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{{Infobox food
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{{Short description|Cooking oil}}
| image = CSIRO ScienceImage 3443 Cottonseed Oil.jpg
| cookbook = Cottonseed Oil
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}}{{Short description|Cooking oil}}
[[File:Cotton seeds - 01.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Cotton seeds]]
[[File:Cotton seeds - 01.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Cotton seeds]]
'''Cottonseed oil''' is [[cooking oil]] from the [[seeds]] of [[cotton plant]]s of various species, mainly ''[[Gossypium hirsutum]]'' and ''[[Gossypium herbaceum]]'', that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cotton.tamu.edu/cottoncountry.htm |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-10-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021084716/http://cotton.tamu.edu/cottoncountry.htm |archive-date=2013-10-21 }}</ref>
'''Cottonseed oil''' is [[cooking oil]] from the [[seeds]] of [[cotton plant]]s of various species, mainly ''[[Gossypium hirsutum]]'' and ''[[Gossypium herbaceum]]'', that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cotton.tamu.edu/cottoncountry.htm |title=Texas is Cotton Country |access-date=2013-10-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021084716/http://cotton.tamu.edu/cottoncountry.htm |archive-date=2013-10-21 }}</ref>


[[cottonseed|Cotton seed]] has a similar structure to other [[oilseeds]] such as [[sunflower seed]], having an [[oil]]-bearing [[Seed|kernel]] surrounded by a hard outer hull; in processing, the oil is extracted from the kernel. Cottonseed oil is used for salad oil, [[mayonnaise]], [[salad dressing]], and similar products because of its [[Flavoring|flavor]] stability.<ref name="cottonseed.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.cottonseed.com/publications/facts.asp |title=Twenty Facts About Cottonseed Oil from cotton plant |publisher=National Cottonseed Products Association |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017083204/http://www.cottonseed.com/publications/facts.asp |archive-date=2015-10-17 }}</ref>
[[cottonseed|Cotton seed]] has a similar structure to other [[oilseeds]], such as [[sunflower seed]], having an oil-bearing [[Seed|kernel]] surrounded by a hard outer hull; in processing, the oil is extracted from the kernel. Cottonseed oil is used for salad oil, [[mayonnaise]], [[salad dressing]], and similar products because of its flavor stability.<ref name="cottonseed.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.cottonseed.com/publications/facts.asp |title=Twenty Facts About Cottonseed Oil from cotton plant |publisher=National Cottonseed Products Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017083204/http://www.cottonseed.com/publications/facts.asp |archive-date=2015-10-17 }}</ref>


==Composition==
==Composition==
[[File:Mississippi Cottonseed Oil Company seed house.jpg|thumb|right|Mississippi Cottonseed Oil Co. seed house, [[Jackson, Mississippi]]]]
[[File:Mississippi Cottonseed Oil Company seed house.jpg|thumb|right|Mississippi Cottonseed Oil Co. seed house, [[Jackson, Mississippi]]]]
Its fatty acid profile generally consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids (18% monounsaturated, and 52% polyunsaturated), 26% saturated fatty acids.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/678|title= Basic Report: 04502, Oil, cottonseed, salad or cooking|publisher= United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> When it is fully [[Hydrogenation|hydrogenated]], its profile is 94% saturated fat and 2% unsaturated fatty acids (1.5% monounsaturated, and 0.5% polyunsaturated).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/627|title= Nutrient data for 04702, Oil, industrial, cottonseed, fully hydrogenated|publisher= United States Department of Agriculture|access-date= 2012-02-13|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130905114813/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/627|archive-date= 2013-09-05|url-status= dead}}</ref> According to the cottonseed oil industry, cottonseed oil does not need to be hydrogenated as much as other polyunsaturated oils to achieve similar results.<ref name=cottonseed.com />
Its fatty acid profile generally consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids (18% monounsaturated, and 52% polyunsaturated), 26% saturated fatty acids.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/678|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120824235247/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/678|archive-date=August 24, 2012|title= Basic Report: 04502, Oil, cottonseed, salad or cooking|publisher= United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> When it is fully [[Hydrogenation|hydrogenated]], its profile is 94% saturated fat and 2% unsaturated fatty acids (1.5% monounsaturated, and 0.5% polyunsaturated).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/627|title= Nutrient data for 04702, Oil, industrial, cottonseed, fully hydrogenated|publisher= United States Department of Agriculture|access-date= 2012-02-13|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130905114813/http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/627|archive-date= 2013-09-05}}</ref> According to the National Cottonseed Products Association, cottonseed oil does not need to be hydrogenated as much as other polyunsaturated oils to achieve similar results.<ref name=cottonseed.com />


===Undesireable components in raw extract===
[[Gossypol]] is a toxic, yellow, polyphenolic compound produced by cotton and other members of the order [[Malvaceae]], such as [[okra]].<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Lynn A. |last2=King |first2=C. Clay |editor=Y. H. Hui|title=Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oils and Oilseeds |chapter=Cottonseed oil |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-471-59426-0}}</ref> This naturally occurring coloured compound is found in tiny glands in the seed, leaf, stem, tap root bark, and root of the cotton plant. The adaptive function of the compound facilitates natural [[insect]] resistance.
[[Gossypol]] is a toxic, yellow, polyphenolic compound produced by cotton and other members of the order [[Malvaceae]], such as [[okra]].<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Lynn A. |last2=King |first2=C. Clay |editor=Y. H. Hui|title=Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oils and Oilseeds |chapter=Cottonseed oil |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-471-59426-0}}</ref> This naturally occurring colored compound is found in tiny glands in the seed, leaf, stem, tap root bark, and root of the cotton plant. The adaptive function of the compound facilitates natural [[insect]] resistance. Raw extracts that have not undergone post processing, such as hydrogenation, will also contain the undesirable component [[cyclopropene acid#Cyclopropene fatty acids| cyclopropene fatty acid]], but purportedly are ''mostly'' removed during refining, particularly deodorization and also hydrogenation. As such, processed/food-grade cottonseed oils are not considered to present a health hazard from cyclopropene fatty acids.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}
The three key steps of [[refining]], [[bleaching]], and deodorization in producing finished oil act to eliminate the gossypol level. [[Ferric chloride]] is often used to decolorize cotton seed oil.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Research abstract: Southern Regional Research Laboratory |journal= Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume= 47 |issue= 2 |pages= 73–74 |doi= 10.1007/BF02541462 |year= 1970 |last1= Yatsu |first1= L. Y. |last2= Jacks |first2= T. J. |last3= Hensarling |first3= T. |s2cid= 84360576 }}</ref>
The three key steps of [[refining]], [[bleaching]], and deodorization in producing finished oil act to eliminate the gossypol level. [[Ferric chloride]] is often used to decolorize cotton seed oil.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Research abstract: Southern Regional Research Laboratory |journal= Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |volume= 47 |issue= 2 |pages= 73–74 |doi= 10.1007/BF02541462 |year= 1970 |last1= Yatsu |first1= L. Y. |last2= Jacks |first2= T. J. |last3= Hensarling |first3= T. |s2cid= 84360576 }}</ref>


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==Physical properties==
==Physical properties==

Once processed, cottonseed oil has a mild taste and appears generally clear with a light golden color, the amount of color depending on the amount of [[refining]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cottonseedoiltour.com/pdf/NCPA_CSOFACTSHEET_03.pdf |title= Cottonseed oil |publisher=National Cottonseed Products Association |access-date=29 November 2010}}</ref> It has a relatively high [[smoke point]] as a frying medium. Density ranges from {{cvt|0.917|to|0.933|g/cm3|lb/USgal}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/oele/baumwoll/baumwoll.htm |title= Cottonseed oil |publisher=Transport Information Service, Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V. |access-date=6 August 2012}}</ref> Like other [[long-chain fatty acid]] oils, cottonseed oil has a smoke point of about {{convert|450|F|C}},<ref name="ReferenceB"/> and is high in [[tocopherol]]s, which also contribute its stability, giving products that contain it a long [[shelf life]], hence manufacturers' proclivity to use it in packaged goods.
Once processed, cottonseed oil has a mild taste and appears generally clear with a light golden color, the amount of color depending on the amount of [[refining]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cottonseedoiltour.com/pdf/NCPA_CSOFACTSHEET_03.pdf |title= Cottonseed oil |publisher=National Cottonseed Products Association |access-date=29 November 2010}}</ref> It has a relatively high [[smoke point]] as a frying medium. Density ranges from {{cvt|0.917|to|0.933|g/cm3|lb/USgal}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/oele/baumwoll/baumwoll.htm |title= Cottonseed oil |publisher=Transport Information Service, Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft e.V. |access-date=6 August 2012}}</ref> Like other [[long-chain fatty acid]] oils, cottonseed oil has a smoke point of about {{convert|450|F|C}},<ref name="ReferenceB"/> and is high in [[tocopherol]]s, which also contribute its stability, giving products that contain it a long [[shelf life]], hence manufacturers' proclivity to use it in packaged goods.


{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
|+ Production of cottonseed oil <br>2019<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Cottonseed oil production in 2019, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2022|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database ([[FAOSTAT]])|access-date=12 July 2022}}</ref><br/>
|+ Production of cottonseed oil <br />2019<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Cottonseed oil production in 2019, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2022|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database ([[FAOSTAT]])|access-date=12 July 2022}}</ref><br/>
|-
|-
! style="background:#ddf; | Country
! style="background:#ddf; | Country
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== Production ==
== Production ==
[[File:Louisiana - Shreveport - NARA - 23940455 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|A cotton oil mill in [[Shreveport, Louisiana]], 1941]]
In 2019, world production of cottonseed oil was 4.45 million [[tonne]]s, led by China and India with 56% combined of the total.<ref name=faostat/>
In 2019, world production of cottonseed oil was 4.45 million [[tonne]]s, led by China and India with 56% combined of the total.<ref name=faostat/>


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[[File:12-fairbank-cottolene.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Marketed under a variety of brand names, cottonseed oil shortening emerged as the leading substitute for lard late in the 19th century. <small>(1912 ad)</small>]]
[[File:12-fairbank-cottolene.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Marketed under a variety of brand names, cottonseed oil shortening emerged as the leading substitute for lard late in the 19th century. <small>(1912 ad)</small>]]


The by-product of cotton processing, cottonseed was considered virtually worthless before the late 19th century.<ref name="OBrien">O’Brien, Richard D., et al. [https://doi.org/10.1002/047167849X.bio022 “Cottonseed oil.”] Chapter 5 in Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Volume 2: Edible Oil & Fat Products: Edible Oils. Editor, Fereidoon Shahidi. John Wiley and Sons, Inc 2005. {{ISBN|9780471678496}}</ref> While cotton production expanded throughout the 17th, 18th, and mid-19th centuries, a largely worthless stock of cottonseed grew.<ref name=OBrien/> Although some of the seed was used for planting, fertilizer, and animal feed, the majority was left to rot or was illegally dumped into rivers.<ref name="Rise">Nixon HC. (2005) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1823218 The Rise of the American Cottonseed Oil Industry.] Journal of Political Economy 38(1):73-85</ref>
The by-product of cotton processing, cottonseed was considered virtually worthless before the late 19th century.<ref name="OBrien">O'Brien, Richard D., et al. [https://doi.org/10.1002/047167849X.bio022 "Cottonseed oil."] Chapter 5 in Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Volume 2: Edible Oil & Fat Products: Edible Oils. Editor, Fereidoon Shahidi. John Wiley and Sons, Inc 2005. {{ISBN|978-0-471-67849-6}}</ref> While cotton production expanded throughout the 17th, 18th, and mid-19th centuries, a largely worthless stock of cottonseed grew. Although some of the seed was used for planting, fertilizer, and animal feed, the majority was left to rot or was illegally dumped into rivers.<ref name="Rise">{{cite journal |author=Nixon HC. |year=1930 |title=The Rise of the American Cottonseed Oil Industry |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=38 |issue=1 |pages=73–85|doi=10.1086/254082 |jstor=1823218 |s2cid=153333994 }}</ref>


In the 1820s and 1830s Europe experienced fats and oils shortages due to rapid population expansion during the Industrial Revolution and the after-effects of the British blockade during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref name=Rise/> The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply.<ref name=OBrien /> Consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting.<ref name=OBrien /> Many United States entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils and America's increasingly large supply of cottonseed by crushing the seed for oil.<ref name=Rise /> But separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years.<ref name=Rise /> This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee patented<ref>{{US patent|17961A}}</ref> a huller, which effectively separated the tough hulls from the meats of cottonseed.<ref name=OBrien /> With this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive whale oil and lard.<ref name=OBrien /> But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged and the [[American Civil War]] (and the resulting end of [[slavery in the United States]]) disrupted the cotton industry.<ref name=OBrien />
In the 1820s and 1830s Europe experienced fats and oils shortages due to rapid population expansion during the Industrial Revolution and the after-effects of the British blockade during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].<ref name=Rise/> The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply. Consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting.<ref name=OBrien /> Many American entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils and America's increasingly large supply of cottonseed by crushing the seed for oil. But separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years.<ref name=Rise /> This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee patented a huller, which effectively separated the tough hulls from the meats of cottonseed.<ref>{{US patent|17961A}}</ref> With this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive [[whale oil]] and [[lard]].<ref name=OBrien /> But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged and the [[American Civil War]] (and the resulting end of [[slavery in the United States]]) disrupted the cotton industry.<ref name=OBrien />


Cottonseed oil then began to be used illegally to fortify animal fats and lards.<ref name=OBrien /> Initially, meat packers secretly added cottonseed oil to the pure fats, but this practice was uncovered in 1884.<ref name=OBrien /> [[Armour and Company]], an American meatpacking and food processing company, sought to corner the lard market and realized that it had purchased more lard than the existing hog population could have produced.<ref name=OBrien /> A congressional investigation followed, and legislation was passed that required products fortified with cottonseed oil to be labeled as ‘‘lard compound.”<ref name=Rise /> Similarly, cottonseed oil was often blended with olive oil. Once the practice was exposed, many countries put import tariffs on American olive oil and Italy banned the product completely in 1883.<ref name=Rise /> Both of these regulatory schemes depressed cottonseed oil sales and exports, once again creating an oversupply of cottonseed oil, which decreased its value.<ref name=Rise />
Cottonseed oil then began to be used illegally to fortify animal fats and lards.<ref name=OBrien /> Initially, meat packers secretly added cottonseed oil to the pure fats, but this practice was uncovered in 1884. [[Armour and Company]], an American meatpacking and food processing company, sought to corner the lard market and realized that it had purchased more lard than the existing hog population could have produced.<ref name=OBrien /> A congressional investigation followed, and legislation was passed that required products fortified with cottonseed oil to be labeled as ''lard compound''."<ref name=Rise /> Similarly, cottonseed oil was often blended with olive oil. Once the practice was exposed, many countries put import tariffs on American olive oil and Italy banned the product completely in 1883.<ref name=Rise /> Both of these regulatory schemes depressed cottonseed oil sales and exports, once again creating an oversupply of cottonseed oil, which decreased its value.<ref name=Rise />
It was cottonseed's depressed value that led a newly formed [[Procter & Gamble]] to utilize its oil.<ref name=Rise /> The [[Panic of 1837]] caused the two brothers-in-law to merge their candlestick and soap manufacturing businesses in an effort to minimize costs and weather the bear market.<ref name=OBrien /> Looking for a replacement for expensive animal fats in production, the brothers finally settled on cottonseed oil.<ref name=OBrien /> Procter & Gamble cornered the cottonseed oil market to circumvent the meat packer's monopoly on the price. But as electricity emerged, the demand for candles decreased.<ref name=Rise /> Procter and Gamble then found an edible use for cottonseed oil. Through patented technology, the brothers were able to hydrogenate cottonseed oil and develop a substance that closely resembled lard.<ref name=OBrien /> In 1911, Procter & Gamble launched an aggressive marketing campaign to publicize its new product, [[Crisco]], a vegetable shortening that could be used in place of lard.<ref>Drew Ramsey and Tyler Graham for The Atlantic. April 26, 2012. [https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/04/how-vegetable-oils-replaced-animal-fats-in-the-american-diet/256155/ How Vegetable Oils Replaced Animals Fats in the American Diet.]</ref> Crisco placed ads in major newspapers advertising that the product was "easier on digestion...a healthier alternative to cooking with animal fats. . . and more economical than butter.”<ref name="Crisco">[http://www.crisco.com/About_Crisco/History.aspx Crisco Corporate Historical Timeline] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026070116/http://www.crisco.com/About_Crisco/History.aspx |date=2013-10-26 }}</ref> The company also gave away free cookbooks, with every recipe calling for Crisco.<ref name=Crisco /> By the 1920s the company developed cookbooks for specific ethnicities in their native tongues.<ref name=Crisco /> Additionally, Crisco started airing radio cooking programs.<ref name=Crisco /> Similarly, in 1899 David Wesson, a food chemist, developed deodorized cottonseed oil, [[Wesson cooking oil]].<ref name=Rise /> Wesson Oil also was marketed heavily and became quite popular too.<ref name=Rise />
It was cottonseed's depressed value that led a newly formed [[Procter & Gamble]] to utilize its oil.<ref name=Rise /> The [[Panic of 1837]] caused the two brothers-in-law to merge their candlestick and soap manufacturing businesses in an effort to minimize costs and weather the bear market.<ref name=OBrien /> Looking for a replacement for expensive animal fats in production, the brothers finally settled on cottonseed oil. Procter & Gamble cornered the cottonseed oil market to circumvent the meat packer's monopoly on the price. But as electricity emerged, the demand for candles decreased.<ref name=Rise /> Procter and Gamble then found an edible use for cottonseed oil. Through patented technology, the brothers were able to hydrogenate cottonseed oil and develop a substance that closely resembled lard.<ref name=OBrien /> In 1911, Procter & Gamble launched an aggressive marketing campaign to publicize its new product, [[Crisco]], a vegetable shortening that could be used in place of lard.<ref>Drew Ramsey and Tyler Graham for The Atlantic. April 26, 2012. [https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/04/how-vegetable-oils-replaced-animal-fats-in-the-american-diet/256155/ How Vegetable Oils Replaced Animals Fats in the American Diet.]</ref> Crisco placed ads in major newspapers advertising that the product was "easier on digestion&nbsp;... a healthier alternative to cooking with animal fats&nbsp;... and more economical than butter."<ref name="Crisco">{{cite web |url=http://www.crisco.com/About_Crisco/History.aspx |title=Crisco Corporate Historical Timeline |publisher=J.M. Smucker Co |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026070116/http://www.crisco.com/About_Crisco/History.aspx |archive-date=2013-10-26 }}</ref> The company also gave away free cookbooks, with every recipe calling for Crisco. By the 1920s the company developed cookbooks for specific ethnicities in their native tongues.<ref name=Crisco /> Additionally, Crisco started airing radio cooking programs. Similarly, in 1899 David Wesson, a food chemist, developed deodorized cottonseed oil, [[Wesson cooking oil]].<ref name=Rise /> Wesson Oil also was marketed heavily and became quite popular too.


Over the next 30 years cottonseed oil became the predominant cooking oil in the United States.<ref name=OBrien /> Crisco and Wesson oil became direct substitutes for lard and other more expensive oils in baking, frying, sautéing, and salad dressings.<ref name=OBrien /> By World War Two, cottonseed oil shortages forced the utilization of another direct substitute, soybean oil.<ref name=OBrien /> By 1944, soybean oil production exceeded cottonseed oil production due to cottonseed shortages and soybean oil costs falling below that of cottonseed oil.<ref name=OBrien /> By 1950, soybean oil replaced cottonseed oil in the use of shortenings like Crisco due to soybeans' comparatively low price.<ref name=OBrien /> Prices for cottonseed were also increased by the replacement of cotton acreage by corn and soybeans, a trend fueled in large part by the boom in demand for corn syrup and ethanol.<ref name=OBrien /> Cottonseed oil and production continued to decline throughout the mid- and late 20th century.<ref name=OBrien />
Over the next 30 years cottonseed oil became the predominant cooking oil in the United States.<ref name=OBrien /> Crisco and Wesson oil became direct substitutes for lard and other more expensive oils in baking, frying, sautéing, and salad dressings. By World War Two, cottonseed oil shortages forced the utilization of another direct substitute, soybean oil.<ref name=OBrien /> By 1944, soybean oil production exceeded cottonseed oil production due to cottonseed shortages and soybean oil costs falling below that of cottonseed oil.<ref name=OBrien /> By 1950, soybean oil replaced cottonseed oil in the use of shortenings like Crisco due to soybeans' comparatively low price. Prices for cottonseed were also increased by the replacement of cotton acreage by corn and soybeans, a trend fueled in large part by the boom in demand for corn syrup and ethanol.<ref name=OBrien /> Cottonseed oil and production continued to decline throughout the mid- and late 20th century.


In the mid- to late 2000s, the consumer trend of avoiding trans fats, and mandatory labeling of trans fats in some jurisdictions, sparked an increase in the consumption of cottonseed oil,<ref>Staff, Cotton247.com. September 12, 2009 [http://www.cotton247.com/article/1960/cottonseed-oil-production-consumption-on-the-rise Cottonseed Oil Production, Consumption On The Rise - Crushers expect over 100 million pound increase.]</ref> with some health experts<ref>Willett WC and Skerrett PJ. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eKGvGksKdloC Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy: The Harvard Medical School Guide to Healthy Eating]. Free Press 2005 (paperback), sold in ebook form by Simon and Schuster Digital Sales Inc.</ref>{{rp|220}} and public health agencies<ref>Staff, New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. March 2005 [http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/public/dohmhnews4-02.pdf Health Bulletin: Healthy Heart - Eat Less Trans Fat] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021115716/http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/public/dohmhnews4-02.pdf |date=October 21, 2013 }}</ref> recommending it as a healthy oil. Crisco and other producers have been able to reformulate cottonseed oil so it contains little to no trans fats.<ref>Associated Press. January 25, 2007 [http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16795455/#.UVHUjBfksl8 Crisco drops trans fats from shortening formula]</ref> Still, some health experts claim that cottonseed oil's high ratio of polyunsaturated fats to monounsaturated fats and processed nature make it unhealthy.<ref>Danielle Walsh, Health Columnist for Bon Appetit Magazine. January 27, 2012. [http://www.bonappetit.com/blogsandforums/blogs/badaily/2012/01/the-three-best-and-worst-oils.html 3 Best and Worst Oils For Your Health] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425014650/http://www.bonappetit.com/blogsandforums/blogs/badaily/2012/01/the-three-best-and-worst-oils.html |date=2013-04-25 }}</ref>
In the mid- to late 2000s, the consumer trend of avoiding trans fats, and mandatory labeling of trans fats in some jurisdictions, sparked an increase in the consumption of cottonseed oil,<ref>Staff, Cotton247.com. September 12, 2009 [http://www.cotton247.com/article/1960/cottonseed-oil-production-consumption-on-the-rise Cottonseed Oil Production, Consumption On The Rise - Crushers expect over 100 million pound increase.]</ref> with some health experts<ref>Willett WC and Skerrett PJ. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eKGvGksKdloC Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy: The Harvard Medical School Guide to Healthy Eating]. Free Press 2005 (paperback), sold in ebook form by Simon and Schuster Digital Sales Inc.</ref>{{rp|220}} and public health agencies<ref>{{cite web |date=March 2005 |author=New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/public/dohmhnews4-02.pdf |title=Health Bulletin: Healthy Heart - Eat Less Trans Fat |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021115716/http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/public/dohmhnews4-02.pdf |archive-date=October 21, 2013 }}</ref> recommending it as a healthy oil. Crisco and other producers have been able to reformulate cottonseed oil so it contains little to no trans fats.<ref>Associated Press. January 25, 2007 [https://web.archive.org/web/20131021114357/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16795455/#.UVHUjBfksl8 Crisco drops trans fats from shortening formula]</ref> Still, some health experts claim that cottonseed oil's high ratio of polyunsaturated fats to monounsaturated fats and processed nature make it unhealthy.<ref>{{cite web |author=Danielle Walsh |publisher=Bon Appetit Magazine |date=January 27, 2012 |url=http://www.bonappetit.com/blogsandforums/blogs/badaily/2012/01/the-three-best-and-worst-oils.html |title=3 Best and Worst Oils For Your Health |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425014650/http://www.bonappetit.com/blogsandforums/blogs/badaily/2012/01/the-three-best-and-worst-oils.html |archive-date=2013-04-25 }}</ref>


== Regulation ==
== Regulation ==
Cottonseed oil in Canada must be pressed from the seed of the ''[[Gossypium]]'' plant. As a single source vegetable oil, 100% cottonseed oil must appear as “cottonseed oil” on the labels of any products sold.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/food-labelling-for-industry/fats-and-oils/eng/1392751693435/1392751782638?chap=0#c2|title=Labelling Requirements for Fats and Oils|last=Directorate|first=Government of Canada,Canadian Food Inspection Agency,Food Safety and Consumer Protection|website=inspection.gc.ca|access-date=2018-08-10|date=2014-02-18}}</ref>
Cottonseed oil in Canada must be pressed from the seed of the ''[[Gossypium]]'' plant. As a single-source vegetable oil, 100% cottonseed oil must appear as "cottonseed oil" on the labels of any products sold.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://inspection.canada.ca/food-labels/labelling/industry/fats-and-oils/eng/1626115110031/1626115225080|title=Labelling Requirements for Fats and Oils|author=Canadian Food Inspection Agency|website=inspection.gc.ca|access-date=2018-08-10|date=2014-02-18}}</ref>


Cottonseed oil sold as an edible product must be processed and refined to eliminate specific components that could present as a food safety hazard. In particular [[gossypol]], a natural pigment present in the cotton seeds that acts as a natural defense mechanism to insects and other predators, can also act as a toxin to humans, and can lead to infertility in men.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/multimedia/multimedia_pub/multimedia_pub_fsf_88_01.html|title=Cottonseed Oil and Food Safety|website=www.cfs.gov.hk|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref>
Cottonseed oil sold as an edible product must be processed and refined to eliminate specific components that could present as a food safety hazard, in particular [[gossypol]], which can act as a toxin to humans, and can lead to infertility in men.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/multimedia/multimedia_pub/multimedia_pub_fsf_88_01.html|title=Cottonseed Oil and Food Safety|website=www.cfs.gov.hk|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref>


== Extraction ==
== Extraction ==
⚫
[[File:Cottonseed Oil Processing Graphic.png|thumb|321x321px|Cottonseed oil processing steps]]
⚫
Cottonseed oil, like other [[vegetable oil]]s, is extracted from the seed of the plant, through either mechanical processes such as crushing or pressing,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cottonseed Oil Extraction |url=https://www.oilexpeller.com/cottonseed-oil-mill-plant/ |website=GOYUM GROUP - INDIA|date=18 April 2019 }}</ref> or by chemical processes such as solvent extraction.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Čmolík|first1=Jiří|last2=Pokorný|first2=Jan|date=2000-08-01|title=Physical refining of edible oils|journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology|volume=102|issue=7|pages=472–486|doi=10.1002/1438-9312(200008)102:7<472::AID-EJLT472>3.0.CO;2-Z}}</ref> Cottonseed oil however, is most commonly extracted commercially via solvent extraction.<ref>{{Cite document|title=COMPARATIVE EXTRACTION OF COTTONSEED OIL BY n-Hexane and Ethanol|last1=Saxena|first1=Devesh K.|last2=Sharma|first2=Surendra Kumar|date=2011|last3=Sambi|first3=Surinder Singh|s2cid=44046228}}</ref>
{{see also|Cooking oil#Extraction and refinement}}
⚫
Cottonseed oil, like other [[vegetable oil]]s, is extracted from the seed of the plant, through either mechanical processes such as crushing or pressing,<ref>{{cite web |title=Cottonseed Oil Extraction |url=https://www.oilexpeller.com/cottonseed-oil-mill-plant/ |website=GOYUM GROUP - INDIA|date=18 April 2019 }}</ref> or by chemical processes such as solvent extraction.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Čmolík|first1=Jiří|last2=Pokorný|first2=Jan|date=2000-08-01|title=Physical refining of edible oils|journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology|volume=102|issue=7|pages=472–486|doi=10.1002/1438-9312(200008)102:7<472::AID-EJLT472>3.0.CO;2-Z}}</ref> Cottonseed oil is most commonly extracted commercially via solvent extraction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saxena |first1=Devesh K. |last2=Sharma |first2=Surendra Kumar |last3=Sambi |first3=Surinder Singh |date=January 2011 |title=Comparative Extraction of Cottonseed Oil by n-Hexane and Ethanol |journal=ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences |volume=6 |issue=1 |url=http://www.arpnjournals.com/jeas/volume_01_2011.htm |s2cid=44046228}}</ref>


== Refining ==
==Use in food==
⚫
Cottonseed oil has traditionally been used in foods such as [[potato chips]] and was for many years a primary ingredient in [[Crisco]], the shortening product. The current formulation of Crisco is primarily made from soybean oil and [[palm oil]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://crisco.com/product/all-vegetable-shortening/ | title=All-Vegetable Shortening - Crisco - Vegetable Shortening }}</ref> Significantly less expensive than [[olive oil]] or [[canola oil]], cottonseed oil was a popular frying oil for the restaurant and snack-food manufacturing industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cotton247.com/cg/?storyid=743 |publisher=cotton 247.com |title=Cottonseed oil use on the rise |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708194121/http://www.cotton247.com/cg/?storyid=743 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 }}</ref>
⚫
[[File:Cottonseed Oil Processing Graphic.png|thumb|321x321px|Cottonseed Oil Processing Steps]]
Plant oils are esters, usually triglyceride esters, of fatty acids. Once the crude oil is extracted, it must be processed and refined before it can be used for consumption, in order to remove impurities, including free fatty acids (FFA), phospholipids, pigments and volatile compounds.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.seedoilpress.com/cooking-oil-refinery-plant/cotton-seeds-oil-refinery-plants.html|title=Cotton Seeds Oil Refinery Plants-- Oil Refinery Plants|website=www.seedoilpress.com|access-date=2018-08-09|date=2018-02-22}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|date=2011-04-01|editor-last=Gunstone|editor-first=Frank D.|title=Vegetable Oils in Food Technology|doi=10.1002/9781444339925|isbn=9781444339925}}</ref>


⚫
Cottonseed oil was used in the production of edible food products, such as cooking oils, salad oils, margarines and shortenings. In the United States, cottonseed oil was used in [[Procter & Gamble]]'s Olestra and Olein products as a type of non-digestible fat substitutes used to create creamy textures and rich flavors in fried foods.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2011-04-01|editor-last=Gunstone|editor-first=Frank D.|title=Vegetable Oils in Food Technology|publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9781444339925|isbn=978-1-4443-3992-5}}</ref>
=== Degumming ===
[[Degumming]] is the first step in the refining process to remove [[phospholipid]]s, gums, waxes and other impurities from the crude oil.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carr|first=Roy A.|date=November 1978|title=Refining and degumming systems for edible fats and oils|journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society|volume=55|issue=11|pages=765–771|doi=10.1007/bf02682645|s2cid=85020729|issn=0003-021X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/degumming|title=Degumming {{!}} food processing|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref> The oil is treated with water or dilute acids such as phosphoric acid, which exploits the fact that the [[phospholipid]]s are attracted to water because of their [[Amphiphile|amphipathic]] nature, and turns the [[lipid]]s into hydrated gums. These gums are insoluble in oil and are then separated from the oil using centrifuges. The separated gums are then dried and manufactured into emulsifying agents such as [[lecithin]].

=== Neutralization ===
The second step in the refining process is the separation of the free fatty acids (FFA) from the oil through alkaline neutralization. Depending on the type of oil being processed, there can be either two or three stages during neutralization, where three stages are done to produce a higher quality oil. Cottonseed oil goes through all three stages of neutralization.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/OilsFats/content.cfm?ItemNumber=40319|title=Alkali Refining - AOCS Lipid Library|website=lipidlibrary.aocs.org|access-date=2018-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810205750/http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/OilsFats/content.cfm?ItemNumber=40319|archive-date=2018-08-10|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The first stage of neutralization occurs when caustic soda [[sodium hydroxide]] is added to the oil after being pumped through a strainer and heated to {{cvt|133|C}}. Both neutralisation and some [[Saponification]] occur when the crude oil and the aqueous caustic soda mixture is blended. Generally, not all FFA get neutralized in this process.

During neutralization, free fatty acids (FFA) react with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) to form the sodium salt of the fatty acid ("soap"). The aqueous lipid emulsion containing [[triglycerol]], acylglycerols together with the fatty acid salt and other components form the so-called [https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/soapstocks soapstock]. The soapstock will be separated from the oil.

Some of the triglycerides esters (the desired oils) might got cleaved during the first neutralisation step. Thus, the second stage of neutralization is the repetition of stage one with the addition of more caustic soda to the mixture. In addition to the sodium salt of the fatty acid, the ester connecting alcohol, triglycerol will be released (ester saponification, [[Saponification]]). Soapstock is removed.

The final stage is a second wash with water to minimize the level of residual soap in the mixture.<ref name=":2" />

=== Bleaching ===
The third stage in the refining process is the removal of any residual soap, gums or pigments through bleaching. The most common bleaching agent employed is bleaching earth, a type of [[bentonite]] clay. Once the clay is added, the mixture is agitated, which allows the clay to bind the contaminants in the oil, either physically (e.g. [[Van der Waals force|Van der Waal]] forces) or chemically ([[chemisorption]]). The mixture is then filtered to remove the clay with the bound contaminants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zschau|first=Werner|date=2001-08-01|title=Bleaching of edible fats and oils|journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology|volume=103|issue=8|pages=505–551|doi=10.1002/1438-9312(200108)103:8<505::aid-ejlt505>3.0.co;2-7|issn=1438-9312}}</ref>

=== Deodorization ===
The fourth stage in the refining process is ''deodorization'' to remove any volatile substances. The molecules are distilled using high pressure steam injected through a vacuum system.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dudrow|first=F. A.|date=February 1983|title=Deodorization of edible oil|journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society|volume=60|issue=2Part1|pages=272–274|doi=10.1007/bf02543499|s2cid=93183746|issn=0003-021X}}</ref>

=== Winterization ===
The fifth stage in the refining process is [[Winterization of oil|winterization]] to remove the saturated [[Triglyceride|triacylglycerols]] to prevent the oil product from solidifying at low temperatures. The processed oil is stored at a cool environment where the temperature is kept below {{cvt|5|C}}.

Through winterization, the oil will separate into liquid and solid [[Fractionation|fraction]]s. The solid fraction will be crystallized due to the presence of saturated triacylglycerols. The two fractions are then separated by filtration.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kreulen|first=H. P.|date=June 1976|title=Fractionation and winterization of edible fats and oils|journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society|volume=53|issue=6Part2|pages=393–396|doi=10.1007/bf02605729|s2cid=96313335|issn=0003-021X}}</ref>

==Use in food==
⚫
Cottonseed oil has traditionally been used in foods such as [[potato chips]] and was for many years a primary ingredient in [[Crisco]], the shortening product. The current formulation of Cisco is primarily made from soybean oil and palm oil.[https://crisco.com/product/all-vegetable-shortening/] Significantly less expensive than [[olive oil]] or [[canola oil]], cottonseed oil is a popular frying oil for the restaurant and snack-food manufacturing industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cotton247.com/cg/?storyid=743 |publisher=cotton 247.com |title=Cottonseed oil use on the rise |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708194121/http://www.cotton247.com/cg/?storyid=743 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 }}</ref>


The FDA released its final determination that Partially [[Fat hydrogenation|Hydrogenated Oils]] (PHOs), which include partially hydrogenated cottonseed oil, are not Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) in 2015. However, to allow for time for reformulation, the agency extended the compliance date to stop manufacturing foods with these specific, limited petitioned uses of PHOs until June 18, 2019. The final compliance date to allow manufacturers time to reformulate foods and ensure an orderly transition in the marketplace was established as January 1, 2021. Then, on December 22, 2023, the FDA completed final administrative actions on the revocation of uses of PHOs in food. So, it can be said that the GRAS status of cottonseed oil, specifically in its partially hydrogenated form, was effectively lost by January 1, 2021.<ref>[https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/final-determination-regarding-partially-hydrogenated-oils-removing-trans-fat Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils.]</ref><ref>[https://www.fda.gov/food/cfsan-constituent-updates/fda-completes-final-administrative-actions-partially-hydrogenated-oils-foods FDA Completes Final Administrative Actions on PHOs.]</ref><ref>[https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=173.322 Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 - accessdata.fda.gov.]</ref><ref>[https://www.venturafoods.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/VF-SDS-Cottonseed-Oil.pdf FINISHED PRODUCT SAFETY DATA SHEET (SDS) - Ventura Foods.]</ref>
⚫
Cottonseed oil is used in the production of edible food products such as cooking oils, salad oils, margarines and shortenings. In the United States, cottonseed oil is used in Procter & Gamble's Olestra and Olein products as a type of non-digestible fat substitutes used to create creamy textures and rich flavours in fried foods.<ref name=":1" />


== Nonfood uses ==
== Nonfood uses ==
For agricultural applications, cottonseed oil generally has the greatest insecticide power among all the vegetable oils. It is traditionally used because of its effectiveness in “hard to treat” pest problems in fruit trees. Cottonseed oil can also be mixed with other insecticides to provide a broader spectrum and increased control on pests. Spider mites, whiteflies and young stages of scales are common pests that can be controlled using cottonseed oil.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/insects/insect-control-horticultural-oils-5-569/|title=Insect Control: Horticultural Oils - 5.569 - Extension|work=Extension|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref>
For agricultural applications, cottonseed oil generally has the greatest insecticide power among all the vegetable oils. It is traditionally used because of its effectiveness in hard to treat pest problems in fruit trees. Cottonseed oil can also be mixed with other insecticides to provide a broader spectrum and increased control on pests. Spider mites, whiteflies and young stages of scales are common pests that can be controlled using cottonseed oil.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/insects/insect-control-horticultural-oils-5-569/|title=Insect Control: Horticultural Oils - 5.569 - Extension|work=Extension|access-date=2018-08-07}}</ref>


⚫
In an agricultural context, the toxicity of untreated cottonseed oil may be considered beneficial: Oils, including vegetable oils, have been used for centuries to control insect and mite pests.<ref name=CSU>W.S. Cranshaw and B. Baxendale, Colorado State University Extension. Updated Friday, April 19, 2013 [https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/insects/insect-control-horticultural-oils-5-569/ Insect Control: Horticultural Oils]</ref> More recently, cottonseed oil has been used to protect the trunks of apple trees from the [[Synanthedon myopaeformis|apple clearwing moth]], which burrows into the trees' bark, potentially killing them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erler|first=Fedai|date=2010-01-01|title=Efficacy of tree trunk coating materials in the control of the apple clearwing, Synanthedon myopaeformis|journal=Journal of Insect Science|volume=10|issue=1|page=63|doi=10.1673/031.010.6301|pmid=20672979|pmc=3014806}}</ref> This oil has been generally considered the most insecticidal of vegetable oils.<ref name=CSU/>
==Use as insecticide==
⚫
In an agricultural context, the toxicity of untreated cottonseed oil may be considered beneficial: Oils, including vegetable oils, have been used for centuries to control insect and mite pests.<ref name=CSU>W.S. Cranshaw and B. Baxendale, Colorado State University Extension. Updated Friday, April 19, 2013 [https://extension.colostate.edu/topic-areas/insects/insect-control-horticultural-oils-5-569/ Insect Control: Horticultural Oils]</ref> More recently, cottonseed oil has been used to protect the trunks of apple trees from the [[Synanthedon myopaeformis|apple clearwing moth]], which burrows into the trees' bark, potentially killing them.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Erler|first=Fedai|date=2010-01-01|title=Efficacy of tree trunk coating materials in the control of the apple clearwing, Synanthedon myopaeformis|journal=Journal of Insect Science|volume=10|issue=1|page=63|doi=10.1673/031.010.6301|pmid=20672979|pmc=3014806}}</ref> This oil has been generally considered the most insecticidal of vegetable oils.<ref name=CSU/>


== See also ==
== See also ==

Latest revision as of 21:37, 21 December 2024

Cottonseed oil
Cotton seeds

Cottonseed oil is cooking oil from the seeds of cotton plants of various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil.[1]

Cotton seed has a similar structure to other oilseeds, such as sunflower seed, having an oil-bearing kernel surrounded by a hard outer hull; in processing, the oil is extracted from the kernel. Cottonseed oil is used for salad oil, mayonnaise, salad dressing, and similar products because of its flavor stability.[2]

Composition

[edit]
Mississippi Cottonseed Oil Co. seed house, Jackson, Mississippi

Its fatty acid profile generally consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids (18% monounsaturated, and 52% polyunsaturated), 26% saturated fatty acids.[3] When it is fully hydrogenated, its profile is 94% saturated fat and 2% unsaturated fatty acids (1.5% monounsaturated, and 0.5% polyunsaturated).[4] According to the National Cottonseed Products Association, cottonseed oil does not need to be hydrogenated as much as other polyunsaturated oils to achieve similar results.[2]

Undesireable components in raw extract

[edit]

Gossypol is a toxic, yellow, polyphenolic compound produced by cotton and other members of the order Malvaceae, such as okra.[5] This naturally occurring colored compound is found in tiny glands in the seed, leaf, stem, tap root bark, and root of the cotton plant. The adaptive function of the compound facilitates natural insect resistance. Raw extracts that have not undergone post processing, such as hydrogenation, will also contain the undesirable component cyclopropene fatty acid, but purportedly are mostly removed during refining, particularly deodorization and also hydrogenation. As such, processed/food-grade cottonseed oils are not considered to present a health hazard from cyclopropene fatty acids.[citation needed] The three key steps of refining, bleaching, and deodorization in producing finished oil act to eliminate the gossypol level. Ferric chloride is often used to decolorize cotton seed oil.[6]

Comparison to other vegetable oils

[edit]
Properties of vegetable oils[7][8]
The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.
Type Processing
treatment[9]		 Saturated
fatty acids		 Monounsaturated
fatty acids		 Polyunsaturated
fatty acids		 Smoke point
Total[7] Oleic
acid
(ω−9)		 Total[7] α-Linolenic
acid
(ω−3)		 Linoleic
acid
(ω−6)		 ω−6:3
ratio
Avocado[10] 11.6 70.6 52–66
[11]		 13.5 1 12.5 12.5:1 250 °C (482 °F)[12]
Brazil nut[13] 24.8 32.7 31.3 42.0 0.1 41.9 419:1 208 °C (406 °F)[14]
Canola[15] 7.4 63.3 61.8 28.1 9.1 18.6 2:1 204 °C (400 °F)[16]
Coconut[17] 82.5 6.3 6 1.7 0.019 1.68 88:1 175 °C (347 °F)[14]
Corn[18] 12.9 27.6 27.3 54.7 1 58 58:1 232 °C (450 °F)[16]
Cottonseed[19] 25.9 17.8 19 51.9 1 54 54:1 216 °C (420 °F)[16]
Cottonseed[20] hydrogenated 93.6 1.5 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.5:1
Flaxseed/linseed[21] 9.0 18.4 18 67.8 53 13 0.2:1 107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed   10.4 14.8 14.3   74.9 0.15 74.7 very high 216 °C (421 °F)[22]
Hemp seed[23] 7.0 9.0 9.0 82.0 22.0 54.0 2.5:1 166 °C (330 °F)[24]
High-oleic safflower oil[25] 7.5 75.2 75.2 12.8 0 12.8 very high 212 °C (414 °F)[14]
Olive (extra virgin)[26] 13.8 73.0 71.3 10.5 0.7 9.8 14:1 193 °C (380 °F)[14]
Palm[27] 49.3 37.0 40 9.3 0.2 9.1 45.5:1 235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[28] hydrogenated 88.2 5.7 0
Peanut[29] 16.2 57.1 55.4 19.9 0.318 19.6 61.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[16]
Rice bran oil 25 38.4 38.4 36.6 2.2 34.4[30] 15.6:1 232 °C (450 °F)[31]
Sesame[32] 14.2 39.7 39.3 41.7 0.3 41.3 138:1
Soybean[33] 15.6 22.8 22.6 57.7 7 51 7.3:1 238 °C (460 °F)[16]
Soybean[34] partially hydrogenated 14.9 43.0 42.5 37.6 2.6 34.9 13.4:1
Sunflower[35] 8.99 63.4 62.9 20.7 0.16 20.5 128:1 227 °C (440 °F)[16]
Walnut oil[36] unrefined 9.1 22.8 22.2 63.3 10.4 52.9 5:1 160 °C (320 °F)[37]

Physical properties

[edit]

Once processed, cottonseed oil has a mild taste and appears generally clear with a light golden color, the amount of color depending on the amount of refining.[38] It has a relatively high smoke point as a frying medium. Density ranges from 0.917 to 0.933 g/cm3 (7.65 to 7.79 lb/US gal).[39] Like other long-chain fatty acid oils, cottonseed oil has a smoke point of about 450 °F (232 °C),[5] and is high in tocopherols, which also contribute its stability, giving products that contain it a long shelf life, hence manufacturers' proclivity to use it in packaged goods.

Production of cottonseed oil
2019[40]
Country Millions of tonnes
 China 1.28
 India 1.20
 Pakistan 0.32
 Brazil 0.28
 United States 0.22
 Turkey 0.21
World 4.45

Production

[edit]
A cotton oil mill in Shreveport, Louisiana, 1941

In 2019, world production of cottonseed oil was 4.45 million tonnes, led by China and India with 56% combined of the total.[40]

Economic history

[edit]
Marketed under a variety of brand names, cottonseed oil shortening emerged as the leading substitute for lard late in the 19th century. (1912 ad)

The by-product of cotton processing, cottonseed was considered virtually worthless before the late 19th century.[41] While cotton production expanded throughout the 17th, 18th, and mid-19th centuries, a largely worthless stock of cottonseed grew. Although some of the seed was used for planting, fertilizer, and animal feed, the majority was left to rot or was illegally dumped into rivers.[42]

In the 1820s and 1830s Europe experienced fats and oils shortages due to rapid population expansion during the Industrial Revolution and the after-effects of the British blockade during the Napoleonic Wars.[42] The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply. Consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting.[41] Many American entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils and America's increasingly large supply of cottonseed by crushing the seed for oil. But separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years.[42] This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee patented a huller, which effectively separated the tough hulls from the meats of cottonseed.[43] With this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive whale oil and lard.[41] But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged and the American Civil War (and the resulting end of slavery in the United States) disrupted the cotton industry.[41]

Cottonseed oil then began to be used illegally to fortify animal fats and lards.[41] Initially, meat packers secretly added cottonseed oil to the pure fats, but this practice was uncovered in 1884. Armour and Company, an American meatpacking and food processing company, sought to corner the lard market and realized that it had purchased more lard than the existing hog population could have produced.[41] A congressional investigation followed, and legislation was passed that required products fortified with cottonseed oil to be labeled as lard compound."[42] Similarly, cottonseed oil was often blended with olive oil. Once the practice was exposed, many countries put import tariffs on American olive oil and Italy banned the product completely in 1883.[42] Both of these regulatory schemes depressed cottonseed oil sales and exports, once again creating an oversupply of cottonseed oil, which decreased its value.[42]

It was cottonseed's depressed value that led a newly formed Procter & Gamble to utilize its oil.[42] The Panic of 1837 caused the two brothers-in-law to merge their candlestick and soap manufacturing businesses in an effort to minimize costs and weather the bear market.[41] Looking for a replacement for expensive animal fats in production, the brothers finally settled on cottonseed oil. Procter & Gamble cornered the cottonseed oil market to circumvent the meat packer's monopoly on the price. But as electricity emerged, the demand for candles decreased.[42] Procter and Gamble then found an edible use for cottonseed oil. Through patented technology, the brothers were able to hydrogenate cottonseed oil and develop a substance that closely resembled lard.[41] In 1911, Procter & Gamble launched an aggressive marketing campaign to publicize its new product, Crisco, a vegetable shortening that could be used in place of lard.[44] Crisco placed ads in major newspapers advertising that the product was "easier on digestion ... a healthier alternative to cooking with animal fats ... and more economical than butter."[45] The company also gave away free cookbooks, with every recipe calling for Crisco. By the 1920s the company developed cookbooks for specific ethnicities in their native tongues.[45] Additionally, Crisco started airing radio cooking programs. Similarly, in 1899 David Wesson, a food chemist, developed deodorized cottonseed oil, Wesson cooking oil.[42] Wesson Oil also was marketed heavily and became quite popular too.

Over the next 30 years cottonseed oil became the predominant cooking oil in the United States.[41] Crisco and Wesson oil became direct substitutes for lard and other more expensive oils in baking, frying, sautéing, and salad dressings. By World War Two, cottonseed oil shortages forced the utilization of another direct substitute, soybean oil.[41] By 1944, soybean oil production exceeded cottonseed oil production due to cottonseed shortages and soybean oil costs falling below that of cottonseed oil.[41] By 1950, soybean oil replaced cottonseed oil in the use of shortenings like Crisco due to soybeans' comparatively low price. Prices for cottonseed were also increased by the replacement of cotton acreage by corn and soybeans, a trend fueled in large part by the boom in demand for corn syrup and ethanol.[41] Cottonseed oil and production continued to decline throughout the mid- and late 20th century.

In the mid- to late 2000s, the consumer trend of avoiding trans fats, and mandatory labeling of trans fats in some jurisdictions, sparked an increase in the consumption of cottonseed oil,[46] with some health experts[47]: 220  and public health agencies[48] recommending it as a healthy oil. Crisco and other producers have been able to reformulate cottonseed oil so it contains little to no trans fats.[49] Still, some health experts claim that cottonseed oil's high ratio of polyunsaturated fats to monounsaturated fats and processed nature make it unhealthy.[50]

Regulation

[edit]

Cottonseed oil in Canada must be pressed from the seed of the Gossypium plant. As a single-source vegetable oil, 100% cottonseed oil must appear as "cottonseed oil" on the labels of any products sold.[51]

Cottonseed oil sold as an edible product must be processed and refined to eliminate specific components that could present as a food safety hazard, in particular gossypol, which can act as a toxin to humans, and can lead to infertility in men.[52]

Extraction

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Cottonseed oil processing steps
See also: Cooking oil § Extraction and refinement

Cottonseed oil, like other vegetable oils, is extracted from the seed of the plant, through either mechanical processes such as crushing or pressing,[53] or by chemical processes such as solvent extraction.[54] Cottonseed oil is most commonly extracted commercially via solvent extraction.[55]

Use in food

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Cottonseed oil has traditionally been used in foods such as potato chips and was for many years a primary ingredient in Crisco, the shortening product. The current formulation of Crisco is primarily made from soybean oil and palm oil.[56] Significantly less expensive than olive oil or canola oil, cottonseed oil was a popular frying oil for the restaurant and snack-food manufacturing industries.[57]

Cottonseed oil was used in the production of edible food products, such as cooking oils, salad oils, margarines and shortenings. In the United States, cottonseed oil was used in Procter & Gamble's Olestra and Olein products as a type of non-digestible fat substitutes used to create creamy textures and rich flavors in fried foods.[58]

The FDA released its final determination that Partially Hydrogenated Oils (PHOs), which include partially hydrogenated cottonseed oil, are not Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) in 2015. However, to allow for time for reformulation, the agency extended the compliance date to stop manufacturing foods with these specific, limited petitioned uses of PHOs until June 18, 2019. The final compliance date to allow manufacturers time to reformulate foods and ensure an orderly transition in the marketplace was established as January 1, 2021. Then, on December 22, 2023, the FDA completed final administrative actions on the revocation of uses of PHOs in food. So, it can be said that the GRAS status of cottonseed oil, specifically in its partially hydrogenated form, was effectively lost by January 1, 2021.[59][60][61][62]

Nonfood uses

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For agricultural applications, cottonseed oil generally has the greatest insecticide power among all the vegetable oils. It is traditionally used because of its effectiveness in hard to treat pest problems in fruit trees. Cottonseed oil can also be mixed with other insecticides to provide a broader spectrum and increased control on pests. Spider mites, whiteflies and young stages of scales are common pests that can be controlled using cottonseed oil.[63]

In an agricultural context, the toxicity of untreated cottonseed oil may be considered beneficial: Oils, including vegetable oils, have been used for centuries to control insect and mite pests.[64] More recently, cottonseed oil has been used to protect the trunks of apple trees from the apple clearwing moth, which burrows into the trees' bark, potentially killing them.[65] This oil has been generally considered the most insecticidal of vegetable oils.[64]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Texas is Cotton Country". Archived from the original on 2013-10-21. Retrieved 2013-10-23.
  2. ^ a b "Twenty Facts About Cottonseed Oil from cotton plant". National Cottonseed Products Association. Archived from the original on 2015-10-17.
  3. ^ "Basic Report: 04502, Oil, cottonseed, salad or cooking". United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on August 24, 2012.
  4. ^ "Nutrient data for 04702, Oil, industrial, cottonseed, fully hydrogenated". United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 2013-09-05. Retrieved 2012-02-13.
  5. ^ a b Jones, Lynn A.; King, C. Clay (1996). "Cottonseed oil". In Y. H. Hui (ed.). Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oils and Oilseeds. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-59426-0.
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  8. ^ "Fats and fatty acids contents per 100 g (click for "more details"). Example: Avocado oil (user can search for other oils)". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, Standard Release 21. 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2017. Values from Nutritiondata.com (SR 21) may need to be reconciled with most recent release from the USDA SR 28 as of Sept 2017.
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  51. ^ Canadian Food Inspection Agency (2014-02-18). "Labelling Requirements for Fats and Oils". inspection.gc.ca. Retrieved 2018-08-10.
  52. ^ "Cottonseed Oil and Food Safety". www.cfs.gov.hk. Retrieved 2018-08-07.
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  55. ^ Saxena, Devesh K.; Sharma, Surendra Kumar; Sambi, Surinder Singh (January 2011). "Comparative Extraction of Cottonseed Oil by n-Hexane and Ethanol". ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 6 (1). S2CID 44046228.
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  57. ^ "Cottonseed oil use on the rise". cotton 247.com. Archived from the original on July 8, 2011.
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  59. ^ Final Determination Regarding Partially Hydrogenated Oils.
  60. ^ FDA Completes Final Administrative Actions on PHOs.
  61. ^ Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 - accessdata.fda.gov.
  62. ^ FINISHED PRODUCT SAFETY DATA SHEET (SDS) - Ventura Foods.
  63. ^ "Insect Control: Horticultural Oils - 5.569 - Extension". Extension. Retrieved 2018-08-07.
  64. ^ a b W.S. Cranshaw and B. Baxendale, Colorado State University Extension. Updated Friday, April 19, 2013 Insect Control: Horticultural Oils
  65. ^ Erler, Fedai (2010-01-01). "Efficacy of tree trunk coating materials in the control of the apple clearwing, Synanthedon myopaeformis". Journal of Insect Science. 10 (1): 63. doi:10.1673/031.010.6301. PMC 3014806. PMID 20672979.
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