. The chapter is an essay first published in 1989.
  16. ^ Jackson, Michael (8 September 1998) [1 April 1995]. "Sweating up a suitable thirst". Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2006.
  17. ^ Kindscher, Kelly (1992). Medicinal wild plants of the prairie. An ethnobotanical guide. University Press of Kansas. p. 340.
  18. ^ Hart, Jeff A. (1976). Montana native plants and early peoples. Helena, Montana: Montana Historical Society.
  19. ^ Manniche, Lisa (1999). Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy, and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt. Cornell University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8014-3720-5.
  20. ^ Dalby, Andrew (1997). Siren Feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece. Routledge. p. 142. ISBN 978-0-415-15657-8.
  21. ^ James, Lorman (1997). Greek Life. New York: Gregory House. pp. 76–77.
  22. ^ From Bostock and Riley's 1855 translation. Perseus Project Nat.12.14
  23. ^ Sutton, Mark Q.; Earle, David D. The Desert Serrano of the Mojave River (PDF). Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly. p. 8.
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