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| image = File:Mandaeans 03.jpg
| image = File:Mandaeans 03.jpg
| caption = Mandaeans in prayer, Iran
| caption = Mandaeans in prayer, Iran
| population = {{circa|60,000–100,000<ref name=Bell>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Matthew|date=6 October 2016|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-10-06/these-iraqi-immigrants-worship-john-baptist-theyre-not-christians?amp|title = These Iraqi immigrants revere John the Baptist, but they're not Christians|website=The World|access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="yaledailynews">{{Cite web|last=Thaler|first=Kai|date=9 March 2007|url=https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2007/03/09/iraqi-minority-group-needs-u-s-attention/|title=Iraqi minority group needs U.S. attention|website=Yale Daily News|access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=WMP>{{Cite web|url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans|title=The Mandaeans – Who are the Mandaeans?|website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests|access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref>
| population = {{circa|60,000–100,000<ref name=Bell>{{Cite web|last=Bell|first=Matthew|date=6 October 2016|url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-10-06/these-iraqi-immigrants-worship-john-baptist-theyre-not-christians?amp|title = These Iraqi immigrants revere John the Baptist, but they're not Christians|website=The World|access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Thaler|2007}}<ref name=WMP>{{Cite web|url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans|title=The Mandaeans – Who are the Mandaeans?|website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests|access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref>
}}
}}
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Iraq}}
| region4 = {{flagcountry|Iraq}}
| pop4 = 3,000{{efn|name=fn1}}–6,000<ref name="Salloum">{{Cite web|title=Iraqi Mandaeans fear extinction|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/08/iraq-minority-mandaen.html|last=Salloum|first=Saad|date=2019-08-29|website=Al-Monitor|language=en|access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref><ref name=MHRG>{{cite web|last1=Farhan|first1=Salam|last2=al Roomi|first2=Layla|last3=Nashi|first3=Suhaib|title=Submission on behalf of the Mandaean Human Rights Group to the Human Rights Committee's Periodic Review of Iraq in October 2015|date=October 2015|url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/EMRIP/CulturalHeritage/MandaeanHumanRightsGroup.pdf|website=OHCHR|access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>
| pop4 = 3,000{{efn|name=fn1}}–6,000<ref name="Salloum"/><ref name=MHRG>{{cite web|last1=Farhan|first1=Salam|last2=al Roomi|first2=Layla|last3=Nashi|first3=Suhaib|title=Submission on behalf of the Mandaean Human Rights Group to the Human Rights Committee's Periodic Review of Iraq in October 2015|date=October 2015|url=https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/EMRIP/CulturalHeritage/MandaeanHumanRightsGroup.pdf|website=OHCHR|access-date=15 November 2021}}</ref>
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Iran}}
| region6 = {{flagcountry|Iran}}
| pop6 = 2,500 (2015)<ref name="saving">{{cite web|last=Contrera|first=Russell|url=http://www.hollandsentinel.com/lifestyle/x1558731033/Saving-the-people-killing-the-faith|title=Saving the people, killing the faith&nbsp;– Holland, MI|publisher=The Holland Sentinel|access-date=2011-12-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306012853/http://www.hollandsentinel.com/lifestyle/x1558731033/Saving-the-people-killing-the-faith|archive-date=2012-03-06}}</ref><ref name=MHRG/>
| pop6 = 2,500 (2015)<ref name="saving">{{cite web|last=Contrera|first=Russell|url=http://www.hollandsentinel.com/lifestyle/x1558731033/Saving-the-people-killing-the-faith|title=Saving the people, killing the faith&nbsp;– Holland, MI|publisher=The Holland Sentinel|access-date=2011-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306012853/http://www.hollandsentinel.com/lifestyle/x1558731033/Saving-the-people-killing-the-faith|archive-date=2012-03-06}}</ref><ref name=MHRG/>
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Jordan}}
| region9 = {{flagcountry|Jordan}}
| pop9 = 1,400–2,500<ref>{{cite web|last1=Castelier|first1=Sebastian|last2=Dzuilka|first2=Margaux|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/jordan-s-mandaean-minority-fear-returning-to-post-isis-iraq-1.738337|title=Jordan's Mandaean minority fear returning to post-ISIS Iraq|website=The National|access-date=9 June 2018|date=9 June 2018}}</ref><ref name=":0"/>
| pop9 = 1,400–2,500<ref>{{cite web|last1=Castelier|first1=Sebastian|last2=Dzuilka|first2=Margaux|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/jordan-s-mandaean-minority-fear-returning-to-post-isis-iraq-1.738337|title=Jordan's Mandaean minority fear returning to post-ISIS Iraq|website=The National|access-date=9 June 2018|date=9 June 2018}}</ref><ref name=":0"/>
| region10 = {{flagcountry|Syria}}
| region10 = {{flag|Syria|revolution}}
| pop10 = 1,000 (2015)<ref name=Sido>{{cite web |last=Sido |first=Kamal |date=7 October 2010 |title=Leader of the world's Mandaeans asks for help |url=http://www.gfbv.de/pressemit.php?id=2425&PHPSESSID=6ed8c693db800049dbfc6c385df5a029#selection-2108.1-2119.45 |website=Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker |access-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130211055722/http://www.gfbv.de/pressemit.php?id=2425&PHPSESSID=6ed8c693db800049dbfc6c385df5a029#selection-2108.1-2119.45 |archive-date=11 February 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=MHRG/>
| pop10 = 1,000 (2015)<ref name=Sido>{{cite web |last=Sido |first=Kamal |date=7 October 2010 |title=Leader of the world's Mandaeans asks for help |url=http://www.gfbv.de/pressemit.php?id=2425&PHPSESSID=6ed8c693db800049dbfc6c385df5a029#selection-2108.1-2119.45 |website=Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker |access-date=4 November 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130211055722/http://www.gfbv.de/pressemit.php?id=2425&PHPSESSID=6ed8c693db800049dbfc6c385df5a029#selection-2108.1-2119.45 |archive-date=11 February 2013 }}</ref><ref name=MHRG/>
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| region1 = {{flagcountry|Sweden}}
| pop1 = [[Mandaeans in Sweden|10,000–20,000]]<ref name=manswe>{{cite web|last1=Larsson|first1=Göran|last2=Sorgenfrei|first2=Simon|last3=Stockman|first3=Max|date=2017|title=Religiösa minoriteter från Mellanöstern|url=https://www.myndighetensst.se/download/18.74c15c6d173d8c1d0b2eb6bd/1607428893836/Nr%207,%20Relig%20minor%20mellano%CC%88st_nr7_A4_KOMPLETT.pdf|website=Myndigheten för stöd till trossamfund|access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=Routledge/>
| pop1 = [[Mandaeans in Sweden|10,000–20,000]]<ref name=manswe>{{cite web|last1=Larsson|first1=Göran|last2=Sorgenfrei|first2=Simon|last3=Stockman|first3=Max|date=2017|title=Religiösa minoriteter från Mellanöstern|url=https://www.myndighetensst.se/download/18.74c15c6d173d8c1d0b2eb6bd/1607428893836/Nr%207,%20Relig%20minor%20mellano%CC%88st_nr7_A4_KOMPLETT.pdf|website=Myndigheten för stöd till trossamfund|access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=Routledge/>
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| pop11 = 1,000<ref>{{cite web|last=Fraser|first=Tim|date=31 July 2015|title=Canadians working to rescue Mandaean people on brink of extinction in Iraq|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canadians-working-to-rescue-mandaean-people-on-brink-of-extinction-in-iraq/article25807210/|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref>
| pop11 = 1,000<ref>{{cite web|last=Fraser|first=Tim|date=31 July 2015|title=Canadians working to rescue Mandaean people on brink of extinction in Iraq|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canadians-working-to-rescue-mandaean-people-on-brink-of-extinction-in-iraq/article25807210/|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref>
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| region8 = {{flagcountry|Germany}}
| pop8 = 2,200–3,000<ref>''[http://remid.de/info_zahlen/verschiedene Verschiedene Gemeinschaften / neuere religiöse Bewegungen]'', in: ''Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst|Religionswissenschaftliche Medien- und Informationsdienst e. V. (Abbreviation: REMID)'', Retrieved 9 October 2016</ref><ref name=Routledge>Hanish, Shak (2019). The Mandaeans In Iraq. In {{cite book|last=Rowe|first=Paul S.|title=Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bOF1DwAAQBAJ&q=Routledge+Handbook+of+Minorities+in+the+Middle+East|page=160|year=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317233794|place=London and New York}}</ref>
| pop8 = 2,200–3,000<ref>''[http://remid.de/info_zahlen/verschiedene Verschiedene Gemeinschaften / neuere religiöse Bewegungen]'', in: ''Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst|Religionswissenschaftliche Medien- und Informationsdienst e. V. (Abbreviation: REMID)'', Retrieved 9 October 2016</ref><ref name=Routledge>Hanish, Shak (2019). The Mandaeans In Iraq. In {{cite book|last=Rowe|first=Paul S.|title=Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bOF1DwAAQBAJ&q=Routledge+Handbook+of+Minorities+in+the+Middle+East|page=160|year=2019|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-23379-4|place=London and New York}}</ref>
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
| region13 = {{flagcountry|Denmark}}
| pop13 = 650–1,200<ref name=dk>{{cite web|last1=Schou|first1=Kim|last2=Højland|first2=Marie-Louise|date=6 May 2013|title=Hvem er mandæerne?|url=https://www.religion.dk/viden/hvem-er-mand%C3%A6erne|website=Religion.dk(Danish)|access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=MHRG/>
| pop13 = 650–1,200<ref name=dk>{{cite web|last1=Schou|first1=Kim|last2=Højland|first2=Marie-Louise|date=6 May 2013|title=Hvem er mandæerne?|url=https://www.religion.dk/viden/hvem-er-mand%C3%A6erne|website=Religion.dk(Danish)|access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref><ref name=MHRG/>
Line 37: Line 37:
| pop12 = 1,000<ref name=Routledge/>
| pop12 = 1,000<ref name=Routledge/>
| region15 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| region15 = {{flagcountry|France}}
| pop15 = 500<ref name=Fr>{{cite web|title=Religion : la Touraine, refuge des Sabéens-Mandéens|url=https://www.lanouvellerepublique.fr/tours/la-touraine-refuge-des-sabeens-mandeens#:~:text=L'Indre%2Det%2DLoire,un%20lieu%20de%20culte%20fixe.&text=Ils%20ne%20sont%20pas%20chr%C3%A9tiens,Mais%20baptistes%20(*).|date=23 April 2019|website=la Nouvelle Republique|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref>
| pop15 = 500<ref name=Fr>{{cite web|title=Religion: la Touraine, refuge des Sabéens-Mandéens|url=https://www.lanouvellerepublique.fr/tours/la-touraine-refuge-des-sabeens-mandeens#:~:text=L'Indre%2Det%2DLoire,un%20lieu%20de%20culte%20fixe.&text=Ils%20ne%20sont%20pas%20chr%C3%A9tiens,Mais%20baptistes%20(*).|date=23 April 2019|website=la Nouvelle Republique|access-date=3 December 2021}}</ref>
| rels = [[Mandaeism]]
| rels = [[Mandaeism]]
| Beliefs =
| Beliefs =
| scrips = [[Ginza Rabba]], [[Qolasta]], [[Mandaean Book of John]], [[Haran Gawaita]], etc. ([[List of Mandaean texts|''see more'']])
| scrips = [[Ginza Rabba]], [[Qulasta]], [[Mandaean Book of John]], [[Haran Gawaita]], etc. ([[List of Mandaean texts|''see more'']])
| langs = {{plainlist|
| langs = {{plainlist|
*[[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] {{smaller|as liturgical language}}
*[[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] {{smaller|as liturgical language}}
Line 57: Line 57:
}}
}}
{{Mandaeism}}
{{Mandaeism}}
'''Mandaeans''' ({{lang-ar|المندائيون}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Mandāʾiyyūn}}), also known as '''Mandaean Sabians''' ({{lang|ar|الصابئة المندائيون}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Ṣābiʾa al-Mandāʾiyyūn}}) or simply as '''Sabians''' ({{lang|ar|الصابئة}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Ṣābiʾa}}),{{efn|name=fn2}} are an [[ethnoreligious group]] who are followers of [[Mandaeism]]. They believe that [[John the Baptist]] was the final and most important [[prophet]]. They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practice [[baptism]], as well as among the earliest adherents of [[Gnosticism]], a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives today.<ref name=McGrath>{{Citation|last=McGrath|first=James|title=The First Baptists, The Last Gnostics: The Mandaeans|website=YouTube-A lunchtime talk about the Mandaeans by Dr. James F. McGrath at Butler University|date=23 January 2015|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvv6I02MNlc |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref><ref name = BuckleyOrigin/>{{rp|109}} The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]], an [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic language]], before they nearly all switched to [[Mesopotamian Arabic]] or [[Persian language|Persian]] as their main language.
'''Mandaeans''' ([[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) ({{langx|ar|المندائيون}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Mandāʾiyyūn}}), also known as '''Mandaean Sabians''' ({{lang|ar|الصابئة المندائيون}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Ṣābiʾa al-Mandāʾiyyūn}}) or simply as '''Sabians''' ({{lang|ar|الصابئة}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Ṣābiʾa}}),{{efn|name=fn2}} are an [[ethnoreligious group]] who are followers of [[Mandaeism]]. They believe that [[John the Baptist]] was the final and most important [[prophet]]. They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practice [[baptism]], as well as among the earliest adherents of [[Gnosticism]], a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives today.<ref name=McGrath>{{Citation|last=McGrath|first=James|title=The First Baptists, The Last Gnostics: The Mandaeans|website=YouTube-A lunchtime talk about the Mandaeans by Dr. James F. McGrath at Butler University|date=23 January 2015|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gvv6I02MNlc |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref><ref name = BuckleyOrigin/>{{rp|109}} The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]], an [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic language]], before they nearly all switched to [[Mesopotamian Arabic]] or [[Persian language|Persian]] as their main language.


After [[2003 invasion of Iraq|the invasion]] of Iraq by the [[United States]] and [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|its allies]] in 2003, the Mandaean community of [[Iraq]], which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed due to the rise of [[Islamic extremism]] and the absence of protection against it, with most of the community relocating to [[Iran]], [[Syria]] and [[Jordan]], or forming diaspora communities beyond the [[Middle East]]. Mandaeans have been [[forced conversion|forcibly converted]] to Islam, making them [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates from Islam]] if they revert to their religion, thereby risking being murdered. Such Mandaeans have voiced feeling unsafe in any Muslim country for this reason.<ref name="bbc0307">{{cite web|last=Crawford|first=Angus|title=Iraq's Mandaeans 'face extinction'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6412453.stm|date=4 March 2007|website=BBC News|access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="Genocide Watch: Mandaeans of Iraq">[http://www.genocidewatch.org/news/IraqGenocideWatchMandaeansofIraq.htm Genocide Watch: Mandaeans of Iraq] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508083559/http://www.genocidewatch.org/news/IraqGenocideWatchMandaeansofIraq.htm |date=May 8, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Saving the people, killing the faith |url=https://eu.hollandsentinel.com/story/news/2009/08/08/saving-people-killing-faith/45287553007/ |publisher=[[The Holland Sentinel]] |access-date=22 December 2022}}</ref><ref name="DEUTSCH2">{{cite web|last=Deutsch|first=Nathaniel|date=6 October 2007|title=Save the Gnostics|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/opinion/06deutsch.html|website=The New York Times|access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="yaledailynews2">[http://www.yaledailynews.com/articles/view/20341 Iraqi minority group needs U.S. attention] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025053439/http://www.yaledailynews.com/articles/view/20341|date=2007-10-25}}, Kai Thaler, ''Yale Daily News'', 9 March 2007.</ref>
After [[2003 invasion of Iraq|the invasion]] of Iraq by the [[United States]] and [[Multi-National Force – Iraq|its allies]] in 2003, the Mandaean community of [[Iraq]], which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed due to the rise of [[Islamic extremism]] and the absence of protection against it, with most of the community relocating to [[Iran]], [[Syria]] and [[Jordan]], or forming diaspora communities beyond the [[Middle East]]. Mandaeans have been [[forced conversion|forcibly converted]] to Islam, making them [[Apostasy in Islam|apostates from Islam]] if they revert to their religion, thereby risking being murdered. Such Mandaeans have voiced feeling unsafe in any Muslim country for this reason.<ref>{{harvnb|Crawford|2007}}; {{harvnb|Deutsch|2007}}; {{harvnb|Thaler|2007}}</ref><ref name="Genocide Watch: Mandaeans of Iraq">{{cite web |url=http://www.genocidewatch.org/news/IraqGenocideWatchMandaeansofIraq.htm |website=[[Genocide Watch]] |title=Mandaeans of Iraq |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508083559/http://www.genocidewatch.org/news/IraqGenocideWatchMandaeansofIraq.htm |archive-date=May 8, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Saving the people, killing the faith |url=https://eu.hollandsentinel.com/story/news/2009/08/08/saving-people-killing-faith/45287553007/ |publisher=[[The Holland Sentinel]] |access-date=22 December 2022}}</ref>


The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious [[persecution]] over the decades. Unlike other religious minorities such as [[Christianity in Iran|Christians]], [[Iranian Jews|Jews]] and [[Zoroastrianism in Iran|Zoroastrians]], Mandaeans have no protection from persecution whatsoever, similar to [[Baháʼí Faith in Iran|Baháʼís]] in Iran.<ref name="saving" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gechumanrights.org/persecution-of-the-mandaeans-religious-minority-in-iran/|title=Смена юр адреса – Перерегистрация юридического адреса|access-date=October 16, 2020|archive-date=October 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017115456/http://www.gechumanrights.org/persecution-of-the-mandaeans-religious-minority-in-iran/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=al Sheati|first=Ahmed|url=https://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/06/181123.html|title=Iran Mandaeans in exile following persecution|date=6 December 2011|website=Al Arabiya|access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.<ref name="DEUTSCH2"/>
The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious [[persecution]] over the decades. Unlike other religious minorities such as [[Christianity in Iran|Christians]], [[Iranian Jews|Jews]] and [[Zoroastrianism in Iran|Zoroastrians]], Mandaeans have no protection from persecution whatsoever, similar to [[Baháʼí Faith in Iran|Baháʼís]] in Iran.<ref name="saving" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gechumanrights.org/persecution-of-the-mandaeans-religious-minority-in-iran/ |script-title=ru:Смена юр адреса – Перерегистрация юридического адреса |title=Smena yur adresa – Pereregistratsiya yuridicheskogo adresa |language=ru |trans-title=Change of legal address – Re-registration of legal address |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=October 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017115456/http://www.gechumanrights.org/persecution-of-the-mandaeans-religious-minority-in-iran/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=al Sheati |first=Ahmed |url=https://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/06/181123.html |title=Iran Mandaeans in exile following persecution |date=6 December 2011|work=[[Al Arabiya]] |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.{{sfn|Deutsch|2007}}
There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide.<ref name=sly/> About 10,000 Mandaeans live in [[Mandaean Australians|Australia]] and between 10,000 and 20,000 in [[Mandaeans in Sweden|Sweden]], making them the countries with the most Mandaeans.<ref name=Routledge/><ref name=manaus/> There are about 2,500 Mandaeans in [[Jordan]], the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Ersan|first=Mohammad|title=Are Iraqi Mandaeans better off in Jordan?|website=Al-Monitor|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/02/jordan-iraq-mandaean-refugees-religion.html|access-date=2021-08-13|date=2 February 2018|language=en}}</ref>
There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide.<ref name=sly/> About 10,000 Mandaeans live in [[Mandaean Australians|Australia]] and between 10,000 and 20,000 in [[Mandaeans in Sweden|Sweden]], making them the countries with the most Mandaeans.<ref name=Routledge/><ref name=manaus/> There are about 2,500 Mandaeans in [[Jordan]], the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Ersan |first=Mohammad |title=Are Iraqi Mandaeans better off in Jordan? |website=Al-Monitor |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/02/jordan-iraq-mandaean-refugees-religion.html |access-date=2021-08-13 |date=2 February 2018 |language=en}}</ref>


== Etymology ==
== Etymology ==
The name "Mandaean" comes from the [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] word ''[[manda (Mandaeism)|manda]]'', meaning "to have knowledge".{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=15}}<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mandaeanism | title=Mandaeanism &#124; religion &#124; Britannica | date=April 21, 2023 }}</ref>
The name "Mandaean" comes from the [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] word ''[[manda (Mandaeism)|manda]]'', meaning "to have knowledge".{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=15}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mandaeanism |title=Mandaeanism &#124; religion &#124; Britannica |date=April 21, 2023}}</ref>


In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called [[Sabians]] ({{lang-ar|الصابئة}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Ṣābiʾa}}), a [[Quran]]ic epithet historically claimed by several religious groups (see also [[#Sabians|below]]).<ref>{{harvnb|De Blois|1960–2007}}; {{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|p=5}}.</ref> The etymology of the Arabic word {{transliteration|ar|Ṣābiʾ}} is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is the [[Participle#Arabic|active participle]] of the Arabic [[Arabic root|root]] {{transliteration|ar|ṣ}}-{{transliteration|ar|b}}-{{transliteration|ar|ʾ}} ('to turn to'), meaning 'converts'.<ref>{{harvnb|Genequand|1999|p=126}}; {{harvnb|Van Bladel|2009|p=67, note 4}}, citing {{harvnb|De Blois|1995|pp=51–52}} and also referring to {{harvnb|Margoliouth|1913|p=519b}}.</ref> Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] root meaning 'to baptize'.<ref name="Häberl1">{{citation|last=Häberl|first=Charles G.|title=The neo-Mandaic dialect of Khorramshahr|year=2009|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-05874-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBjwrJY6-sYC&pg=PA1}} p. 1.</ref>
In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called [[Sabians]] ({{langx|ar|الصابئة}} {{transliteration|ar|al-Ṣābiʾa}}), a [[Quran]]ic epithet historically claimed by several religious groups (see also [[#Sabians|below]]).<ref>{{harvnb|De Blois|1960–2007}}; {{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|p=5}}.</ref> The etymology of the Arabic word {{transliteration|ar|Ṣābiʾ}} is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is the [[Participle#Arabic|active participle]] of the Arabic [[Arabic root|root]] {{transliteration|ar|ṣ}}-{{transliteration|ar|b}}-{{transliteration|ar|ʾ}} ('to turn to'), meaning 'converts'.<ref>{{harvnb|Genequand|1999|p=126}}; {{harvnb|Van Bladel|2009|p=67, note 4}}, citing {{harvnb|De Blois|1995|pp=51–52}} and also referring to {{harvnb|Margoliouth|1913|p=519b}}.</ref> Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] root meaning 'to baptize'.<ref name="Häberl1">{{citation |last=Häberl|first=Charles G. |title=The neo-Mandaic dialect of Khorramshahr |year=2009 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-05874-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBjwrJY6-sYC&pg=PA1 |page=1}}</ref>


==History==
==History==
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===Origin===
===Origin===
According to a theory first proposed by [[Ignatius of Jesus]] in the 17th century, the Mandaeans originated in the [[Palestine (region)|Palestine region]] and later migrated east to the [[Mesopotamian Marshes]].<ref name=LupieriIranica>{{cite web|last=Lupieri|first=Edmondo F.|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-1 |title=MANDAEANS i. HISTORY |access-date=12 January 2022|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|date=7 April 2008}}</ref> This theory was gradually abandoned, but was revived in the early 20th century through the first translation of Mandaean texts, which [[Biblical scholars]] like [[Rudolf Bultmann]] believed capable of shedding new light on the development of [[early Christianity]].<ref name=LupieriIranica/> However, most New Testament scholars rejected the Palestinian origin thesis, which by [[World War II]] was again largely deserted by scholars.<ref name=LupieriIranica/> It was revived in the 1960s by [[Rudolf Macúch]], and despite the opposition of scholars like [[Edwin M. Yamauchi]] and many scholars from other fields (for the most part still Biblical scholars), it is now accepted by Mandaean scholars such as [[Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley]] and [[:tr:Şinasi Gündüz|Şinasi Gündüz]].<ref name=LupieriIranica/> According to Macúch, the eastward migration from the [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman province of Judea]] to southern Iraq took place in the first century CE, while other scholars such as [[Kurt Rudolph]] think it probably took place in the third century.<ref>{{harvnb|Buckley|2002|p=3}}.</ref>
According to a theory first proposed by [[Ignatius of Jesus]] in the 17th century, the Mandaeans originated in Judea and later migrated east to the [[Mesopotamian Marshes]].<ref name=LupieriIranica>{{cite web |last=Lupieri |first=Edmondo F. |author-link=Edmondo Lupieri |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-1 |title=MANDAEANS i. HISTORY |access-date=12 January 2022 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |date=7 April 2008}}</ref> This theory was gradually abandoned, but was revived in the early 20th century through the first translation of Mandaean texts, which [[Biblical scholars]] like [[Rudolf Bultmann]] believed capable of shedding new light on the development of [[early Christianity]].<ref name=LupieriIranica/> However, most New Testament scholars rejected the Judean origin thesis, which by [[World War II]] was again largely deserted by scholars.<ref name=LupieriIranica/> It was revived in the 1960s by [[Rudolf Macúch]], it is now accepted by Mandaean scholars such as [[Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley]] and [[Şinasi Gündüz]].<ref name=LupieriIranica/> According to Macúch, the eastward migration from the [[Judaea (Roman province)|Roman province of Judea]] to southern Iraq took place in the first century CE, while other scholars such as [[Kurt Rudolph]] think it probably took place in the third century.{{sfn|Buckley|2002|p=3}}


There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in [[Asoristan|Sasanian-ruled Mesopotamia]] in the [[fifth century]].<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|p=5}}. For a critical review of Van Bladel's thesis, see {{harvnb|McGrath|2019}}.</ref> According to Carlos Gelbert, Mandaeans formed a vibrant community in [[Edessa]] in [[late antiquity]].<ref name="Gelbert 2013">{{cite book|last=Gelbert|first=Carlos|title=The Mandaeans and the Christians in the time of Jesus Christ: enemies from the first days of the church|publisher=Living Water Books|publication-place=Fairfield, N.S.W.|year=2013|isbn=978-0-9580346-4-7|oclc=853508149}}</ref> [[Brikha Nasoraia]], a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the [[Jordan Valley]] of Israel, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|55}}
There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in [[Asoristan|Sasanian-ruled Mesopotamia]] in the [[fifth century]].<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|p=5}}. For a critical review of van Bladel's thesis, see {{harvnb|McGrath|2019}}.</ref> According to [[Carlos Gelbert]], Mandaeans formed a vibrant community in [[Edessa]] in [[late antiquity]].<ref name="Gelbert 2013">{{cite book |last=Gelbert |first=Carlos |title=The Mandaeans and the Christians in the time of Jesus Christ: enemies from the first days of the church |publisher=Living Water Books |publication-place=Fairfield, N.S.W. |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-9580346-4-7 |oclc=853508149}}</ref> [[Brikha Nasoraia]], a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the [[Jordan Valley]], as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|55}}


There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and ''[[yardna|Yardena]]'' [[River Jordan|(Jordan)]] has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=5}} One of the names for the Mandaean God ''[[Hayyi Rabbi]]'', ''Mara d-Rabuta'' (Lord of Greatness) is found in the [[Genesis Apocryphon]] (1Q20) II, 4.<ref name="Rudolph 1964">{{cite journal|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|title=War Der Verfasser Der Oden Salomos Ein "Qumran-Christ"? Ein Beitrag zur Diskussion um die Anfänge der Gnosis|journal=Revue de Qumrân|date=April 1964|volume=4|number=16|pages=523–555|publisher=Peeters}}</ref>{{RP|552–553}} They formally refer to themselves as ''Naṣuraiia'' ({{Script|Mand|ࡍࡀࡑࡅࡓࡀࡉࡉࡀ|lit=[[Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans|Naṣoraean]]s}}) meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI>{{cite web|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-2-religion |title=MANDAEANS ii. THE MANDAEAN RELIGION |access-date=3 January 2022|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|date=7 April 2008}}</ref><ref name=HG>{{cite book|last=Drower|first=Ethel Stefana|title=The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa|publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana|year=1953}}</ref> Another early self-appellation is ''bhiri zidqa'' meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the [[Book of Enoch]] and [[Genesis Apocryphon]] II, 4.<ref name="Rudolph 1964"/>{{RP|552–553}}<ref name=RudolphEI/><ref name="Aldihisi 2008">{{cite thesis|url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444088/|last=Aldihisi|first=Sabah|year=2008|title=The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rba|type=PhD|publisher=University College London}}</ref>{{rp|18}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coughenour|first=Robert A.|title=The Wisdom Stance of Enoch's Redactor|publisher=Brill|page=52}}Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period
There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and ''[[yardna|Yardena]]'' [[River Jordan|(Jordan)]] has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=5}} ''Mara ḏ-Rabuta'' ([[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]: "Lord of Greatness", one of the names for [[Hayyi Rabbi]]) is found in the [[Genesis Apocryphon]] (1Q20) II, 4.{{sfn|Rudolph|1964|p=552–553}} They formally refer to themselves as ''Naṣuraiia'' ({{Script|Mand|ࡍࡀࡑࡅࡓࡀࡉࡉࡀ|lit=[[Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans|Naṣoraean]]s}}), meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI>{{cite web|last=Rudolph|first=Kurt|url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-2-religion |title=MANDAEANS ii. THE MANDAEAN RELIGION |access-date=3 January 2022|website=Encyclopaedia Iranica|date=7 April 2008}}</ref><ref name=HG>{{cite book |last=Drower |first=Ethel Stefana |author-link=E. S. Drower |title=The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa |publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana |year=1953}}</ref> Another early self-appellation is ''bhiria zidqa'', meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the [[Book of Enoch]] and [[Genesis Apocryphon]] II, 4.{{sfn|Rudolph|1964|p=552–553}}<ref name=RudolphEI/><ref name="Aldihisi 2008">{{cite thesis |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1444088/ |last=Aldihisi |first=Sabah |year=2008 |title=The story of creation in the Mandaean holy book in the Ginza Rabba a|type=PhD |publisher=[[University College London]]}}</ref>{{rp|18}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Coughenour |first=Robert A. |title=The Wisdom Stance of Enoch's Redactor |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |page=52 |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Period |volume=13 |number=1/2 |date=December 1982|doi=10.1163/157006382X00035 }}</ref> As [[Nasoraeans]], Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of ''bnia nhura'', meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the [[Essenes]].{{sfn|Nasoraia|2012|p=50}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Sons-of-Light-Against-the-Sons-of-Darkness |title=The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness |website=Britannica |access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref> The ''bit manda'' ([[beth manda]]) is described as ''biniana rba ḏ-šrara'' ("the Great building of Truth") and ''bit tušlima'' ("house of Perfection") in [[Mandaean texts]] such as the ''[[Qulasta]]'', ''[[Ginza Rabba]]'', and the ''[[Mandaean Book of John]]''. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from [[Qumran]] such as the ''[[Community Rule]]'', which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (''Community Rule'' 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=607cb5ef1eb49 |title=About the Links between the Dead Sea Scrolls and Mandaean Liturgy |last=Hamidović |first=David |journal=ARAM Periodical |volume=22 |year=2010 |pages=441–451 |doi=10.2143/ARAM.22.0.2131048}}</ref>
Vol. 13, No. 1/2 (DECEMBER 1982), pp. 47–55</ref> As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of ''bnai nhura'' meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the [[Essenes]].<ref name=BSN>{{cite web|author=Brikhah S. Nasoraia|title=Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion|year=2012|url=http://isamveri.org/pdfdrg/D201813/2012_I/2012_I_NASORAIAB.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|50}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-War-of-the-Sons-of-Light-Against-the-Sons-of-Darkness|title=The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness|website=Britannica|access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref> The ''beit manda'' ([[beth manda]]) is described as ''biniana rab ḏ-srara'' ("the Great building of Truth") and ''bit tušlima'' ("house of Perfection") in [[Mandaean texts]] such as the ''[[Qolasta]]'', ''[[Ginza Rabba]]'', and the ''[[Mandaean Book of John]]''. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from [[Qumran]] such as the ''[[Community Rule]]'', which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (''Community Rule'' 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/secure/POJ/downloadpdf.php?ticket_id=607cb5ef1eb49|title=About the Links between the Dead Sea Scrolls and Mandaean Liturgy|last=Hamidović|first=David|journal=ARAM Periodical|volume=22|year=2010|pages=441–451|doi=10.2143/ARAM.22.0.2131048}}</ref>
[[File:The Damascus Document Scroll.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Damascus Document]], part of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]]]
[[File:The Damascus Document Scroll.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Damascus Document]], part of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]]]
The [[Mandaic language]], a Southeastern Aramaic dialect, exhibits significant inherited features from [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] (like the Aramaic dialectscof the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]), particularly from the Late Babylonian phase.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kaufman |first=Stephen |title=The Akkadian Influences on Aramaic |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1974 |pages=163–164}}</ref> Phonetic, grammatical, and lexicographic elements traceable to Akkadian strongly suggest that the origins of Mandaic and its speakers, the Mandaeans, are deeply rooted in [[Mesopotamia]]. While Mandaic has historically been classified alongside [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|Babylonian Talmudic Aramaic]], [[Assyrian neo-Aramaic]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]] as part of [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]], recent linguistic analysis has led to the recognition of a distinct Southeastern [[Aramaic]] branch. This classification is based on clear isoglosses in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicography that separate the Mandaic language.
The [[Mandaic language]] is a dialect of southeastern Aramaic with [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]], [[Samaritan Aramaic language|Samaritan Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]],<ref>{{Citation|last=Häberl |first=Charles|title=Hebraisms in Mandaic|website=YouTube|date=3 March 2021|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDSDXF5_K8Q |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:37489/|title=Mandaic and the Palestinian Question|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=2021|volume=141|issue=1|pages=171–184|last1=Häberl|first1=Charles|doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.141.1.0171 |issn=0003-0279 |s2cid=234204741|doi-access=free}}</ref> as well as [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]<ref>Stephen A. Kaufman, ''The Akkadian Influences on Aramaic'' (Assyriological Studies 19; Chicago: The University of Chicago: 1974).</ref> and [[Parthian language|Parthian]]<ref>{{cite journal|first=Charles G.|last=Häberl|date=February 2006|title=Iranian Scripts for Aramaic Languages: The Origin of the Mandaic Script|url=https://rucore.libraries.rutgers.edu/rutgers-lib/33352/PDF/1/play/|journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research|issue=341|pages=53–62|doi=10.7282/T37D2SGZ}}</ref> influences and is closely related to [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and especially [[Jewish Babylonian Aramaic]].<ref>[[Franz Rosenthal]], Das Mandäische, in ''Die aramaistische Forschung seit Th. Nöldeke’s Veröffentlichungen'' (Leiden: Brill 1939), pp. 228–229.</ref> Mandaic is mainly preserved as a [[liturgical language]].


The roots of the Mandaic language extend back to the early [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] period, with no compelling evidence of [[Western Aramaic languages|Western Aramaic]] linguistic influence in Mandaic or the Aramaic of the Assyrians. The Mandaeans are thought to descend from an [[Assyro-Babylonian]] population, further reinforcing the connection between Mandaic and its Mesopotamian heritage. This distinction highlights the uniqueness of Mandaic within the broader Aramaic linguistic landscape.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Müller-Kessler |first=Christa |date=2012 |title=MANDAEANS v. MANDAIC LANGUAGE |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-5-language |journal=Encyclopædia Iranica}}</ref> Although there appears to be strong religious connections between the Mandaeans with both ancient Assyro-Babylonian beliefs and Gnostic Jewish sects, such as the [[Elcesaites|Elcasaites]], linguistically the Mandaeans speak what can be considered a pure form of Babylonian Aramaic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nöldeke |first=T. |title=Mandäische Grammatik |publisher=Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |year=1875 |location=Halle |pages=VI |trans-title=Mandaean Grammar}}</ref>
A priest holds the title of [[Mandaean priest|Rabbi]]<ref>McGrath, James F.,{{cite web|url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1194&context=facsch_papers|title=Reading the Story of Miriai on Two Levels: Evidence from Mandaean Anti-Jewish Polemic about the Origins and Setting of Early Mandaeism}} ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592.</ref> and a place of worship is called a [[Tabernacle#Mandaeism|''Mashkhanna'']].<ref>Secunda, Shai, and Steven Fine. {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QdjGEVo0bVEC&pg=PA1|title=Shoshannat Yaakov.|isbn=978-9004235441|last1=Secunda|first1=Shai|last2=Fine|first2=Steven|date=September 3, 2012}} Brill, 2012. p. 345</ref> According to Mandaean sources such as the [[Haran Gawaita]], the ''Nasuraiia'' inhabited the areas around [[Jerusalem]] and the [[River Jordan]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name=BuckleyOrigin>Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. In {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncuQxl5Ate0C&dq=buckley+mandaean+turning+the+table+on+jesus&pg=PA109|title=''Christian Origins''|isbn=9781451416640|last1=Horsley|first1=Richard|date=March 2010}}(pp94-11). Minneapolis: Fortress Press</ref><ref name=HG/> There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq.{{sfn|Deutsch|1999|p=4}}{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=4}} Scholars, including [[Kurt Rudolph]], connect the early Mandaeans with the [[Who is a Jew?|Jewish sect]] of the Nasoraeans. However, Mandaeans themselves believe that their religion predates Judaism.{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=4}}<ref name=BuckleyOrigin/><ref name="Gelbert 2005">{{cite book|last=Gelbert|first=Carlos|title=The Mandaeans and the Jews: 2000 years of estrangement or what made the Jews hated by the Mandaeans|publisher=Living Water Books|publication-place=Edensor Park, N.S.W|year=2005|isbn=0-9580346-2-1|oclc=68208613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/countries/iraq/case-study/background/people-of-the-book|title = The People of the Book and the Hierarchy of Discrimination| website=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|access-date=1 November 2021}}</ref> According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly from [[Shem]], [[Noah]]'s son, in [[Mesopotamia]]<ref name="auto2"/>{{rp|186}} and also from [[John the Baptist]]'s original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.<ref name=HG/>{{rp|vi, ix}} According to the Mandaean Society in America, [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] (the founder of [[Manichaeism]]) was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Mandaean Society in America|title=The Mandaeans: Their History, Religion and Mythology|url=http://www.mandaeanunion.com/history-english/item/170-brief-history-on-the-mandaeans|date=27 March 2013|website=Mandaean Associations Union|access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref>

A priest holds the title of [[Mandaean priest|Rabbi]]<ref>McGrath, James F.,{{cite web|url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1194&context=facsch_papers|title=Reading the Story of Miriai on Two Levels: Evidence from Mandaean Anti-Jewish Polemic about the Origins and Setting of Early Mandaeism}} ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592.</ref> and a place of worship is called a [[Tabernacle#Mandaeism|''Mashkhanna'']].<ref>Secunda, Shai, and Steven Fine. {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QdjGEVo0bVEC&pg=PA1 |title=Shoshannat Yaakov. |isbn=978-90-04-23544-1 |last1=Secunda |first1=Shai |last2=Fine |first2=Steven |date=September 3, 2012 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |page=345}}</ref> According to Mandaean sources such as the [[Haran Gawaita]], the ''Nasuraiia'' inhabited the areas around [[Jerusalem]] and the [[River Jordan]] in the 1st century CE.<ref name="BuckleyOrigin">Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. In {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ncuQxl5Ate0C&dq=buckley+mandaean+turning+the+table+on+jesus&pg=PA109 |title=Christian Origins |isbn=978-1-4514-1664-0 |last1=Horsley |first1=Richard |date=March 2010 |pages=94–11 |location=Minneapolis |publisher=Fortress Press}}</ref><ref name="HG" /> There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq.{{sfn|Deutsch|1999|p=4}}{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=4}} Scholars, including [[Kurt Rudolph]], connect the early Mandaeans with the [[Who is a Jew?|Jewish sect]] of the [[Nasoraeans]]. Mandaeans believe that their religion predates Judaism.{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=4}}<ref name="BuckleyOrigin" /><ref name="Gelbert 2005">{{cite book |last=Gelbert |first=Carlos |title=The Mandaeans and the Jews: 2000 years of estrangement or what made the Jews hated by the Mandaeans |publisher=Living Water Books |publication-place=Edensor Park, N.S.W |year=2005 |isbn=0-9580346-2-1 |oclc=68208613}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ushmm.org/genocide-prevention/countries/iraq/case-study/background/people-of-the-book |title=The People of the Book and the Hierarchy of Discrimination |website=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |access-date=1 November 2021}}</ref> According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly from [[Shem]], [[Noah]]'s son, in [[Mesopotamia]]<ref name="auto2" />{{rp|186}} and also from [[John the Baptist]]'s original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.<ref name="HG" />{{rp|vi, ix}} According to the Mandaean Society in America, [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] (the founder of [[Manichaeism]]) was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Mandaean Society in America |title=The Mandaeans: Their History, Religion and Mythology |url=http://www.mandaeanunion.com/history-english/item/170-brief-history-on-the-mandaeans |date=27 March 2013 |website=Mandaean Associations Union |access-date=22 November 2021}}</ref>


[[File:20100923 mer morte13.JPG|thumb|[[Jordan River]]]]
[[File:20100923 mer morte13.JPG|thumb|[[Jordan River]]]]
[[Gerard Russell (diplomat)|Gerard Russell]] quotes [[Rishama]] [[Sattar Jabbar Hilo]], "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He [Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo] traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem."<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Gerard |title=Heirs to Forgotten Kingdoms |date=2015 |publisher=Basic Books}}</ref> The Mandaean Synod of Australia led by [[Rishama#Notable rishama|Rishama Salah Choheili]] states:
[[Gerard Russell (diplomat)|Gerard Russell]] quotes [[Rishama]] [[Sattar Jabbar Hilo]], "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He [Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo] traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem."<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Gerard |title=Heirs to Forgotten Kingdoms |date=2015 |publisher=[[Basic Books]]}}</ref>{{pn|date=August 2024}} The Mandaean Synod of Australia led by [[Rishama#Notable rishama|Rishama Salah Choheili]] states:
{{blockquote|Mandaeans are followers of John the Baptist. Their ancestors fled from the [[Jordan Valley]] about 2000 years ago and ultimately settled along the lower reaches of the [[Tigris]], [[Euphrates]] and [[Karun]] Rivers in what is now Iraq and Iran. [[Baptism#Mandaean baptism|Baptism]] is the principal ceremony of the Mandaean religion and may only take place in a freshwater river.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mandaeansynod.org.au/|website=Mandaean Synod of Australia|title=Welcome to the Mandaean Synod of Australia|access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref>}}
{{blockquote|Mandaeans are followers of John the Baptist. Their ancestors fled from the [[Jordan Valley]] about 2000 years ago and ultimately settled along the lower reaches of the [[Tigris]], [[Euphrates]] and [[Karun]] Rivers in what is now Iraq and Iran. [[Baptism#Mandaean baptism|Baptism]] is the principal ceremony of the Mandaean religion and may only take place in a freshwater river.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mandaeansynod.org.au/ |website=Mandaean Synod of Australia |title=Welcome to the Mandaean Synod of Australia |access-date=3 November 2021}}</ref>}}


===Parthian and Sasanian period===
===Parthian and Sasanian period===
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===Islamic period===
===Islamic period===
The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the [[Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia]] in {{circa|640}}, when their leader, [[Anush bar Danqa]], is said to have appeared before the [[Muslim]] authorities, showing them a copy of the ''[[Ginza Rabba]]'', the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be [[John the Baptist]], who is also mentioned in the [[Quran]] by the name [[John the Baptist in Islam|Yahya ibn Zakariya]]. Consequently, the Muslim caliph provided them acknowledgement as [[People of the Book]] ({{transliteration|ar|ahl al-kitāb}}, adherents of religions recognized as guided by previous revelations).<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|5}} However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush bar Danqa traveled to [[Baghdad]], it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017|pp=14, cf. pp. 7–15}}.</ref>
The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the [[Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia]] in {{circa|640}}, when their leader, [[Anush bar Danqa]], is said to have appeared before the [[Muslim]] authorities, showing them a copy of the ''[[Ginza Rabba]]'', the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be [[John the Baptist]], who is also mentioned in the [[Quran]] by the name [[John the Baptist in Islam|Yahya ibn Zakariya]]. Consequently, the Muslim caliph provided them acknowledgement as [[People of the Book]] ({{transliteration|ar|ahl al-kitāb}}, adherents of religions recognized as guided by previous revelations).<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|5}} However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush bar Danqa traveled to [[Baghdad]], it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.{{sfn|Van Bladel|2017|pp=14, cf. pp. 7–15}}


Mandaeans appeared to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near [[Wasit]] is particularly noted as an important scribal center.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|5}} [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] describes Tib as a town inhabited by '[[Nabataeans of Iraq|Nabatean]]' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) '[[Sabians]]' (see [[#Sabians|below]]) who consider themselves to be descendants of [[Seth]].<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|5}}
Mandaeans appeared to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near [[Wasit]] is particularly noted as an important scribal center.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|5}} [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]] describes Tib as a town inhabited by '[[Nabataeans of Iraq|Nabatean]]' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) '[[Sabians]]' (see [[#Sabians|below]]) who consider themselves to be descendants of [[Seth]].<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|5}}
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The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the [[Qajar]] rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when a [[cholera]] epidemic broke out in [[Shushtar]] and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such as [[Yahya Bihram]].<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|6}} Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of [[Shushtar]] massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|6}}
The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the [[Qajar]] rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when a [[cholera]] epidemic broke out in [[Shushtar]] and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such as [[Yahya Bihram]].<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|6}} Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of [[Shushtar]] massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.<ref Name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|6}}



===Modern Iraq and Iran===































=== Modern Iraq and Iran ===
[[File:Iraq. (Mesopotamia). Baghdad. Views, street scenes, and types. A Sabean silversmith. At work in his jewelry store. A Sabean-sect who venerate John the Baptist LOC matpc.15983.jpg|left|thumb|Mandaean silversmith at work in Baghdad, Iraq, 1932]]
[[File:Iraq. (Mesopotamia). Baghdad. Views, street scenes, and types. A Sabean silversmith. At work in his jewelry store. A Sabean-sect who venerate John the Baptist LOC matpc.15983.jpg|left|thumb|Mandaean silversmith at work in Baghdad, Iraq, 1932]]
Following the [[First World War]], the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protected [[Kingdom of Iraq (Mandate administration)|Iraq]] and [[Iran]]. Owing to the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], Iraqi Mandaeans were [[Arabisation|Arabised]] at an accelerated rate, especially during the 1950s and '60s. The Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stances on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.<ref Name=MHRG5>{{Harvnb|Mandaean Human Rights Group|2008|p=5}}</ref>
Following the [[First World War]], the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protected [[Kingdom of Iraq (Mandate administration)|Iraq]] and [[Iran]]. Owing to the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], Iraqi Mandaeans were [[Arabisation|Arabised]] at an accelerated rate, especially during the 1950s and '60s. The Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stances on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.<ref Name=MHRG5>{{Harvnb|Mandaean Human Rights Group|2008|p=5}}</ref>


However, during the time of [[Abdul-Karim Qasim]] persecution decreased.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=الگاردينيا - مجلة ثقافية عامة - "الصابئة المندائية عراقيون، منهم العلماء.. والشعراء والمهنيين والصاغة، كيف كانوا واين اصبحوا!؟" |url=https://www-algardenia-com.translate.goog/2014-04-04-19-52-20/fereboaliraq/46580-2020-10-31-16-35-53.html?_x_tr_sl=ar&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc |access-date=2024-12-11 |website=www-algardenia-com.translate.goog}}</ref> Under [[Saddam Hussein]], Mandaeans flourished in Iraq.<ref name=":1" /> They were granted permission to practice their religion and the government allocated them lands to build their place of worship.<ref name=":1" /> In 1972, a decree was issued allowing Mandaeans to enjoy their religious festivals.<ref name=":1" /> According to local sources, their population until 2003 was 75,000.<ref name=":1" />
The 2003 [[American invasion of Iraq]] and the [[Iraq war|war]] that followed brought more troubles to the Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated. Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms. The rise of [[ISIS]] forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given [[forced conversion|the choice of conversion or death]].<ref name=Zurutuza>{{cite news |url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=106580 |title=The Ancient Wither in New Iraq |date=29 January 2012 |agency=IPS |access-date=June 5, 2012 |author=Zurutuza, Karlos |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131093000/http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=106580 |archive-date=31 January 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.<ref name=Zurutuza/>


The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in [[Ahvaz]], [[Iranian Khuzestan]], but have moved as a result of the [[Iran–Iraq War]] to other cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Karaj]] and [[Shiraz]]. The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as [[People of the Book]] (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after the [[Iranian Revolution]]. However, despite this, Iranian Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz. In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised. The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status of [[People of the Book]] alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being the [[Sabians]] mentioned explicitly in the [[Quran]]. That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of [[Al-Zahra University]] in [[Qom]] posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers. These rulings, however, did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url= http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-4 |title= Mandaean Community in Iran |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia Iranica |access-date= June 5, 2012 |author= Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen}}</ref> In 2009, Iran's [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]] [[Ayatollah]] [[Ayatollah Ali Khamenei|Ali Khamenei]] issued a [[fatwa|fatwā]] recognizing the Mandaeans as People of the Book.<ref name="Arabestani 2016">{{cite journal|last=Arabestani|first=Mehrdad|title=The Mandaeans' Religious System: From Mythos to Logos|journal=Iran and the Caucasus|publisher=Brill|volume=20|issue=3–4|date=2016-12-19|issn=1609-8498|doi=10.1163/1573384x-20160302|pages=261–276}}</ref>{{Efn|The fatwā is numbered differently between Persian (S 322) and its official English (Q 321) translation but reads as follows:
The 2003 [[American invasion of Iraq]] and the [[Iraq war|war]] that followed brought more troubles to the Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated. Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms. The rise of [[ISIS]] forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given [[forced conversion|the choice of conversion or death]].<ref name=Zurutuza>{{cite news |url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=106580 |title=The Ancient Wither in New Iraq |date=29 January 2012 |agency=IPS |access-date=June 5, 2012 |author=Zurutuza, Karlos |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131093000/http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=106580 |archive-date=31 January 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.<ref name=Zurutuza/>
The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in [[Ahvaz]], [[Iranian Khuzestan]], but have moved as a result of the [[Iran–Iraq War]] to other cities such as [[Tehran]], [[Karaj]] and [[Shiraz]]. The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as [[People of the Book]] (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after the [[Iranian Revolution]]. However, despite this, Iranian Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz. In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised. The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status of [[People of the Book]] alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being the [[Sabians]] mentioned explicitly in the [[Quran]]. That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of [[Al-Zahra University]] in [[Qom]] posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers. These rulings, however, did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-4 |title=Mandaean Community in Iran |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica |access-date=June 5, 2012 |last=Buckley |first=Jorunn Jacobsen}}</ref> In 2009, Iran's [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]] [[Ayatollah]] [[Ayatollah Ali Khamenei|Ali Khamenei]] issued a [[fatwa|fatwā]] recognizing the Mandaeans as People of the Book.<ref name="Arabestani 2016">{{cite journal |last=Arabestani |first=Mehrdad |title=The Mandaeans' Religious System: From Mythos to Logos |journal=Iran and the Caucasus |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |volume=20 |issue=3–4 |date=2016-12-19 |issn=1609-8498|doi=10.1163/1573384x-20160302 |pages=261–276}}</ref>{{Efn|The fatwā is numbered differently between Persian (S 322) and its official English (Q 321) translation but reads as follows:
<br> <br>
<br /> <br />
س 322. تعداد زیادی از مردم در خوزستان زندگی می کنند که خود را «صابئه» می نامند و ادعای پیروی از پیامبر خدا حضرت یحیی(ع) را دارند و می گویند کتاب او نزد ما موجود است. نزد علمای ادیان ثابت شده که آن ها همان صابئون هستند که در قرآن آمده است. لطفاً بیان فرمایید که این گروه از اهل کتاب هستند یا خیر؟<br>
س 322. تعداد زیادی از مردم در خوزستان زندگی می کنند که خود را «صابئه» می نامند و ادعای پیروی از پیامبر خدا حضرت یحیی(ع) را دارند و می گویند کتاب او نزد ما موجود است. نزد علمای ادیان ثابت شده که آن ها همان صابئون هستند که در قرآن آمده است. لطفاً بیان فرمایید که این گروه از اهل کتاب هستند یا خیر؟<br />
ج. گروه مذکور در حکم اهل کتاب هستند.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ṭahārat – aḥkām-e kāfer |script-title=fa:طهارت – احکام کافر |trans-title=purity – rulings of the infidel |url=http://farsi.khamenei.ir/treatise-content?uid=2&tid=13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521091524/http://farsi.khamenei.ir/treatise-content?uid=2&tid=13 |archive-date=2013-05-21 |website=khamenei.irlanguage=fa}}</ref><br>
ج. گروه مذکور در حکم اهل کتاب هستند.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ṭahārat – aḥkām-e kāfer |script-title=fa:طهارت – احکام کافر |trans-title=purity – rulings of the infidel |url=http://farsi.khamenei.ir/treatise-content?uid=2&tid=13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521091524/http://farsi.khamenei.ir/treatise-content?uid=2&tid=13 |archive-date=2013-05-21 |website=khamenei.irlanguage=fa}}</ref><br />
<br>
<br />
Translation of the Persian original: <br>
Translation of the Persian original: <br />
S 322. There are a large number of people living in Khuzestan who call themselves "Ṣābeʾe" and who claim to follow God's holy Prophet Yahya ([[Islamic honorifics#Muhammad|ʿayn]]) and say that his book is available to us. It has also been proven by scholars of religions and they are the Ṣābeʾūn mentioned in the Qorʾān. Please state if this group is among the People of the Book [Ahl-e Ketāb] or not?<br>
S 322. There are a large number of people living in Khuzestan who call themselves "Ṣābeʾe" and who claim to follow God's holy Prophet Yahya ([[Islamic honorifics#Muhammad|ʿayn]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-12-22|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Islamic honorifics#Muhammad|reason=Anchor "Islamic honorifics#Muhammad" links to a specific web page: "Muhammad". The anchor (Muhammad) [[Special:Diff/1230171330|has been deleted]].}}) and say that his book is available to us. It has also been proven by scholars of religions and they are the Ṣābeʾūn mentioned in the Qorʾān. Please state if this group is among the People of the Book [Ahl-e Ketāb] or not?<br />
J: The mentioned group are subject to the ruling on People of the Book [ahl-e Ketāb].
J: The mentioned group are subject to the ruling on People of the Book [ahl-e Ketāb].
<br><br>
<br /><br />
Official English translation:<br>
Official English translation:<br />
Q 321: There live a large number of people in Khuzestan who call themselves Sabeans and claim that they are the followers Prophet Yaḥyā (a.s.) and that they possess his scripture. It has also been established for the religious scholars that they are the Sabeans mentioned in the Qur’an. Please explain whether they are among the People of the Book.<br>
Q 321: There live a large number of people in Khuzestan who call themselves Sabeans and claim that they are the followers Prophet Yaḥyā (a.s.) and that they possess his scripture. It has also been established for the religious scholars that they are the Sabeans mentioned in the Qur'an. Please explain whether they are among the People of the Book.<br />
A: The rule of the People of the Book is applicable to this group.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Practical Laws of Islam |url=https://www.leader.ir/en/book/32/Practical%20Laws%20of%20Islam |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.leader.ir |language=en}}</ref>}}
A: The rule of the People of the Book is applicable to this group.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Practical Laws of Islam |url=https://www.leader.ir/en/book/32/Practical%20Laws%20of%20Islam |access-date=2023-01-20 |website=www.leader.ir |language=en}}</ref>}}<gallery widths="200" heights="160" mode="packed">
File:مندى ديانة الصابئة المندائية في بغداد 01.jpg|link=|[[Sabian–Mandaean Mandi of Baghdad|Mandaean Mandi of Baghdad]]

File:مندى ديانة الصابئة المندائية في بغداد 23.jpg|link=|Door entrance to the Mandi, written in [[Classical Mandaic]] and Arabic
File:مندى ديانة الصابئة المندائية في بغداد 04.jpg|Mandaean [[Drabsha]]
</gallery>
==Population==
==Population==

[[File:Mandaeans celebrating the Creation Day (Brunaya), Maysan, Iraq - Mar 17, 2019 10.jpg|thumb|Mandaeans celebrating [[Parwanaya]] and bearing witness to the [[yardna|Yardena]] at the [[Tigris]] River, [[Amarah]], Iraq – March 17, 2019]]
[[File:Mandaeans celebrating the Creation Day (Brunaya), Maysan, Iraq - Mar 17, 2019 10.jpg|thumb|Mandaeans celebrating [[Parwanaya]] and bearing witness to the [[yardna|Yardena]] at the [[Tigris]] River, [[Amarah]], Iraq – March 17, 2019]]


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{{Further|Minorities in Iraq#Mandaeans}}
{{Further|Minorities in Iraq#Mandaeans}}
:''Further information (in Arabic): [[:ar:المندائيون في العراق|Mandaeans in Iraq]]''
:''Further information (in Arabic): [[:ar:المندائيون في العراق|Mandaeans in Iraq]]''
Prior to the [[Iraq War]], the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such as [[Nasiriyah]], [[Amarah]], [[Qal'at Saleh]],<ref name="Buckley2010">{{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn Jacobsen|title=The great stem of souls: reconstructing Mandaean history|publisher=Gorgias Press|publication-place=Piscataway, N.J|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59333-621-9}}</ref> [[Wasit]],<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|92}} and [[Basra]], as well as in [[Baghdad]] (particularly the district of [[Dora, Baghdad|Dora]]<ref>[[Kurt Rudolph|Rudolph, Kurt]] (1975). "Quellenprobleme zur Ursprung und Alter der Mandäer." In ''Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman ''Cults, edited by Jacob Neusner, vol. 4: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty, 112–42. Leiden: Brill. Reprinted in Gnosis und Spätantike Religionsgeschichte, 402–32.</ref>). Historically, Mandaean quarters had also existed in southern Iraqi towns such as [[Al-Qurnah|Qurna]] and [[Suq al-Shuyukh District|Suq al-Shuyukh]].<ref>Petermann, Heinrich. ''Reisen in Orient''. Vols. 1–2. Leipzig: Von Veit and Co., 1865.</ref>[[File:Mandaeans celebrating the Creation Day (Brunaya), Maysan, Iraq - Mar 17, 2019 07.jpg|left|thumb|Baptism (''[[masbuta]]'') during [[Parwanaya]] in the [[Tigris]] River, [[Amarah]], Iraq – March 17, 2019]] Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities of [[Ahvaz]] and [[Khorramshahr]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn Jacobsen|date=20 July 2005|access-date=4 November 2021|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-4|title=Mandaens iv. Community in Iran|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> Mandaean emigration from Iraq began during [[Saddam Hussein]]'s rule, but accelerated greatly after the American-led invasion and subsequent occupation.<ref name="exodus" >{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/09/world/europe/09iht-mandeans.4.5202220.html?pagewanted=1 |work=The New York Times |first=Ivar |last=Ekman |date=April 9, 2007 |access-date=May 12, 2010 |title=An exodus to Sweden from Iraq for ethnic Mandaeans}}</ref> Since the invasion Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians, [[Yazidis|Yazidi]], Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions.<ref name="exodus" /><ref name="wp">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/09/AR2007020901687_2.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |title=Survival of Ancient Faith Threatened by Fighting in Iraq |first=Chris |last=Newmarker |date=February 10, 2007 |access-date=May 12, 2010}}</ref> Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths.<ref name="exodus" /> [[Mandaeism]] is [[Pacifism|pacifistic]] and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons.<ref name="exodus" /><ref name=Lupieri>{{cite book|last1=Lupieri|first1=Edmundo|title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics|date=2001|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=9780802833501|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJ73YfrZ2T4C&q=Nicolas%20Siouffi%20christian&pg=PA12}}</ref>{{rp|91}} During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021">{{cite book|last=Nasoraia|first=Brikha H.S.|author-link=Brikha Nasoraia|title=The Mandaean gnostic religion: worship practice and deep thought|publisher=Sterling|publication-place=New Delhi|year=2021|isbn=978-81-950824-1-4|oclc=1272858968}}</ref>
Prior to the [[Iraq War]], the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such as [[Nasiriyah]], [[Amarah]], [[Qal'at Saleh]],<ref name="Buckley2010">{{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn Jacobsen|title=The great stem of souls: reconstructing Mandaean history|publisher=Gorgias Press|publication-place=Piscataway, N.J|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59333-621-9}}</ref> [[Wasit]],<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|92}} and [[Basra]], as well as in [[Baghdad]] (particularly the district of [[Dora, Baghdad|Dora]]<ref>[[Kurt Rudolph|Rudolph, Kurt]] (1975). "Quellenprobleme zur Ursprung und Alter der Mandäer." In ''Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Roman ''Cults, edited by Jacob Neusner, vol. 4: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty, 112–42. Leiden: Brill. Reprinted in Gnosis und Spätantike Religionsgeschichte, 402–32.</ref>). Historically, Mandaean quarters had also existed in southern Iraqi towns such as [[Al-Qurnah|Qurna]] and [[Suq al-Shuyukh District|Suq al-Shuyukh]].<ref>Petermann, Heinrich. ''Reisen in Orient''. Vols. 1–2. Leipzig: Von Veit and Co., 1865.</ref>[[File:Mandaeans celebrating the Creation Day (Brunaya), Maysan, Iraq - Mar 17, 2019 07.jpg|left|thumb|Baptism (''[[masbuta]]'') during [[Parwanaya]] in the [[Tigris]] River, [[Amarah]], Iraq – March 17, 2019]] Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities of [[Ahvaz]] and [[Khorramshahr]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn Jacobsen|date=20 July 2005|access-date=4 November 2021|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mandaeans-4|title=Mandaens iv. Community in Iran|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> Mandaean emigration from Iraq began during [[Saddam Hussein]]'s rule, but accelerated greatly after the American-led invasion and subsequent occupation.<ref name="exodus" >{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/09/world/europe/09iht-mandeans.4.5202220.html?pagewanted=1 |work=The New York Times |first=Ivar |last=Ekman |date=April 9, 2007 |access-date=May 12, 2010 |title=An exodus to Sweden from Iraq for ethnic Mandaeans}}</ref> Since the invasion Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians, [[Yazidis|Yazidi]], Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions.<ref name="exodus" /><ref name="wp">{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/09/AR2007020901687_2.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |title=Survival of Ancient Faith Threatened by Fighting in Iraq |first=Chris |last=Newmarker |date=February 10, 2007 |access-date=May 12, 2010}}</ref> Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths.<ref name="exodus" /> [[Mandaeism]] is [[Pacifism|pacifistic]] and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons.<ref name="exodus" /><ref name=Lupieri>{{cite book|last1=Lupieri|first1=Edmundo|title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics|date=2001|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-3350-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJ73YfrZ2T4C&q=Nicolas%20Siouffi%20christian&pg=PA12}}</ref>{{rp|91}} During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021">{{cite book|last=Nasoraia|first=Brikha H.S.|author-link=Brikha Nasoraia|title=The Mandaean gnostic religion: worship practice and deep thought|publisher=Sterling|publication-place=New Delhi|year=2021|isbn=978-81-950824-1-4|oclc=1272858968}}</ref>


Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.<ref name="bbc0307"/><ref name="Genocide Watch: Mandaeans of Iraq"/> Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the [[Iraq War]].<ref name="DEUTSCH2"/> In 2019, an [[Al-Monitor]] study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the [[Erbil Governorate]], which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.<ref name="Salloum">{{Cite web|title=Iraqi Mandaeans fear extinction|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/08/iraq-minority-mandaen.html|last=Salloum|first=Saad|date=2019-08-29|website=Al-Monitor|language=en|access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>
Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.{{sfn|Crawford|2007}}<ref name="Genocide Watch: Mandaeans of Iraq"/> Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the [[Iraq War]].{{sfn|Deutsch|2007}} In 2019, an [[Al-Monitor]] study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the [[Erbil Governorate]], which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.<ref name="Salloum">{{Cite web |title=Iraqi Mandaeans fear extinction |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/08/iraq-minority-mandaen.html |last=Salloum |first=Saad |date=2019-08-29 |website=Al-Monitor |language=en |access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>


Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.<ref name=Routledge/>{{rp|161}}
Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.<ref name=Routledge/>{{rp|161}}


====Notable Iraqi Mandaeans====
====Notable Iraqi Mandaeans====
[[File:Shiek-Dhakil.jpg|thumb|''Ganzibra'' [[Dakheel Edan]] (1881–1964), [[Rishamma|High Priest]] of the Mandaeans]]
[[File:مندى ديانة الصابئة المندائية في بغداد 06.jpg|thumb|Left to right - ''Ganzibra'' [[Dakheel Edan]] (1881–1964), [[Abdullah bar Sam]] (1890-1981) [[Rishama|High Priests]] of the Mandaeans]]
*[[Abdul Jabbar Abdullah]] (1911–1969), [[wave theory]] physicist, dynamical [[meteorologist]], and President Emeritus of the [[University of Baghdad]]; [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] graduate (1946); chair of physics at Baghdad University; co-founded the Iraqi Physics and Mathematics Society.<ref>{{cite web|last=National Center for Atmospheric Research|title=Repository|url=http://nldr.library.ucar.edu/repository/assets/info/INFO-000-000-000-023.pdf|accessdate=18 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211223719/http://nldr.library.ucar.edu/repository/assets/info/INFO-000-000-000-023.pdf|archive-date=11 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=شخصيات صابئية مندائية في التاريخ المعاصر|author=خالد ميران دفتر|url=https://www.mandaeannetwork.com/mandaean/ar/literatures/mandaeannetwork_mandaean_shaksiat_mandaia.html|page=38}}</ref>
*[[Abdul Jabbar Abdullah]] (1911–1969), [[wave theory]] physicist, dynamical [[meteorologist]], and President Emeritus of the [[University of Baghdad]]; [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] graduate (1946); chair of physics at Baghdad University; co-founded the Iraqi Physics and Mathematics Society.<ref>{{cite web|last=National Center for Atmospheric Research|title=Repository|url=http://nldr.library.ucar.edu/repository/assets/info/INFO-000-000-000-023.pdf|access-date=18 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211223719/http://nldr.library.ucar.edu/repository/assets/info/INFO-000-000-000-023.pdf|archive-date=11 December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=شخصيات صابئية مندائية في التاريخ المعاصر|author=خالد ميران دفتر|url=https://www.mandaeannetwork.com/mandaean/ar/literatures/mandaeannetwork_mandaean_shaksiat_mandaia.html|page=38}}</ref>
*[[:ar:عبد الرزاق عبد الواحد|Abdul Razzak Abdul Wahid]] (1930–2015), poet.
*[[:ar:عبد الرزاق عبد الواحد|Abdul Razzak Abdul Wahid]] (1930–2015), poet.
*[[Nouman Abid Al-Jader]] (1916–1991), [[University of Michigan|University of Michigan (Ann Arbor)]] graduate (1950); acting dean of the [[College of Science – University of Baghdad]]; chair of mathematics at the [[University of Baghdad]]; co-founded the Iraqi Physics and Mathematics Society.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mandaeanunion.org/culture/item/2355-naman-abdul-jader|last=Al-Jader|first=Azhar N|title=Mr Naman Abdul Jader a Shining Star in Mandaean Histoty|date=9 January 2022|website=Mandaean Associations Union|access-date=13 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=شخصيات صابئية مندائية في التاريخ المعاصر|author=خالد ميران دفتر|url=https://www.mandaeannetwork.com/mandaean/ar/literatures/mandaeannetwork_mandaean_shaksiat_mandaia.html|pages=37–38}}</ref>
*[[Nouman Abid Al-Jader]] (1916–1991), [[University of Michigan|University of Michigan (Ann Arbor)]] graduate (1950); acting dean of the [[College of Science – University of Baghdad]]; chair of mathematics at the [[University of Baghdad]]; co-founded the Iraqi Physics and Mathematics Society.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mandaeanunion.org/culture/item/2355-naman-abdul-jader|last=Al-Jader|first=Azhar N|title=Mr Naman Abdul Jader a Shining Star in Mandaean Histoty|date=9 January 2022|website=Mandaean Associations Union|access-date=13 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=شخصيات صابئية مندائية في التاريخ المعاصر|author=خالد ميران دفتر|url=https://www.mandaeannetwork.com/mandaean/ar/literatures/mandaeannetwork_mandaean_shaksiat_mandaia.html|pages=37–38}}</ref>
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*[[:ar:سهام السبتي|Siham Alsabti]] (1942–), actress.
*[[:ar:سهام السبتي|Siham Alsabti]] (1942–), actress.
*[[Lamia Abbas Amara]] (1929–2021), poet and pioneer of modern Arabic poetry. She was the niece of [[Ganzibra]] [[Dakheel Edan]].
*[[Lamia Abbas Amara]] (1929–2021), poet and pioneer of modern Arabic poetry. She was the niece of [[Ganzibra]] [[Dakheel Edan]].
*[[Zahroun Amara]], world renowned [[niello]] [[silversmith]]. People that are known to have owned his silver nielloware include [[Stanley Maude]], [[Winston Churchill]], the [[House of Khalifa|Bahraini royal family]], [[Farouk of Egypt|Egyptian King Farouk]], the Iraqi royal family (including kings [[Faisal I of Iraq and Syria|Faisal I]] and [[Ghazi of Iraq|Ghazi]]), and the [[British royal family]] including the [[Prince of Wales]] who became [[Edward VIII]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Morgan|first=Major H. Sandford|title=Secrets in Silver – An Ancient Handicraft|url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16808461|date=17 October 1931|website=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Portrait of the Amara Silversmith's leader, Zahrun.|url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C2458|website=Australian War Memorial|access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Advance of the Crusaders into Mesopotamia {{!}} Note: name misspelled as 'Zahroam of Amara'|url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/1060022615|website=Imperial War Museum|access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=هيام الخياط|title=زهرون عمارة صائغ الملوك السلاطين|date=19 January 2016|url=https://www.mandaeanunion.org/ar/mandaean-society/mandaean-figures/item/1761-%D8%B2%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%BA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B7-mandaean|website=Mandaean Associations Union|access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=زهرون عمارة .. عمل "ارگيلة " من الفضة للسلطان عبدالحميد|url=https://www.algardenia.com/qosesmenaldakera/34239-2018-02-20-11-39-58.html|date=20 February 2018|website=algardenia.com|access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref>
*[[Zahroun Amara]], world renowned [[niello]] [[silversmith]]. People that are known to have owned his silver nielloware include [[Stanley Maude]], [[Winston Churchill]], the [[House of Khalifa|Bahraini royal family]], [[Farouk of Egypt|Egyptian King Farouk]], the Iraqi royal family (including kings [[Faisal I of Iraq and Syria|Faisal I]] and [[Ghazi of Iraq|Ghazi]]), and the [[British royal family]] including the [[Prince of Wales]] who became [[Edward VIII]].<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite news |last=Morgan |first=Major H. Sandford |title=Secrets in Silver – An Ancient Handicraft |url=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16808461 |date=17 October 1931 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=9 December 2021}}
|{{cite web |title=Portrait of the Amara Silversmith's leader, Zahrun. |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/C2458 |website=[[Australian War Memorial]] |access-date=9 December 2021}}
|{{cite web |title=Advance of the Crusaders into Mesopotamia {{!}} Note: name misspelled as 'Zahroam of Amara' |url=https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/1060022615 |website=[[Imperial War Museum]] |access-date=9 December 2021}}
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=هيام الخياط|title=زهرون عمارة صائغ الملوك السلاطين|date=19 January 2016|url=https://www.mandaeanunion.org/ar/mandaean-society/mandaean-figures/item/1761-%D8%B2%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%BA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%83-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%8A%D9%86-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B7-mandaean|website=Mandaean Associations Union|access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=زهرون عمارة .. عمل "ارگيلة " من الفضة للسلطان عبدالحميد|url=https://www.algardenia.com/qosesmenaldakera/34239-2018-02-20-11-39-58.html|date=20 February 2018|website=algardenia.com|access-date=27 January 2022}}</ref>
*[[Ganzibra]] [[Dakheel Edan]] (1881–1964), patriarch and international head of the Mandaeans from 1917, until his death in 1964.<ref name="mandaeans.org">{{cite web|title=الشيخ دخيل الشيخ عيدان|website=mandaeans.org|date=2008-10-07|url=http://www.mandaeans.org/mandaefigures/dkhayil.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007013711/http://www.mandaeans.org/mandaefigures/dkhayil.htm|archive-date=2008-10-07|url-status=dead|access-date=2021-10-17}}</ref>
*[[Ganzibra]] [[Dakheel Edan]] (1881–1964), patriarch and international head of the Mandaeans from 1917, until his death in 1964.<ref name="mandaeans.org">{{cite web|title=الشيخ دخيل الشيخ عيدان|website=mandaeans.org|date=2008-10-07|url=http://www.mandaeans.org/mandaefigures/dkhayil.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007013711/http://www.mandaeans.org/mandaefigures/dkhayil.htm|archive-date=2008-10-07|access-date=2021-10-17}}</ref>
*[[Rishama]] [[Abdullah bar Negm]] (early 1900s–2009), patriarch and head of the Mandaeans in Iraq during the late 1900s.
*[[Rishama]] [[Abdullah bar Negm]] (early 1900s–2009), patriarch and head of the Mandaeans in Iraq during the late 1900s.
*[[Rishama]] [[Sattar Jabbar Hilo]], current patriarch and head of the Mandaeans in Iraq.<ref name="Global Imams Council">{{cite web|title=His Holiness Sattar Jabbar Hilo – Global Imams Council|website=Global Imams Council|url=https://imams.org/team/his-holiness-sattar-jabbar-hilo/|access-date=2021-09-21|archive-date=October 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017161002/https://imams.org/team/his-holiness-sattar-jabbar-hilo/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=Rishamma Sattar Jabar Hilow: July 2016, Chapter 1 | website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests | date=2016-07-01 | url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/items/show/27 | access-date=2021-11-09}}</ref>
*[[Rishama]] [[Sattar Jabbar Hilo]], current patriarch and head of the Mandaeans in Iraq.<ref name="Global Imams Council">{{cite web |title=His Holiness Sattar Jabbar Hilo – Global Imams Council |website=Global Imams Council |url=https://imams.org/team/his-holiness-sattar-jabbar-hilo/ |access-date=2021-09-21 |archive-date=October 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017161002/https://imams.org/team/his-holiness-sattar-jabbar-hilo/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Rishamma Sattar Jabar Hilow: July 2016, Chapter 1 |website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests |date=2016-07-01 |url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/items/show/27 |access-date=2021-11-09}}</ref>
*[[Najiya Murrani]] (1919–2011), author, poet.<ref>{{cite web|last=Murrani|first=Sally|title=Najiya Murrani obituary|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2011/aug/31/najiya-murrani-obituary|website=The Guardian|date=31 August 2011|access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref>
*[[Najiya Murrani]] (1919–2011), author, poet.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murrani |first=Sally |title=Najiya Murrani obituary |url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2011/aug/31/najiya-murrani-obituary |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=31 August 2011|access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref>
*[[Aziz Sbahi]], secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party; writer.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kazal|first=Arkan|title=Shock and Awe: The U.S.Led Invasion and the Struggle of Iraq's Non-Muslim Minorities|url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/76209/KAZAL-THESIS-2019.pdf?sequence=1|year=2019|access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref>
*[[Aziz Sbahi]], secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party; writer.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kazal |first=Arkan |title=Shock and Awe: The U.S.Led Invasion and the Struggle of Iraq's Non-Muslim Minorities |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/76209/KAZAL-THESIS-2019.pdf?sequence=1 |year=2019 |access-date=9 December 2021}}</ref>
*[[Zaidoon Treeko]] (1961–), [[Oud]] player, composer, and poet.
*[[Zaidoon Treeko]] (1961–), [[Oud]] player, composer, and poet.
*[[:ar:مكي البدري|Makki Al-Badri]] (1926–2014), actor.
*[[:ar:مكي البدري|Makki Al-Badri]] (1926–2014), actor.
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The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. In 2009, there were an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Mandaeans in Iran, according to the [[Associated Press]].<ref name="saving" /> Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.<ref name=alarabiya0612/>
The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. In 2009, there were an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Mandaeans in Iran, according to the [[Associated Press]].<ref name="saving" /> Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.<ref name=alarabiya0612/>


Until the [[Iranian Revolution]], Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in the [[Khuzestan Province]], where the community used to coexist with the local [[Arab people|Arab]] population. Other than the main cities of [[Ahvaz]] and [[Khorramshahr]], Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as [[Chogha Zanbil (village)|Chogha Zanbil]] in [[Shush County]], [[Shushtar]], and [[Abadan]],<ref name="Buckley 2002"/> as well as [[Bandar-e Mahshahr|Mahshahr]], [[Shadegan]], [[Behbahan]], and [[Susangerd]] (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed in [[Dezful]], [[Hamidiyeh]], [[Hoveyzeh]], [[Karun County|Karun]], and [[Abadan]].<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|48}} [[File:Mandaeans 01.jpg|left|thumb|Mandaeans undergoing baptism (''[[Masbuta]]'') in the [[Karun]] River, [[Ahvaz]], [[Iran]]]]They were mainly employed as [[goldsmith]]s, passing their skills from generation to generation.<ref name=alarabiya0612>{{cite web |author=<!--[if IE 6]> <![endif]--> |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/06/181123.html |title=Iran Mandaeans in exile following persecution |publisher=Alarabiya.net |date=2011-12-06 |access-date=2011-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731033510/http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/06/181123.html |archive-date=July 31, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> After the fall of the shah, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated to Europe and the Americas.
Until the [[Iranian Revolution]], Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in the [[Khuzestan Province]], where the community used to coexist with the local [[Arab people|Arab]] population. Other than the main cities of [[Ahvaz]] and [[Khorramshahr]], Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as [[Chogha Zanbil (village)|Chogha Zanbil]] in [[Shush County]], [[Shushtar]], and [[Abadan]],<ref name="Buckley 2002"/> as well as [[Bandar-e Mahshahr|Mahshahr]], [[Shadegan]], [[Behbahan]], and [[Susangerd]] (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed in [[Dezful]], [[Hamidiyeh]], [[Hoveyzeh]], [[Karun County|Karun]], and [[Abadan]].<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|48}} [[File:Mandaeans 01.jpg|left|thumb|Mandaeans undergoing baptism (''[[Masbuta]]'') in the [[Karun]] River, [[Ahvaz]], [[Iran]]]]They were mainly employed as [[goldsmith]]s, passing their skills from generation to generation.<ref name=alarabiya0612>{{cite web |author=<!--[if IE 6]> <![endif]--> |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/06/181123.html |title=Iran Mandaeans in exile following persecution |publisher=Alarabiya.net |date=2011-12-06 |access-date=2011-12-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731033510/http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2011/12/06/181123.html |archive-date=July 31, 2016 }}</ref> After the fall of the shah, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated to Europe and the Americas.


In Iran, the ''[[Gozinesh]]'' Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other ''gozinesh'' provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roozonline.com/english/archives/2007/06/005324.php|title=Ideological Screening (ROOZ :: English)<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans, [[Yarsanism|Yarsanis]] and [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]].<ref>[http://www.amnestyusa.org/annualreport.php?id=ar&yr=2005&c=IRN Annual Report for Iran] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218150237/http://www.amnestyusa.org/annualreport.php?id=ar&yr=2005&c=IRN |date=2011-02-18 }}, 2005, [[Amnesty International]].</ref>
In Iran, the ''[[Gozinesh]]'' Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other ''gozinesh'' provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roozonline.com/english/archives/2007/06/005324.php|title=Ideological Screening (ROOZ :: English)<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans, [[Yarsanism|Yarsanis]] and [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]].<ref>[http://www.amnestyusa.org/annualreport.php?id=ar&yr=2005&c=IRN Annual Report for Iran] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218150237/http://www.amnestyusa.org/annualreport.php?id=ar&yr=2005&c=IRN |date=2011-02-18 }}, 2005, [[Amnesty International]].</ref>


In 2002, the [[US State Department]] granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have emigrated to the US,<ref name="saving" /> now residing in cities such as [[San Antonio, Texas]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ross|first1=Robyn|last2=Busch|first2=Matthew|title=San Antonio Embraces Mandaean Refugees|website=The Texas Observer|date=2020-02-18|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/mandaeans-san-antonio-trump/|access-date=2021-11-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=The Associated Press|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/31680885 |title=Ancient sect fights to keep culture alive in U.S.|website=NBC News |date=1 July 2009 |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.<ref>{{citation|last1=Wirya|first1=Khogir|last2=van Zoonen|first2=Dave|title=The Sabean-Mandaeans Perceptions of Reconciliation and Conflict|url=https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/The-Sabean-Mandaeans-Perceptions-of-Reconciliation-and-Conflict-Report.pdf|date=July 2017|publisher=Middle East Research Institute|location=Erbil, Kurdistan Region of Iraq}}</ref>
In 2002, the [[US State Department]] granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have emigrated to the US,<ref name="saving" /> now residing in cities such as [[San Antonio, Texas]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ross|first1=Robyn|last2=Busch|first2=Matthew|title=San Antonio Embraces Mandaean Refugees|website=The Texas Observer|date=2020-02-18|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/mandaeans-san-antonio-trump/|access-date=2021-11-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=The Associated Press|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna31680885 |title=Ancient sect fights to keep culture alive in U.S.|website=NBC News |date=1 July 2009 |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref> On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.<ref>{{citation|last1=Wirya|first1=Khogir|last2=van Zoonen|first2=Dave|title=The Sabean-Mandaeans Perceptions of Reconciliation and Conflict|url=https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/The-Sabean-Mandaeans-Perceptions-of-Reconciliation-and-Conflict-Report.pdf|date=July 2017|publisher=Middle East Research Institute|location=Erbil, Kurdistan Region of Iraq}}</ref>


====Notable Iranian Mandaeans====
====Notable Iranian Mandaeans====
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===Diaspora===
===Diaspora===
[[File:Suomen mandean yhdistys.jpg|left|thumbnail|Mandaean community in [[Finland]], May 2018]]
[[File:Suomen mandean yhdistys.jpg|left|thumbnail|Mandaean community in [[Finland]], May 2018]]
There are Mandaean diaspora populations in [[Mandaeans in Sweden|Sweden]] (c. 10,000–20,000),<ref name=Routledge/><ref name=manswe/> [[Australia]] (c. 10,000),<ref name=manaus/><ref>Source: ABS (2017), ''Census of Population and Housing, Reflecting Australia – Stories from the Census, 2016 – Religion'', Table 1, ABS Catalogue Number 2071.0.</ref> the [[US]] (c. 4,000–7,000),<ref name=MHRG/><ref name=sly/> the [[UK]] (c. 2,500),<ref name=WMP/> [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|date=9 September 2002|title=Iraqi Kiwis pray war is averted|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/iraqi-kiwis-pray-war-is-averted/2DJMG3IWEBHVYKROSM3UFZVTNY/|website=NZ Herald|access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="bbc0307" /><ref name="lt.se">{{cite web|url=http://lt.se/nyheter/sodertalje/1.2102865-morgondopp-som-ger-gruppen-nytt-hopp|title=Morgondopp som ger gruppen nytt hopp|language=sv}}</ref><ref name="newmarker">{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/09/AR2007020901687.html|title=Survival of Ancient Faith Threatened by Fighting in Iraq|journal=The Washington Post and Times-Herald|access-date=2018-07-09|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286|first=Chris |last=Newmarker |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=February 10, 2007}}</ref><ref name="exodus" /><ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/relrpt/stories/s1657535.htm Mandaeans persecuted in Iraq]. [[ABC Radio National]] (Australia), June 7, 2006.</ref> There are also Mandaeans living in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] (in [[Nijmegen]], [[The Hague]], etc.), [[Denmark]],<ref name=dk/> [[Finland]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Pyhäranta|first=Tuija|date=9 January 2015|title=Rekisteröityjen uskonnollisten yhdyskuntien määrä ylitti sadan – uutena uskontona mandealaisuus|url=https://www.kotimaa.fi/artikkeli/rekisteroityjen-uskonnollisten-yhdyskuntien-maara-ylitti-sadan-uutena-uskontona-mandealaisuus/|website=Kotimaa|access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref> [[France]],<ref name=Fr/> and smaller communities in [[Norway]] and [[Italy]].<ref name=MHRG/><ref name="GR Saadi">{{cite book |url=https://www.amazon.de/Ginza-Rabba-English-Translation-Drabsha/dp/B00A3GO458|last1=Al-Saadi |first1=Qais Mughashghash |last2=Al-Saadi |first2=Hamed Mughashghash |title=Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure. An equivalent translation of the Mandaean Holy Book |year=2012 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref>
There are Mandaean diaspora populations in [[Mandaeans in Sweden|Sweden]] (c. 10,000–20,000),<ref name=Routledge/><ref name=manswe/> [[Australia]] (c. 10,000),<ref name=manaus/><ref>Source: ABS (2017), ''Census of Population and Housing, Reflecting Australia – Stories from the Census, 2016 – Religion'', Table 1, ABS Catalogue Number 2071.0.</ref> the [[US]] (c. 4,000–7,000),<ref name=MHRG/><ref name=sly/> the [[UK]] (c. 2,500),<ref name=WMP/> [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]].<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite news |date=9 September 2002 |title=Iraqi Kiwis pray war is averted |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/iraqi-kiwis-pray-war-is-averted/2DJMG3IWEBHVYKROSM3UFZVTNY/ |work=[[NZ Herald]] |access-date=5 November 2021}}
|{{harvnb|Crawford|2007}}
|{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/relrpt/stories/s1657535.htm |title=Mandaeans persecuted in Iraq |work=[[ABC Radio National]] |location=Australia |date=June 7, 2006}}
}}</ref><ref name="lt.se">{{cite web |url=http://lt.se/nyheter/sodertalje/1.2102865-morgondopp-som-ger-gruppen-nytt-hopp |title=Morgondopp som ger gruppen nytt hopp |language=sv |trans-title=Morning swim that gives the group new hope}}</ref><ref name="newmarker">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/09/AR2007020901687.html |title=Survival of Ancient Faith Threatened by Fighting in Iraq |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] and Times-Herald |access-date=2018-07-09 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286 |first=Chris |last=Newmarker |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=February 10, 2007}}</ref><ref name="exodus" /> There are also Mandaeans living in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] (in [[Nijmegen]], [[The Hague]], etc.), [[Denmark]],<ref name=dk/> [[Finland]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Pyhäranta |first=Tuija |date=9 January 2015 |title=Rekisteröityjen uskonnollisten yhdyskuntien määrä ylitti sadan – uutena uskontona mandealaisuus |language=fi |trans-title=The number of registered religious communities exceeded a hundred - Mandaeanism as a new religion |url=https://www.kotimaa.fi/artikkeli/rekisteroityjen-uskonnollisten-yhdyskuntien-maara-ylitti-sadan-uutena-uskontona-mandealaisuus/ |website=Kotimaa |access-date=5 November 2021}}</ref> [[France]],<ref name=Fr/> and smaller communities in [[Norway]] and [[Italy]].<ref name=MHRG/><ref name="GR Saadi">{{cite book |url=https://www.amazon.de/Ginza-Rabba-English-Translation-Drabsha/dp/B00A3GO458 |last1=Al-Saadi |first1=Qais Mughashghash |last2=Al-Saadi |first2=Hamed Mughashghash |title=Ginza Rabba: The Great Treasure. An equivalent translation of the Mandaean Holy Book |year=2012 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref>


====Australia====
====Australia====
{{main|Mandaean Australians}}
{{main|Mandaean Australians}}
The [[Sydney metropolitan area]] in Australia has one of the largest Mandaean diaspora communities in the world.<ref name="Buckley2010"/> The community is centered in [[Greater Western Sydney]] suburbs such as [[Penrith, New South Wales|Penrith]]<ref>{{cite web | last=Smith | first=David Maurice | title=An Ancient Baptism in Sydney | website=Roads & Kingdoms | date=2015-07-30 | url=https://roadsandkingdoms.com/2015/ancient-baptism-sydney/ | access-date=2021-10-30}}</ref> and [[Liverpool, New South Wales|Liverpool]].<ref>[https://www.acnc.gov.au/charity/ddf091549a5eac6f2c2d360e6594dce7 Sabian Mandaean Association in Australia].</ref> In Liverpool, the main [[Mandi (Mandaeism)|mandi]] (Beth Manda) is the [[Ganzibra Dakhil Mandi]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Robins|first=Ian|title=Album: The Ganzibra Dakhil Mandi, Liverpool, Sydney|url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/items/show/110|website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests|date=July 2016|access-date=6 November 2021}}</ref> The Sabian Mandaean Association of Australia has purchased land by the banks of the [[Nepean River]] at [[Wallacia, New South Wales]] in order to build a new mandi.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mandaean Synod of Australia | website=Welcome to the Mandaean Synod of Australia | date=2005-07-05 | url=https://mandaeansynod.org.au/aboutus.html | access-date=2021-10-30}}</ref>
The [[Sydney metropolitan area]] in Australia has one of the largest Mandaean diaspora communities in the world.<ref name="Buckley2010"/> The community is centered in [[Greater Western Sydney]] suburbs such as [[Penrith, New South Wales|Penrith]]<ref>{{cite web | last=Smith | first=David Maurice | title=An Ancient Baptism in Sydney | website=Roads & Kingdoms | date=2015-07-30 | url=https://roadsandkingdoms.com/2015/ancient-baptism-sydney/ | access-date=2021-10-30}}</ref> and [[Liverpool, New South Wales|Liverpool]].<ref>[https://www.acnc.gov.au/charity/ddf091549a5eac6f2c2d360e6594dce7 Sabian Mandaean Association in Australia].</ref> In Liverpool, the main [[Mandi (Mandaeism)|mandi]] (Beth Manda) is [[Ganzibra Dakhil Mandi]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Robins|first=Ian|title=Album: The Ganzibra Dakhil Mandi, Liverpool, Sydney|url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/items/show/110|website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests|date=July 2016|access-date=6 November 2021}}</ref> The Sabian Mandaean Association of Australia has purchased land by the banks of the [[Nepean River]] at [[Wallacia, New South Wales]] in order to build a new mandi.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mandaean Synod of Australia | website=Welcome to the Mandaean Synod of Australia | date=2005-07-05 | url=https://mandaeansynod.org.au/aboutus.html | access-date=2021-10-30}}</ref>


====Sweden====
====Sweden====
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In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered in [[San Antonio]] (c. 2,500),<ref name=mansa>{{cite web|last1=Busch|first1=Matthew|last2=Ross|first2=Robyn|date=18 February 2020|title=Against The Current|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/mandaeans-san-antonio-trump/|website=Texas Observer|access-date=8 November 2021}}</ref> [[New York City]], [[San Diego]],<ref name="Buckley 2002"/> [[Winnetka, California]], [[Austin, Texas]],<ref>[https://www.dnb.com/business-directory/company-profiles.mandaean_association_of_texas_inc.0744cb5769da79d9ef01e1a70b36903a.html Mandaean Association of Texas] in [[Pflugerville, Texas]].</ref> [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] (c. 2,500),<ref name="The Boston Globe">{{cite news|last1=MacQuarrie|first1=Brian|title=Embraced by Worcester, Iraq's persecuted Mandaean refugees now seek 'anchor'—their own temple|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2016/08/12/embraced-worcester-iraq-persecuted-mandaean-refugees-now-seek-anchor-their-own-temple/qSTOVM3qTRoD8zSiuIlLTO/story.html|access-date=19 August 2016|work=The Boston Globe |date=13 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="office"/> [[Warren, Michigan]],<ref>[https://www.guidestar.org/profile/38-3314797 Mandaean Association of Michigan].</ref> [[Chicago]],<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/mandaeaninchicago/about-our-group Mandaean in Chicago].</ref> and other major metropolitan areas. There is a [[Mandi (Mandaeism)|mandi]] in [[Detroit]].<ref>{{cite web|author=The Associated Press|date=1 July 2009|title=Ancient Iraqi Mandaean sect struggles to keep culture in Michigan|url=https://www.mlive.com/news/detroit/2009/07/ancient_iraqi_mandaean_sect_st.html|website=mLive|access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref>
In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered in [[San Antonio]] (c. 2,500),<ref name=mansa>{{cite web|last1=Busch|first1=Matthew|last2=Ross|first2=Robyn|date=18 February 2020|title=Against The Current|url=https://www.texasobserver.org/mandaeans-san-antonio-trump/|website=Texas Observer|access-date=8 November 2021}}</ref> [[New York City]], [[San Diego]],<ref name="Buckley 2002"/> [[Winnetka, California]], [[Austin, Texas]],<ref>[https://www.dnb.com/business-directory/company-profiles.mandaean_association_of_texas_inc.0744cb5769da79d9ef01e1a70b36903a.html Mandaean Association of Texas] in [[Pflugerville, Texas]].</ref> [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] (c. 2,500),<ref name="The Boston Globe">{{cite news|last1=MacQuarrie|first1=Brian|title=Embraced by Worcester, Iraq's persecuted Mandaean refugees now seek 'anchor'—their own temple|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2016/08/12/embraced-worcester-iraq-persecuted-mandaean-refugees-now-seek-anchor-their-own-temple/qSTOVM3qTRoD8zSiuIlLTO/story.html|access-date=19 August 2016|work=The Boston Globe |date=13 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="office"/> [[Warren, Michigan]],<ref>[https://www.guidestar.org/profile/38-3314797 Mandaean Association of Michigan].</ref> [[Chicago]],<ref>[https://sites.google.com/site/mandaeaninchicago/about-our-group Mandaean in Chicago].</ref> and other major metropolitan areas. There is a [[Mandi (Mandaeism)|mandi]] in [[Detroit]].<ref>{{cite web|author=The Associated Press|date=1 July 2009|title=Ancient Iraqi Mandaean sect struggles to keep culture in Michigan|url=https://www.mlive.com/news/detroit/2009/07/ancient_iraqi_mandaean_sect_st.html|website=mLive|access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref>


The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, ''[[The New York Times]]'' ran an [[op-ed]] piece in which Swarthmore professor [[Nathaniel Deutsch]] called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community.<ref name="DEUTSCH2"/> Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by the [[US State Department]] in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling in [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]], Massachusetts.<ref name="saving" /><ref name=Bell/> The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second largest community outside the Middle East.<ref name="office">{{Cite web|title=Mandaean community opens office in Worcester|url=https://www.telegram.com/news/20180401/mandaean-community-opens-office-in-worcester|last=Moulton|first=Cyrus|website=telegram.com|language=en|access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref> About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since the [[Iraq War]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Worcester branch of Mandaean faith works to plant roots|url=https://www.telegram.com/news/20160903/worcester-branch-of-mandaean-faith-works-to-plant-roots|last=Petrishen|first=Brad|website=telegram.com|language=en|access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>
The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, ''[[The New York Times]]'' ran an [[op-ed]] piece in which Swarthmore professor [[Nathaniel Deutsch]] called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community.{{sfn|Deutsch|2007}} Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by the [[US State Department]] in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling in [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]], Massachusetts.<ref name="saving" /><ref name=Bell/> The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second largest community outside the Middle East.<ref name="office">{{Cite web |title=Mandaean community opens office in Worcester |url=https://www.telegram.com/news/20180401/mandaean-community-opens-office-in-worcester |last=Moulton |first=Cyrus |website=telegram.com |language=en |access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref> About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since the [[Iraq War]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Worcester branch of Mandaean faith works to plant roots |url=https://www.telegram.com/news/20160903/worcester-branch-of-mandaean-faith-works-to-plant-roots |last=Petrishen |first=Brad |website=telegram.com |language=en |access-date=2020-05-20}}</ref>


==Religion==
==Religion==
[[File:Darfash - Mandaean cross.png|thumb|180px|right|Mandaean [[Drabsha]], symbol of the Mandaean faith]]
[[File:مندى ديانة الصابئة المندائية في بغداد 10.jpg|thumb|270x270px|Mandaean [[Drabsha]], symbol of the Mandaean faith]]
{{Main|Mandaeism}}
{{Main|Mandaeism}}
Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicing [[Mandaeism]], which is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]], and [[ethnic religion]]<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|4}}<ref>{{cite book|page=1 |title=[[Ginza Rabba]]|translator1-last=Al-Saadi |translator1-first=Qais |translator2-last=Al-Saadi |translator2-first=Hamed |edition=2nd |place=Germany |year=2019 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref><ref name="Mandaens3">{{cite book |chapter=Mandeans (Nasoreans) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1032 |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |editor1-link=F. L. Cross |editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=E. A. |editor2-link=Elizabeth Livingstone |year=2005 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |edition=3rd, Revised |pages=1032–1033 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3}}</ref> (Aramaic ''manda'' means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek term ''[[gnosis]]''.)<ref name="Mandaens3"/> Its adherents revere [[Adam#In Mandaeism|Adam]], [[Abel#Mandaean interpretation|Abel]], [[Seth#Mandaeism|Seth]], [[Enos (biblical figure)#In Mandaeism|Enosh]], [[Noah#Gnosticism|Noah]], [[Shem#In Mandaeism|Shem]], [[Aram, son of Shem|Aram]], and especially [[John the Baptist#Mandaeism|John the Baptist]].<ref name="Mandaens3"/>{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=15}}<ref>{{cite book|series=The Light and the Dark|title=Dualism in ancient Iran, India and China|url=https://brill.com/view/title/13642|first=Petrus Franciscus Maria|last=Fontaine|date=January 1990|publisher=Brill|volume=5|isbn=9789050630511 }}</ref> Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.<ref name=BSN/>{{rp|45}}<ref name=MandaeanYT>{{cite web|author=mandaean الصابئة المندايين|title=تعرف على دين المندايي في ثلاث دقائق|date=21 November 2019|access-date=2 February 2022|website=YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0EhfZUtq_U}}</ref>
Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicing [[Mandaeism]], which is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]], and [[ethnic religion]]<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|4}}<ref>{{cite book|page=1 |title=[[Ginza Rabba]]|translator1-last=Al-Saadi |translator1-first=Qais |translator2-last=Al-Saadi |translator2-first=Hamed |edition=2nd |place=Germany |year=2019 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref><ref name="Mandaens3">{{cite book |chapter=Mandeans (Nasoreans) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUqcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1032 |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |editor1-link=F. L. Cross |editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=E. A. |editor2-link=Elizabeth Livingstone |year=2005 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |location=[[Oxford]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |edition=3rd, Revised |pages=1032–1033 |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3}}</ref> (Aramaic ''manda'' means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek term ''[[gnosis]]''.)<ref name="Mandaens3"/> Its adherents revere [[Adam#In Mandaeism|Adam]], [[Abel#Mandaean interpretation|Abel]], [[Seth#Mandaeism|Seth]], [[Enos (biblical figure)#In Mandaeism|Enosh]], [[Noah#Gnosticism|Noah]], [[Shem#In Mandaeism|Shem]], [[Aram, son of Shem|Aram]], and especially [[John the Baptist#Mandaeism|John the Baptist]].<ref name="Mandaens3"/>{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=15}}<ref>{{cite book|series=The Light and the Dark|title=Dualism in ancient Iran, India and China|url=https://brill.com/view/title/13642|first=Petrus Franciscus Maria|last=Fontaine|date=January 1990|publisher=Brill|volume=5|isbn=978-90-5063-051-1 }}</ref> Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.{{sfn|Nasoraia|2012|p=45}}<ref name=MandaeanYT>{{cite web|author=mandaean الصابئة المندايين|title=تعرف على دين المندايي في ثلاث دقائق|date=21 November 2019|access-date=2 February 2022|website=YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F0EhfZUtq_U}}</ref>


The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness.<ref name="Mandaens3"/> They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from the [[World of Light]] (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from the [[World of Darkness (Mandaeism)|World of Darkness]].<ref name="Mandaens3"/> In relation to the [[body–mind dualism]] coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.
The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness.<ref name="Mandaens3"/> They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from the [[World of Light]] (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from the [[World of Darkness (Mandaeism)|World of Darkness]].<ref name="Mandaens3"/> In relation to the [[body–mind dualism]] coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.


Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by ''Nhura'' (Light) and ''Maia Hayyi'' (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by ''Hshuka'' (darkness) and ''Maia Tahmi'' (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called ''Alma d-Nhura'' (World of Light).<ref name=Nashmi>{{Citation|last=Nashmi |first=Yuhana|title=Contemporary Issues for the Mandaean Faith|website=Mandaean Associations Union|date=24 April 2013|url=http://www.mandaeanunion.com/history-english/item/488-mandaean-faith |access-date=3 October 2021}}</ref>
Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by ''Nhura'' (Light) and ''Maia Hayyi'' (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by ''Hshuka'' (darkness) and ''Maia Tahmi'' (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called ''Alma d-Nhura'' (World of Light).<ref name=Nashmi>{{Citation|last=Nashmi |first=Yuhana|title=Contemporary Issues for the Mandaean Faith|website=Mandaean Associations Union|date=24 April 2013|url=http://www.mandaeanunion.com/history-english/item/488-mandaean-faith |access-date=3 October 2021}}</ref>
[[File:مندى ديانة الصابئة المندائية في بغداد 21.jpg|left|thumb|Inside [[Sabian–Mandaean Mandi of Baghdad|Mandaean Mandi of Baghdad]]]]

In Mandaeism, the [[World of Light]] is ruled by a Supreme God, known as [[Hayyi Rabbi]] ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').<ref name=Nashmi/> Other [[Names of God|names]] used are {{Transl|myz|Mare d'Rabuta}} ('Lord of Greatness'), {{Transl|myz|Mana Rabba}} ('The Great Mind'), {{Transl|myz|Melka d'Nhura}} ('King of Light') and {{Transl|myz|Hayyi Qadmaiyi}} ('The First Life').<ref name="auto2">Drower, Ethel Stefana. ''The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran''. Oxford At The Clarendon Press, 1937.</ref><ref>Rudolf, K. (1978). Mandaeism. Leiden: Brill.</ref> God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number of [[uthra]]s (angels or guardians),<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|8}} manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. [[Yushamin|Yōšamin]], [[Abathur]], and [[Ptahil]]).{{sfn|Rudolph|2001}}<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|8}}
In Mandaeism, the [[World of Light]] is ruled by a Supreme God, known as [[Hayyi Rabbi]] ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').<ref name=Nashmi/> Other [[Names of God|names]] used are {{Transl|myz|Mare d'Rabuta}} ('Lord of Greatness'), {{Transl|myz|Mana Rabba}} ('The Great Mind'), {{Transl|myz|Melka d'Nhura}} ('King of Light') and {{Transl|myz|Hayyi Qadmaiyi}} ('The First Life').<ref name="auto2">Drower, Ethel Stefana. ''The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran''. Oxford At The Clarendon Press, 1937.</ref><ref>Rudolf, K. (1978). Mandaeism. Leiden: Brill.</ref> God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number of [[uthra]]s (angels or guardians),<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|8}} manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. [[Yushamin|Yōšamin]], [[Abathur]], and [[Ptahil]]).{{sfn|Rudolph|2001}}<ref name="Buckley 2002"/>{{rp|8}}
[[File:Leonardo da Vinci - Saint John the Baptist C2RMF retouched.jpg|left|thumb|180px|''[[Saint John the Baptist (Leonardo)|Saint John the Baptist]]'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]]]
[[File:Leonardo da Vinci - Saint John the Baptist C2RMF retouched.jpg|left|thumb|180px|''[[Saint John the Baptist (Leonardo)|Saint John the Baptist]]'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]]]
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According to [[Edmondo Lupieri]], as stated in his article in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'',
According to [[Edmondo Lupieri]], as stated in his article in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'',


{{blockquote|The possible historical connection with [[John the Baptist]], as seen in the newly translated Mandaean texts, convinced many (notably [[Rudolf Bultmann|R. Bultmann]]) that it was possible, through the Mandaean traditions, to shed some new light on the history of John and on the [[origins of Christianity]]. This brought around a revival of the otherwise almost fully abandoned idea of their Palestinian origins. As the archeological discovery of Mandaean [[Incantation bowl#In Mandaeism|incantation bowls]] and [[Mandaic lead rolls|lead amulets]] proved a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in the southern Mesopotamia, scholars were obliged to hypothesize otherwise unknown persecutions by Jews or by Christians to explain the reason for Mandaeans’ departure from Palestine.}}
{{blockquote|The possible historical connection with [[John the Baptist]], as seen in the newly translated Mandaean texts, convinced many (notably [[Rudolf Bultmann|R. Bultmann]]) that it was possible, through the Mandaean traditions, to shed some new light on the history of John and on the [[origins of Christianity]]. This brought around a revival of the otherwise almost fully abandoned idea of their Palestinian origins. As the archeological discovery of Mandaean [[Incantation bowl#In Mandaeism|incantation bowls]] and [[Mandaic lead rolls|lead amulets]] proved a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in the southern Mesopotamia, scholars were obliged to hypothesize otherwise unknown persecutions by Jews or by Christians to explain the reason for Mandaeans' departure from Palestine.}}
[[File:مندى ديانة الصابئة المندائية في بغداد 20.jpg|thumb|[[Mandaean Book of John]]]]
[[Edmondo Lupieri|Lupieri]] believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims that [[Zazai d-Gawazta]] to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd century. [[Jorunn J. Buckley]] refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied the [[Ginza Rabba]].<ref name="Buckley2010"/><ref name=LupieriIranica/> In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller-Kessler |first1=Christa |title=The Mandaeans and the Question of Their Origin |journal=ARAM Periodical|date=2004 |volume=16 |issue=16 |pages=47–60 |doi=10.2143/ARAM.16.0.504671}}</ref> [[Edwin Yamauchi]] believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the Transjordan where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd century CE.<ref name=Deutsch>{{cite book|last=Deutsch|first=Nathaniel|title=Guardians of the Gate-Angelic Vice Regency in Late Antiquity|publisher=Brill|year=1998}}</ref>{{rp|78}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yamauchi |first1=Edwin |title=Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean Origins |year=2004 |publisher=Gorgias Press |doi=10.31826/9781463209476 |isbn=978-1-4632-0947-6 }}</ref> Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than 5th century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized by [[James F. McGrath]].<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017}}; {{harvnb|McGrath|2019}}.</ref> Al-Zuhairy (1998) believes that the roots of Mandaeism lies in Mesopotamia, inherited from the Sumerians, and the present form of Mandaeism likely emerged in Mesopotamia in the 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{cite web |author=Issam Khalaf Al-Zuhairy|title=A Study of the Ancient Mesopotamian Roots of Mandaean Religion|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JpAycgAACAAJ |publisher=University of Manchester|type=Doctoral dissertation}}</ref>


The Mandaean author [[Aziz Sbahi]] in his book, ''The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs'', traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and the [[Dead Sea]] region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kazal |first1=Arkan |title=Shock and Awe: The U.S. Led Invasion and the Struggle of Iraq's Non-Muslim Minorities |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/76209/KAZAL-THESIS-2019.pdf?sequence=1|page=37}}</ref> [[Brikha Nasoraia]], a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|55}}
[[Edmondo Lupieri|Lupieri]] believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims that [[Zazai d-Gawazta]] to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd century. [[Jorunn J. Buckley]] refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied the [[Ginza Rabba]].<ref name="Buckley2010"/><ref name=LupieriIranica/> In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller-Kessler |first1=Christa |title=The Mandaeans and the Question of Their Origin |journal=ARAM Periodical|date=2004 |volume=16 |issue=16 |pages=47–60 |doi=10.2143/ARAM.16.0.504671}}</ref> [[Edwin Yamauchi]] believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the Transjordan where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd century CE.<ref name=Deutsch>{{cite book|last=Deutsch|first=Nathaniel|title=Guardians of the Gate-Angelic Vice Regency in Late Antiquity|publisher=Brill|year=1998}}</ref>{{rp|78}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Yamauchi |first1=Edwin |title=Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean Origins |year=2004 |publisher=Gorgias Press |doi=10.31826/9781463209476 |isbn=9781463209476 |url=https://doi.org/10.31826/9781463209476}}</ref> Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than 5th century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized by [[James F. McGrath]].<ref>{{harvnb|Van Bladel|2017}}; {{harvnb|McGrath|2019}}.</ref> Al-Zuhairy (1998) believes that the roots of Mandaeism lies in Mesopotamia, inherited from the Sumerians, and the present form of Mandaeism likely emerged in Mesopotamia in the 3rd century BCE.<ref>{{cite web |author=Issam Khalaf Al-Zuhairy|title=A Study of the Ancient Mesopotamian Roots of Mandaean Religion|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JpAycgAACAAJ |publisher=University of Manchester|type=Doctoral dissertation}}</ref>


Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as [[Kurt Rudolph]], [[Mark Lidzbarski]], [[Rudolf Macúch]], [[E. S. Drower|Ethel S. Drower]], [[Eric Segelberg]], [[James F. McGrath]], [[Charles G. Häberl]], [[Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley]], and [[Şinasi Gündüz]] argue for an Israelite origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.<ref>{{harvnb|Drower|1960b|p=xiv}}; {{harvnb|Rudolph|1977|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Gündüz|1994|pp=vii, 256}}; {{harvnb|Macuch|Drower|1963|p=}};{{pn|date=August 2024}} {{harvnb|Segelberg|1969|pp=228–239}}; {{harvnb|Buckley|2002|p=}}{{pn|date=August 2024}}</ref><ref>McGrath, James F.,{{cite web |url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1194&context=facsch_papers |title=Reading the Story of Miriai on Two Levels: Evidence from Mandaean Anti-Jewish Polemic about the Origins and Setting of Early Mandaeism}} ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592.</ref><ref name=Lidzbarski>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/MN41563ucmf_2 |title=Ginzā, der Schatz oder das Grosse buch der Mandäer |language=de |trans-title=Ginzā, the Treasure or the Great Book of the Mandaeans |year=1925 |last=Lidzbarski |first=Mark |publisher= Göttingen Vandenhoek & Ruprecht}}</ref><ref name="R. Macuch, p. 6">R. Macuch, "Anfänge der Mandäer. Versuch eines geschichtliches Bildes bis zur früh-islamischen Zeit", chap. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, ''Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung'', Berlin, 1965.</ref> Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]], finds [[Jewish Aramaic]], [[Samaritan Aramaic language|Samaritan Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Israelite history with Jews".<ref>{{Citation |last=Häberl |first=Charles |title=Hebraisms in Mandaic |website=YouTube |date=3 March 2021 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDSDXF5_K8Q |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211110/TDSDXF5_K8Q |archive-date=2021-11-10 |url-status=live |access-date=3 November 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:37489/|title=Mandaic and the Palestinian Question |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |year=2021 |volume=141 |issue=1 |pages=171–184 |last1=Häberl |first1=Charles |doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.141.1.0171 |s2cid=234204741 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition, scholars such as [[Richard August Reitzenstein]], [[Rudolf Bultmann]], [[G. R. S. Mead]], Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, [[Gilles Quispel]], and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or [[Jordan Valley]] origin for the Mandaeans.<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1998|p=78}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|2016}}</reF><ref>Mead, G. R. S., Gnostic John the Baptizer: Selections from the Mandaean John-Book, Dumfries & Galloway UK, Anodos Books (2020)</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/26661213 |title=The Vines Of Joy: Comparative Studies in Mandaean History and Theology |last1=Zinner |first1=Samuel |date=2019}}</ref><ref>Reeves, J. C., Heralds of that Good Realm: Syro-Mesopotamian Gnostic and Jewish Traditions, Leiden, New York, Koln (1996).</ref><ref>Quispel, G., Gnosticism and the New Testament, Vigiliae Christianae, vol. 19, No 2. (Jan., 1965), pp. 65–85.</ref><ref>Beyer, K., The Aramaic Language; Its Distribution and Subdivisions, translated from the German by John F. Healey, Gottingen (1986)</ref> James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.<ref>{{cite web |last=McGrath |first=James |title=The Shared Origins of Monotheism, Evil, and Gnosticism |date=19 June 2020 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jELRRNgFAGk&t=3s| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/jELRRNgFAGk |archive-date=17 November 2021 | url-status=live |website=YouTube |access-date=15 November 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>{{sfn|Thomas|2016}} [[E. S. Drower|Lady Ethel S. Drower]] "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"<ref>{{cite book |last=Buckley |first=Jorunn |title=Lady E. S. Drower's Scholarly Correspondence |url=https://brill.com/view/title/20157?contents=editorial-content |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |year=2012 |page=210 |isbn=978-90-04-22247-2}}</ref> and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."{{sfn|Drower|1960b|p=xv}} [[Barbara Thiering]] questions the dating of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] and suggests that the [[Teacher of Righteousness]] (leader of the [[Essenes]]) was John the Baptist.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vkhqd0xVejg |title=The Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls |website=YouTube – Discovery Channel documentary |year=1990 |access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins<ref name = BuckleyOrigin/>{{rp|97}} and adds:
The Mandaean author [[Aziz Sbahi]] in his book, ''The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs'', traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and the [[Dead Sea]] region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kazal |first1=Arkan |title=Shock and Awe: The U.S. Led Invasion and the Struggle of Iraq's Non-Muslim Minorities |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/76209/KAZAL-THESIS-2019.pdf?sequence=1|page=37}}</ref> [[Brikha Nasoraia]], a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley of Palestine, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.<ref name="Nasoraia 2021"/>{{rp|55}}

Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as [[Kurt Rudolph]], [[Mark Lidzbarski]], [[Rudolf Macúch]], [[E. S. Drower|Ethel S. Drower]], [[Eric Segelberg]], James F. McGrath, [[Charles G. Häberl]], [[Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley]], and [[:tr:Şinasi Gündüz|Şinasi Gündüz]] argue for a Palestinian origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.<ref name=Drower1960>{{cite book| last = Drower| first = Ethel Stephana| author-link = E. S. Drower| date = 1960| title = The secret Adam, a study of Nasoraean gnosis| location = London UK| publisher = Clarendon Press| no-pp = true| url = http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Adam-A-Study-of-Nasoraen-Gnosis.pdf| access-date = November 4, 2021| archive-date = March 6, 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140306132110/http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Secret-Adam-A-Study-of-Nasoraen-Gnosis.pdf| url-status = dead}}</ref>{{rp|xiv}}{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=4}}<ref name=Gunduz>{{harvnb|Gündüz|1994}}.</ref><ref name="Buckley 2002"/><ref>McGrath, James F.,{{cite web|url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1194&context=facsch_papers|title=Reading the Story of Miriai on Two Levels: Evidence from Mandaean Anti-Jewish Polemic about the Origins and Setting of Early Mandaeism}}ARAM Periodical / (2010): 583–592.</ref><ref>Lidzbarski, Mark 1915 Das Johannesbuch der Mandäer. Giessen: Alfred Töpelmann.</ref><ref name=MacuchDrower>Macuch, Rudolf A Mandaic Dictionary (with E. S. Drower). Oxford: Clarendon Press 1963.</ref><ref name="R. Macuch, p. 6">R. Macuch, “Anfänge der Mandäer. Versuch eines geschichtliches Bildes bis zur früh-islamischen Zeit, chap. 6 of F. Altheim and R. Stiehl, Die Araber in der alten Welt II: Bis zur Reichstrennung, Berlin, 1965.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Segelberg|first=Eric|year=1969|title=Old and New Testament figures in Mandaean version|journal=Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis|volume=3|pages=228–239|doi=10.30674/scripta.67040|doi-access=free}}</ref> Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]], finds [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]], [[Samaritan Aramaic language|Samaritan Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Palestinian history with [[Jews]]".<ref>{{Citation|last=Häberl |first=Charles|title=Hebraisms in Mandaic|website=YouTube|date=3 March 2021|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDSDXF5_K8Q | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211110/TDSDXF5_K8Q| archive-date=2021-11-10 | url-status=live|access-date=3 November 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:37489/|title=Mandaic and the Palestinian Question|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|year=2021|volume=141|issue=1|pages=171–184|last1=Häberl|first1=Charles|doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.141.1.0171| issn=0003-0279 |s2cid=234204741|doi-access=free}}</ref> In addition, scholars such as [[Richard August Reitzenstein]], [[Rudolf Bultmann]], [[G. R. S. Mead]], Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, G. Quispel and K. Beyer also argue for a [[Judea]]/Palestine or [[Jordan Valley]] origin for the Mandaeans.<ref name=Deutsch/>{{rp|78}}<ref>Mead, G. R. S., Gnostic John the Baptizer: Selections from the Mandaean John-Book, Dumfries & Galloway UK, Anodos Books (2020)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/26661213|title=The Vines Of Joy: Comparative Studies in Mandaean History and Theology|last1=Zinner|first1=Samuel|date=2019}}</ref><ref name=Thomas/><ref>Reeves, J. C., Heralds of that Good Realm: Syro-Mesopotamian Gnostic and Jewish Traditions, Leiden, New York, Koln (1996).</ref><ref>Quispel, G., Gnosticism and the New Testament, Vigiliae Christianae, vol. 19, No 2. (Jan., 1965), pp. 65–85.</ref><ref>Beyer, K., The Aramaic Language; Its Distribution and Subdivisions, translated from the German by John F. Healey, Gottingen (1986)</ref> James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.<ref>{{cite web|last=McGrath|first=James|title=The Shared Origins of Monotheism, Evil, and Gnosticism|date=19 June 2020|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jELRRNgFAGk&t=3s| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/jELRRNgFAGk| archive-date=2021-11-17 | url-status=live|website=YouTube|access-date=15 November 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=Thomas/> [[E. S. Drower|Lady Ethel S. Drower]] "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"<ref>{{cite book|last=Buckley|first=Jorunn|title=Lady E. S. Drower's Scholarly Correspondence|url=https://brill.com/view/title/20157?contents=editorial-content|publisher=Brill|year=2012|page=210|isbn=9789004222472 }}</ref> and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."<ref name=Drower1960/>{{rp|xv}} [[Barbara Thiering]] questions the dating of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] and suggests that the [[Teacher of Righteousness]] (leader of the [[Essenes]]) was John the Baptist.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vkhqd0xVejg|title=The Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls|website=YouTube – Discovery Channel documentary|year=1990|access-date=10 March 2022}}</ref> Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins<ref name = BuckleyOrigin/>{{rp|97}} and adds:
{{blockquote|[T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of – or at least contributors to the development of – Gnosticism ... and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language... influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Manichaeism, Valentianism].<ref name = BuckleyOrigin/>{{rp|109}}}}
{{blockquote|[T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of – or at least contributors to the development of – Gnosticism ... and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language... influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Manichaeism, Valentianism].<ref name = BuckleyOrigin/>{{rp|109}}}}


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===Nasoraeans===
===Nasoraeans===
{{See also|Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans}}
{{See also|Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans}}
The [[Haran Gawaita]] uses the name [[Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans|Nasoraeans]] for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI/> Scholars such as [[Kurt Rudolph]], [[Rudolf Macúch]], [[Mark Lidzbarski]] and [[E. S. Drower|Ethel S. Drower]] connect the Mandaeans with the [[Essenes#Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs|Nasaraeans]] described by [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], a group within the [[Essenes]] according to [[Joseph Lightfoot]].<ref>Lidzbarski, Mark. ''Ginza: der Schatz, oder das Grosse Buch der Mandäer''. Leipzig, 1925.</ref><ref name=Drower1960/>{{rp|xiv}}{{sfn|Rudolph|1977|p=4}}<ref name=Thomas>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Richard |title=The Israelite Origins of the Mandaean People |journal=Studia Antiqua |date=29 January 2016 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua/vol5/iss2/4/ }}</ref><ref name=MacuchDrower/><ref name="R. Macuch, p. 6"/><ref name=lightfoot1875>{{Cite book|first=Joseph Barber |last=Lightfoot |author-link=Joseph Barber Lightfoot |chapter=On Some Points Connected with the Essenes |title=St. Paul's epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: a revised text with introductions, notes, and dissertations |year=1875 |url=https://archive.org/details/stpaulsepistles00lighgoog |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |location=London |oclc=6150927 }}</ref> Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.<ref name=Drower1960/>{{rp|xiv}}<ref>The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2</ref>
The [[Haran Gawaita]] uses the name [[Nazarene (sect)#Nasoraean Mandaeans|Nasoraeans]] for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.<ref name=RudolphEI/> Scholars such as [[Kurt Rudolph]], [[Rudolf Macúch]], [[Mark Lidzbarski]] and [[E. S. Drower|Ethel S. Drower]] connect the Mandaeans with the [[Essenes#Rules, customs, theology, and beliefs|Nasaraeans]] described by [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], a group within the [[Essenes]] according to [[Joseph Lightfoot]].<ref>Lidzbarski, Mark. ''Ginza: der Schatz, oder das Grosse Buch der Mandäer''. Leipzig, 1925.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Drower|1960b|p=xiv}}; {{harvnb|Rudolph|1977|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Thomas|2016}}; {{harvnb|Macuch|Drower|1963|p=}};{{pn|date=August 2024}} {{harvnb|Lightfoot|1875}}</ref><ref name="R. Macuch, p. 6"/> Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.{{sfn|Drower|1960b|p=xiv}}<ref>The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46) Frank Williams, translator, 1987 (E.J. Brill, Leiden) ISBN 90-04-07926-2</ref>


{{blockquote|The Nasaraeans ‐ they were Jews by nationality ‐ originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledged [[Moses]] and believed that he had received laws ‐ not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these [[Torah|Books]] are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraeans and the others.|[[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]]' ''[[Panarion]]'' 1:18}}
{{blockquote|The Nasaraeans ‐ they were Jews by nationality ‐ originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledged [[Moses]] and believed that he had received laws ‐ not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these [[Torah|Books]] are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraeans and the others.|[[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]]' ''[[Panarion]]'' 1:18}}
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According to the ''[[Iranian Journal of Public Health]]'':<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boroumand |first1=Fariba |last2=Zarghami |first2=Mahdis |last3=Saadat |first3=Mostafa |title=Genetic Polymorphisms of Glutathione S-Transferases T1 (GSTT1) and M1 (GSTM1) in Iranian Mandaeans Population |journal=Iranian Journal of Public Health |date=September 2019 |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=1746–1747 |pmc=6825671 |pmid=31700835 }}</ref>
According to the ''[[Iranian Journal of Public Health]]'':<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boroumand |first1=Fariba |last2=Zarghami |first2=Mahdis |last3=Saadat |first3=Mostafa |title=Genetic Polymorphisms of Glutathione S-Transferases T1 (GSTT1) and M1 (GSTM1) in Iranian Mandaeans Population |journal=Iranian Journal of Public Health |date=September 2019 |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=1746–1747 |pmc=6825671 |pmid=31700835 }}</ref>


{{blockquote|About 20 centuries ago, Mandaeans migrated from [[Jordan]]/[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] areas to Iraq and Iran. Therefore, their gene pool was separated from their origins for about 20 centuries. During this period, evolutionary forces might have some effects on the Mandaeans’ gene pool. The frequency of the [[GSTM1]] null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, [[Ashkenazi Jews]] and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 27.1%, 56.0%, 55.2%, and 55.2% (9, 10), respectively. On the other hand, the frequency of the [[GSTT1]] null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 24.2%, 22.0%, 26.0%, 22.1% (9, 10), respectively. Comparisons between Iranian Mandaeans and above-mentioned populations demonstrating that Mandaeans showed higher and lower levels of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 null genotypes, respectively. There was [a] remarkable difference between Mandaeans and other mentioned populations for the frequency of the GSTM1 null genotype.
{{blockquote|About 20 centuries ago, Mandaeans migrated from [[Jordan]]/[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] areas to Iraq and Iran. Therefore, their gene pool was separated from their origins for about 20 centuries. During this period, evolutionary forces might have some effects on the Mandaeans' gene pool. The frequency of the [[GSTM1]] null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, [[Ashkenazi Jews]] and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 27.1%, 56.0%, 55.2%, and 55.2% (9, 10), respectively. On the other hand, the frequency of the [[GSTT1]] null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 24.2%, 22.0%, 26.0%, 22.1% (9, 10), respectively. Comparisons between Iranian Mandaeans and above-mentioned populations demonstrating that Mandaeans showed higher and lower levels of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 null genotypes, respectively. There was [a] remarkable difference between Mandaeans and other mentioned populations for the frequency of the GSTM1 null genotype.


Mutation, gene flow and natural selection should be disregarded in [the] interpretation [of] the influence of evolutionary forces on Mandaeans and their surrounding gene pools. In Iran and Iraq Mandaeans lived as small and isolated ethno-religious communities. Therefore, genetic drift, at least in part might account for differences between Mandaeans and other populations.}}
Mutation, gene flow and natural selection should be disregarded in [the] interpretation [of] the influence of evolutionary forces on Mandaeans and their surrounding gene pools. In Iran and Iraq Mandaeans lived as small and isolated ethno-religious communities. Therefore, genetic drift, at least in part might account for differences between Mandaeans and other populations.}}
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==References==
==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite news |last=Crawford |first=Angus |title=Iraq's Mandaeans 'face extinction' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6412453.stm |date=4 March 2007 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=25 November 2021}}
* {{cite web |last=Deutsch |first=Nathaniel |date=6 October 2007 |title=Save the Gnostics |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/06/opinion/06deutsch.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=25 November 2021}}
* {{cite web |last=Thaler |first=Kai |title=Iraqi minority group needs U.S. attention |url=https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2007/03/09/iraqi-minority-group-needs-u-s-attention/ |website=Yale Daily News |date=9 March 2007 |access-date=4 November 2021}}
{{refend}}


==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
===Primary sources===
===Primary sources===
*{{cite book|last1=Buckley|first1=Jorunn J.|author1-link=Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley|date=1993|title=The Scroll of Exalted Kingship: Diwan Malkuta 'Laita (Mandean Manuscript No. 34 in the Drower Collection, Bodleian Library, Oxford)|location=New Haven|publisher=American Oriental Society}}
* {{cite book |last1=Buckley |first1=Jorunn J. |author1-link=Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley |date=1993 |title=The Scroll of Exalted Kingship: Diwan Malkuta 'Laita (Mandean Manuscript No. 34 in the Drower Collection, Bodleian Library, Oxford) |location=New Haven |publisher=[[American Oriental Society]]}}
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1950a|title=Diwan Abatur, or Progress Through the Purgatories: Text with Translation Notes and Appendices|location=Città del Vaticano|publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana}}
* {{cite book |last1=Drowe r|first1=E. S. |author1-link=E. S. Drower |date=1950a |title=Diwan Abatur, or Progress Through the Purgatories: Text with Translation Notes and Appendices |location=Città del Vaticano |publisher=Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana}}
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1950b|title=Šarḥ ḏ Qabin ḏ šišlam Rba (D. C. 38). Explanatory Commentary on the Marriage-Ceremony of the great Šišlam|location=Roma|publisher=Pontificio Istituto Biblico}}
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1950b|title=Šarḥ ḏ Qabin ḏ šišlam Rba (D. C. 38). Explanatory Commentary on the Marriage-Ceremony of the great Šišlam|location=Roma|publisher=Pontificio Istituto Biblico}}
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1960a|title=The Thousand and Twelve Questions (Alf trisar šuialia)|location=Berlin|publisher=Akademie-Verlag}}
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1960a|title=The Thousand and Twelve Questions (Alf trisar šuialia)|location=Berlin|publisher=Akademie-Verlag}}
Line 293: Line 345:
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1963|title=A Pair of Naṣoraean Commentaries (Two Priestly Documents): The Great First World and The Lesser First World|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill}}
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1963|title=A Pair of Naṣoraean Commentaries (Two Priestly Documents): The Great First World and The Lesser First World|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill}}
*{{cite book|last1=Häberl|first1=Charles G.|author1-link=Charles G. Häberl|date=2022|title=The Book of Kings and the Explanations of This World: A Universal History from the Late Sasanian Empire|series=Translated Texts for Historians|volume=80|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-1-800-85627-1}}
*{{cite book|last1=Häberl|first1=Charles G.|author1-link=Charles G. Häberl|date=2022|title=The Book of Kings and the Explanations of This World: A Universal History from the Late Sasanian Empire|series=Translated Texts for Historians|volume=80|location=Liverpool|publisher=Liverpool University Press|isbn=978-1-800-85627-1}}
*{{cite book|editor-last1=Häberl|editor-first1=Charles G.|editor-link1=Charles G. Häberl|editor-last2=McGrath|editor-first2=James F.|editor-link2=James F. McGrath|date=2019|title=The Mandaean Book of John. Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary|location=Berlin and Boston|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487862|isbn=9783110487862 |s2cid=226656912 }}
*{{cite book|editor-last1=Häberl|editor-first1=Charles G.|editor-link1=Charles G. Häberl|editor-last2=McGrath|editor-first2=James F.|editor-link2=James F. McGrath|date=2019|title=The Mandaean Book of John. Critical Edition, Translation, and Commentary|location=Berlin and Boston|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487862|isbn=978-3-11-048786-2 |s2cid=226656912 }}
*{{cite book|last1=Häberl|first1=Charles G.|author1-link=Charles G. Häberl|last2=McGrath|first2=James F.|editor-first1=Charles G. |editor-first2=James F. |editor-last1=Häberl |editor-last2=McGrath |author2-link=James F. McGrath|date=2020|title=The Mandaean Book of John: Text and Translation|location=Berlin|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487862 |isbn=9783110487862 |s2cid=226656912 |url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/1065}} ([[open access]] version of text and translation, taken from {{harvnb|Häberl|McGrath|2019}})
*{{cite book|last1=Häberl|first1=Charles G.|author1-link=Charles G. Häberl|last2=McGrath|first2=James F.|editor-first1=Charles G. |editor-first2=James F. |editor-last1=Häberl |editor-last2=McGrath |author2-link=James F. McGrath|date=2020|title=The Mandaean Book of John: Text and Translation|location=Berlin|publisher=De Gruyter|doi=10.1515/9783110487862 |isbn=978-3-11-048786-2 |s2cid=226656912 |url=https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/facsch_papers/1065}} ([[open access]] version of text and translation, taken from {{harvnb|Häberl|McGrath|2019}})


===Secondary sources===
===Secondary sources===
*{{cite book|last1=Buckley|first1=Jorunn J.|author1-link=Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley|date=2002|title=The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Buckley |first1=Jorunn J. |author1-link=Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley |date=2002 |title=The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}
*{{cite book|last1=Buckley|first1=Jorunn J.|author1-link=Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley|date=2005|title=The Great Stem of Souls: Reconstruction Mandaean History|location=Piscataway|publisher=Gorgias Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Buckley |first1=Jorunn J. |author1-link=Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley |date=2005 |title=The Great Stem of Souls: Reconstruction Mandaean History |location=Piscataway |publisher=[[Gorgias Press]]}}
*{{cite book|last1=Chwolsohn|first1=Daniel|author1-link=Daniel Chwolsohn|date=1856|title=Die Ssabier und die Ssabismus|series=Vols. 1–2.|location=St. Petersburg|publisher=Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften|url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=Die+Ssabier+und+die+Ssabismus|oclc=64850836}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chwolsohn |first1=Daniel |author1-link=Daniel Chwolsohn |date=1856 |title=Die Ssabier und die Ssabismus |language=de |trans-title=The Sabians and the Sabianism |series=Vols. 1–2. |location=St. Petersburg |publisher=Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften |url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=Die+Ssabier+und+die+Ssabismus |oclc=64850836}}
*{{cite journal|last1=De Blois|first1=François|date=1995|title=The "Sabians" (Ṣābi'ūn) in pre-Islamic Arabia|journal=Acta Orientalia|volume=56|pages=39–61}}
* {{cite journal |last1=De Blois |first1=François |date=1995 |title=The "Sabians" (Ṣābi'ūn) in pre-Islamic Arabia |journal=Acta Orientalia |volume=56 |pages=39–61}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=De Blois|first1=F.C.|year=1960–2007|title=Ṣābiʾ|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0952}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=De Blois|first1=F.C.|year=1960–2007|title=Ṣābiʾ|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0952}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=De Blois|first1=François|date=2004|title=Sabians|editor1-last=McAuliffe|editor1-first=Jane Dammen|editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān|doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00362}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=De Blois |first1=François |date=2004 |title=Sabians |editor1-last=McAuliffe |editor1-first=Jane Dammen |editor1-link=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān |doi=10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00362}}
*{{cite book|last1=Deutsch|first1=Nathaniel|date=1999|title=Guardians of the Gate: Angelic Vice-regency in the Late Antiquity|publisher=Brill|isbn=9004109099|language=en |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=yhfMea8gTu4CGuardians}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Deutsch |first1=Nathaniel |date=1999 |title=Guardians of the Gate: Angelic Vice-regency in the Late Antiquity |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-67924-5 |language=en |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=yhfMea8gTu4CGuardians}}}}
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1937|title=The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran: Their Cults, Customs, Magic Legends, and Folklore|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press}} (reprint: Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2002)
* {{cite book |last1=Drower |first1=Ethel Stephana |author1-link=E. S. Drower |date=1937 |title=The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran: Their Cults, Customs, Magic Legends, and Folklore |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]}} (reprint: Piscataway: [[Gorgias Press]], 2002)
*{{cite book|last1=Drower|first1=E.S.|author1-link=E. S. Drower|date=1960b|title=The Secret Adam: A Study of Nasoraean Gnosis|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|oclc=654318531|url=https://archive.org/details/secretadamstudyo0000drow}}
* {{cite book |last1=Drower |first1=Ethel Stephana |author1-link=E. S. Drower |date=1960b |title=The Secret Adam: A Study of Nasoraean Gnosis |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |oclc=654318531 |url=https://archive.org/details/secretadamstudyo0000drow}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Fahd|first1=Toufic|date=1960–2007|title=Ṣābiʾa|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0953}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Fahd|first1=Toufic|date=1960–2007|title=Ṣābiʾa|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor2-link=Thierry Bianquis|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor4-link=Emeri Johannes van Donzel|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0953}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Genequand|first1=Charles|date=1999|title=Idolâtrie, astrolâtrie, et sabéisme|journal=Studia Islamica|volume=89|issue=89 |pages=109–128|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1596088|doi=10.2307/1596088|jstor=1596088}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Genequand|first1=Charles|date=1999|title=Idolâtrie, astrolâtrie, et sabéisme|journal=Studia Islamica|volume=89|issue=89 |pages=109–128|doi=10.2307/1596088|jstor=1596088}}
*{{cite book|last1=Green|first1=Tamara M.|date=1992|title=The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran|series=Religions in the Graeco-Roman World|volume=114|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-09513-7|url=https://brill.com/view/title/1320}}
* {{cite book |last1=Green |first1=Tamara M. |date=1992 |title=The City of the Moon God: Religious Traditions of Harran |series=Religions in the Graeco-Roman World |volume=114 |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-09513-7 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/1320}}
*{{cite book|last1=Gündüz|first1=Şinasi|author1-link=:tr:Şinasi Gündüz|year=1994|title=The Knowledge of Life: The Origins and Early History of the Mandaeans and Their Relation to the Sabians of the Qur'ān and to the Harranians|series=Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement|volume=3|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199221936|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPXYAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gündüz |first1=Şinasi |author1-link=:tr:Şinasi Gündüz |year=1994 |title=The Knowledge of Life: The Origins and Early History of the Mandaeans and Their Relation to the Sabians of the Qur'ān and to the Harranians |series=Journal of Semitic Studies Supplement |volume=3 |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-922193-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NPXYAAAAMAAJ}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hämeen-Anttila|first1=Jaakko|author1-link=Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila|year=2006|title=The Last Pagans of Iraq: Ibn Waḥshiyya and His Nabatean Agriculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qXjXAAAAMAAJ|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-15010-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hämeen-Anttila |first1=Jaakko |author1-link=Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila |year=2006 |title=The Last Pagans of Iraq: Ibn Waḥshiyya and His Nabatean Agriculture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qXjXAAAAMAAJ |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-15010-2}}
*{{cite book|last1=Lupieri|first1=Edmondo|author1-link=Edmondo Lupieri|date=2002|title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics|location=Grand Rapids|publisher=Eerdmans}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lupieri |first1=Edmondo |author1-link=Edmondo Lupieri |date=2002 |title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics |location=Grand Rapids |publisher=Eerdmans}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lightfoot |first=Joseph Barber |author-link=Joseph Barber Lightfoot |chapter=On Some Points Connected with the Essenes |title=St. Paul's epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon: a revised text with introductions, notes, and dissertations |year=1875 |url=https://archive.org/details/stpaulsepistles00lighgoog |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]] |location=London |oclc=6150927}}
* {{cite book |last1=Macuch |first1=Rudolf |title=A Mandaic Dictionary |first2=E. S. |last2=Drower |author2-link=E. S. Drower |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |date=1963}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Margoliouth|first1=D.S.|author1-link=David Samuel Margoliouth|date=1913|title=Harranians|editor1-last=Hastings|editor1-first=James|editor1-link=James Hastings|editor2-last=Selbie|editor2-first=John A.|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics|volume=VI|pages=519–520|location=Edinburgh|publisher=T. & T. Clark|oclc=4993011}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Margoliouth|first1=D.S.|author1-link=David Samuel Margoliouth|date=1913|title=Harranians|editor1-last=Hastings|editor1-first=James|editor1-link=James Hastings|editor2-last=Selbie|editor2-first=John A.|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics|volume=VI|pages=519–520|location=Edinburgh|publisher=T. & T. Clark|oclc=4993011}}
*{{cite book|last1=Nasoraia|first1=Brikhah S.|author1-link=Brikha Nasoraia|date=2012|chapter=Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion|editor1-last=Çetinkaya|editor1-first=Bayram|title=Religious and Philosophical Texts: Rereading, Understanding and Comprehending Them in the 21st Century|location=Istanbul|publisher=Sultanbeyli Belediyesi|pages=vol. I, pp. 27–53}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nasoraia |first1=Brikhah H. S. |author1-link=Brikha Nasoraia |date=2012 |chapter=Sacred Text and Esoteric Praxis in Sabian Mandaean Religion |editor1-last=Çetinkaya |editor1-first=Bayram |title=Religious and Philosophical Texts: Rereading, Understanding and Comprehending Them in the 21st Century |volume=I |location=Istanbul |publisher=Sultanbeyli Belediyesi |pages=27–53}}
*{{cite book|last1=Rashed|first1=Marwan|date=2009a|chapter=Thabit ibn Qurra sur l'existence et l'infini: les réponses aux questions posées par Ibn Usayyid|editor1-last=Rashed|editor1-first=Roshdi|editor1-link=Roshdi Rashed|title=Thābit ibn Qurra: Science and Philosophy in Ninth-Century Baghdad|series=Scientia Graeco-Arabica |location=Berlin|publisher=De Gruyter|pages=619–673|doi=10.1515/9783110220797.6.619|isbn=9783110220780}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rashed |first1=Marwan |date=2009a |chapter=Thabit ibn Qurra sur l'existence et l'infini: les réponses aux questions posées par Ibn Usayyid |editor1-last=Rashed |editor1-first=Roshdi |editor1-link=Roshdi Rashed |title=Thābit ibn Qurra: Science and Philosophy in Ninth-Century Baghdad |series=Scientia Graeco-Arabica |location=Berlin |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |pages=619–673 |doi=10.1515/9783110220797.6.619 |isbn=978-3-11-022078-0}}
*{{cite book|last1=Rashed|first1=Roshdi|author1-link=Roshdi Rashed|date=2009b|chapter=Thābit ibn Qurra: From Ḥarrān to Baghdad|editor1-last=Rashed|editor1-first=Roshdi|editor1-link=Roshdi Rashed|title=Thābit ibn Qurra: Science and Philosophy in Ninth-Century Baghdad|series=Scientia Graeco-Arabica |location=Berlin|publisher=De Gruyter|pages=15–24|doi=10.1515/9783110220797.1.15|isbn=9783110220780}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rashed |first1=Roshdi |author1-link=Roshdi Rashed |date=2009b |chapter=Thābit ibn Qurra: From Ḥarrān to Baghdad |editor1-last=Rashed |editor1-first=Roshdi |editor1-link=Roshdi Rashed |title=Thābit ibn Qurra: Science and Philosophy in Ninth-Century Baghdad |series=Scientia Graeco-Arabica |location=Berlin |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |pages=15–24 |doi=10.1515/9783110220797.1.15 |isbn=978-3-11-022078-0}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Alexandre M.|date=2017|title=Being a Sabian at Court in Tenth-Century Baghdad|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=137|issue=2|pages=253–277|doi=10.17613/M6GB8Z}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=Alexandre M. |date=2017 |title=Being a Sabian at Court in Tenth-Century Baghdad |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=137 |issue=2 |pages=253–277 |doi=10.17613/M6GB8Z}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rudolph |first=Kurt |title=War Der Verfasser Der Oden Salomos Ein "Qumran-Christ"? Ein Beitrag zur Diskussion um die Anfänge der Gnosis |language=de |trans-title=Was the author of the Odes of Solomon a "Qumran Christian"? A contribution to the discussion about the beginnings of Gnosis |journal=Revue de Qumrân |date=April 1964 |volume=4 |number=16 |pages=523–555 |publisher=Peeters}}
*{{Cite book|last1=Rudolph|first1=Kurt|author1-link=Kurt Rudolph|date=1977|chapter=Mandaeism|editor1-last=Moore|editor1-first=Albert C.|title=Iconography of Religions: An Introduction|publisher=Chris Robertson|isbn=9780800604882|volume=21|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/iconographyofrel0000moor|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=chWcZcYcyeQC}}}}
*{{cite book|last1=Rudolph|first1=Kurt|author1-link=Kurt Rudolph|date=2001|title=Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=9780567086402|language=en|pages=343–366|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3XxxkESCWz4C}}}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Rudolph |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Rudolph |date=1977 |chapter=Mandaeism |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Albert C. |title=Iconography of Religions: An Introduction |publisher=Chris Robertson |isbn=978-0-8006-0488-2 |volume=21|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/iconographyofrel0000moor |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=chWcZcYcyeQC}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rudolph |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Rudolph |date=2001 |title=Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-08640-2 |language=en |pages=343–366 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3XxxkESCWz4C}}}}
*{{cite book|last1=Stroumsa|first1=Sarah|author1-link=Sarah Stroumsa|date=2004|chapter=Sabéens de Ḥarrān et Sabéens de Maïmonide|editor1-last=Lévy|editor1-first=Tony|editor1-link=Tony Lévy|editor2-last=Rashed|editor2-first=Roshdi|editor2-link=Roshdi Rashed|title=Maïmonide: Philosophe et savant (1138–1204)|location=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|pages=335–352|isbn=9789042914582}}
* {{cite journal |last=Segelberg |first=Eric |year=1969 |title=Old and New Testament figures in Mandaean version |journal=[[Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis]] |volume=3 |pages=228–239 |doi=10.30674/scripta.67040 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite book|last=Van Bladel|first=Kevin|year=2009|chapter=Hermes and the Ṣābians of Ḥarrān|title=The Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=64–118|isbn=978-0-19-537613-5|chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195376135.001.0001/acprof-9780195376135-chapter-3|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195376135.003.0003}}
*{{cite book|last1=Stroumsa|first1=Sarah|author1-link=Sarah Stroumsa|date=2004|chapter=Sabéens de Ḥarrān et Sabéens de Maïmonide|editor1-last=Lévy|editor1-first=Tony|editor1-link=Tony Lévy|editor2-last=Rashed|editor2-first=Roshdi|editor2-link=Roshdi Rashed|title=Maïmonide: Philosophe et savant (1138–1204)|location=Leuven|publisher=Peeters|pages=335–352|isbn=978-90-429-1458-2}}
*{{cite book|last1=Van Bladel|first1=Kevin|year=2017|title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes|location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004339460|isbn=978-90-04-33943-9|url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Richard |title=The Israelite Origins of the Mandaean People |journal=Studia Antiqua |date=29 January 2016 |volume=5 |issue=2 |url=https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua/vol5/iss2/4/}}
**Review: {{cite web |last1=McGrath |first1=James F. |author1-link=James F. McGrath |date=2019 |title=James F. McGrath Reviews From Sasanian Mandaeans to Sabians (van Bladel) |website=Enoch Seminar Online |url=https://enochseminar.org/2019/01/10/james-f-mcgrath-reviews-from-sasanian-mandaeans-to-sabians-van-bladel/}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Bladel |first=Kevin |year=2009 |chapter=Hermes and the Ṣābians of Ḥarrān |title=The Arabic Hermes: From Pagan Sage to Prophet of Science |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=64–118 |isbn=978-0-19-537613-5 |chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195376135.001.0001/acprof-9780195376135-chapter-3 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195376135.003.0003}}
*{{cite book|last1=Yamauchi|first1=Edwin M.|author1-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi|date=2005|orig-date=1967|title=Mandaic Incantation Texts|location=Piscataway|publisher=Gorgias Press}}
*{{cite book|last1=Yamauchi|first1=Edwin M.|author1-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi|date=2004|orig-date=1970|title=Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean Origins|location=Piscataway|publisher=Gorgias Press}}
* {{cite book |last1=Van Bladel |first1=Kevin |year=2017 |title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes |location=Leiden |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |doi=10.1163/9789004339460 |isbn=978-90-04-33943-9 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389}}
** Review: {{cite web |last1=McGrath |first1=James F. |author1-link=James F. McGrath |date=2019 |title=James F. McGrath Reviews From Sasanian Mandaeans to Sabians (van Bladel) |website=Enoch Seminar Online |url=https://enochseminar.org/2019/01/10/james-f-mcgrath-reviews-from-sasanian-mandaeans-to-sabians-van-bladel/}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yamauchi |first1=Edwin M. |author1-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi |date=2005 |orig-date=1967 |title=Mandaic Incantation Texts |location=Piscataway |publisher=[[Gorgias Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last1=Yamauchi |first1=Edwin M. |author1-link=Edwin M. Yamauchi |date=2004 |orig-date=1970 |title=Gnostic Ethics and Mandaean Origins |location=Piscataway |publisher=[[Gorgias Press]]}}


==External links==
==External links==

Latest revision as of 08:21, 22 December 2024

Mandaeans
ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ
الصابئة المندائيون
Mandaeans in prayer, Iran
Total population
c. 60,000–100,000[1][2][3]
Regions with significant populations
 Sweden10,000–20,000[4][5]
 Australia8,000–10,000[6][7][8]
 United States5,000–7,000[9][10][11][12][13]
 Iraq3,000[a]–6,000[14][13]
 Netherlands4,000[3]
 Iran2,500 (2015)[15][13]
 United Kingdom2,500[3]
 Germany2,200–3,000[16][5]
 Jordan1,400–2,500[17][18]
 Syria1,000 (2015)[19][13]
 Canada1,000[20]
 New Zealand1,000[5]
 Denmark650–1,200[21][13]
 Finland100 families[22]
 France500[23]
Religions
Mandaeism
Scriptures
Ginza Rabba, Qulasta, Mandaean Book of John, Haran Gawaita, etc. (see more)
Languages

Mandaeans (Mandaic: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ) (Arabic: المندائيون al-Mandāʾiyyūn), also known as Mandaean Sabians (الصابئة المندائيون al-Ṣābiʾa al-Mandāʾiyyūn) or simply as Sabians (الصابئة al-Ṣābiʾa),[b] are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and most important prophet. They may have been among the earliest religious groups to practice baptism, as well as among the earliest adherents of Gnosticism, a belief system of which they are the last surviving representatives today.[24][25]: 109  The Mandaeans were originally native speakers of Mandaic, an Eastern Aramaic language, before they nearly all switched to Mesopotamian Arabic or Persian as their main language.

After the invasion of Iraq by the United States and its allies in 2003, the Mandaean community of Iraq, which before the war numbered 60,000–70,000 persons, collapsed due to the rise of Islamic extremism and the absence of protection against it, with most of the community relocating to Iran, Syria and Jordan, or forming diaspora communities beyond the Middle East. Mandaeans have been forcibly converted to Islam, making them apostates from Islam if they revert to their religion, thereby risking being murdered. Such Mandaeans have voiced feeling unsafe in any Muslim country for this reason.[26][27][28]

The remaining community of Iranian Mandaeans has also been dwindling as a result of religious persecution over the decades. Unlike other religious minorities such as Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians, Mandaeans have no protection from persecution whatsoever, similar to Baháʼís in Iran.[15][29][30] By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000.[31] There are estimated to be 60,000–100,000 Mandaeans worldwide.[11] About 10,000 Mandaeans live in Australia and between 10,000 and 20,000 in Sweden, making them the countries with the most Mandaeans.[5][7] There are about 2,500 Mandaeans in Jordan, the largest Mandaean community in the Middle East outside of Iraq and Iran.[18]

Etymology

[edit]

The name "Mandaean" comes from the Mandaic word manda, meaning "to have knowledge".[32][33]

In Muslim countries, Mandaeans are sometimes also called Sabians (Arabic: الصابئة al-Ṣābiʾa), a Quranic epithet historically claimed by several religious groups (see also below).[34] The etymology of the Arabic word Ṣābiʾ is disputed. According to one interpretation, it is the active participle of the Arabic root -b-[ʾ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) ('to turn to'), meaning 'converts'.[35] Another widely cited hypothesis is that it is derived from an Aramaic root meaning 'to baptize'.[36]

History

[edit]
The Genesis Apocryphon, part of the Dead Sea Scrolls

Origin

[edit]

According to a theory first proposed by Ignatius of Jesus in the 17th century, the Mandaeans originated in Judea and later migrated east to the Mesopotamian Marshes.[37] This theory was gradually abandoned, but was revived in the early 20th century through the first translation of Mandaean texts, which Biblical scholars like Rudolf Bultmann believed capable of shedding new light on the development of early Christianity.[37] However, most New Testament scholars rejected the Judean origin thesis, which by World War II was again largely deserted by scholars.[37] It was revived in the 1960s by Rudolf Macúch, it is now accepted by Mandaean scholars such as Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley and Şinasi Gündüz.[37] According to Macúch, the eastward migration from the Roman province of Judea to southern Iraq took place in the first century CE, while other scholars such as Kurt Rudolph think it probably took place in the third century.[38]

There are also other theories. Kevin van Bladel has argued that the Mandaeans originated in Sasanian-ruled Mesopotamia in the fifth century.[39] According to Carlos Gelbert, Mandaeans formed a vibrant community in Edessa in late antiquity.[40] Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the Jordan Valley, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today.[41]: 55 

There are several indications of the ultimate origin of the Mandaeans. Early religious concepts and terminologies recur in the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Yardena (Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism.[42] Mara ḏ-Rabuta (Mandaic: "Lord of Greatness", one of the names for Hayyi Rabbi) is found in the Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20) II, 4.[43] They formally refer to themselves as Naṣuraiia (ࡍࡀࡑࡅࡓࡀࡉࡉࡀ‎), meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.[44][45] Another early self-appellation is bhiria zidqa, meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and Genesis Apocryphon II, 4.[43][44][46]: 18 [47] As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of bnia nhura, meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes.[48][49] The bit manda (beth manda) is described as biniana rba ḏ-šrara ("the Great building of Truth") and bit tušlima ("house of Perfection") in Mandaean texts such as the Qulasta, Ginza Rabba, and the Mandaean Book of John. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from Qumran such as the Community Rule, which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (Community Rule 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."[50]

The Damascus Document, part of the Dead Sea Scrolls

The Mandaic language, a Southeastern Aramaic dialect, exhibits significant inherited features from Akkadian (like the Aramaic dialectscof the Assyrians), particularly from the Late Babylonian phase.[51] Phonetic, grammatical, and lexicographic elements traceable to Akkadian strongly suggest that the origins of Mandaic and its speakers, the Mandaeans, are deeply rooted in Mesopotamia. While Mandaic has historically been classified alongside Babylonian Talmudic Aramaic, Assyrian neo-Aramaic and Syriac as part of Eastern Aramaic, recent linguistic analysis has led to the recognition of a distinct Southeastern Aramaic branch. This classification is based on clear isoglosses in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicography that separate the Mandaic language.

The roots of the Mandaic language extend back to the early Parthian period, with no compelling evidence of Western Aramaic linguistic influence in Mandaic or the Aramaic of the Assyrians. The Mandaeans are thought to descend from an Assyro-Babylonian population, further reinforcing the connection between Mandaic and its Mesopotamian heritage. This distinction highlights the uniqueness of Mandaic within the broader Aramaic linguistic landscape.[52] Although there appears to be strong religious connections between the Mandaeans with both ancient Assyro-Babylonian beliefs and Gnostic Jewish sects, such as the Elcasaites, linguistically the Mandaeans speak what can be considered a pure form of Babylonian Aramaic.[53]

A priest holds the title of Rabbi[54] and a place of worship is called a Mashkhanna.[55] According to Mandaean sources such as the Haran Gawaita, the Nasuraiia inhabited the areas around Jerusalem and the River Jordan in the 1st century CE.[25][45] There is archaeological evidence that attests to the Mandaean presence in pre-Islamic Iraq.[56][57] Scholars, including Kurt Rudolph, connect the early Mandaeans with the Jewish sect of the Nasoraeans. Mandaeans believe that their religion predates Judaism.[57][25][58][59] According to Mandaean scripture, the Mandaeans descend directly from Shem, Noah's son, in Mesopotamia[60]: 186  and also from John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem.[45]: vi, ix  According to the Mandaean Society in America, Mani (the founder of Manichaeism) was influenced by the Mandaeans, and a pre-Manichaean presence of the Mandaean religion is more than likely.[61]

Jordan River

Gerard Russell quotes Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo, "Ours is the oldest religion in the world. It dates back to Adam." Russell adds, "He [Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo] traced its history back to Babylon, though he said it might have some connection to the Jews of Jerusalem."[62][page needed] The Mandaean Synod of Australia led by Rishama Salah Choheili states:

Mandaeans are followers of John the Baptist. Their ancestors fled from the Jordan Valley about 2000 years ago and ultimately settled along the lower reaches of the Tigris, Euphrates and Karun Rivers in what is now Iraq and Iran. Baptism is the principal ceremony of the Mandaean religion and may only take place in a freshwater river.[63]

Parthian and Sasanian period

[edit]
Kartir's inscription at Ka'ba-ye Zartosht claimed that he "struck down" the non-Zoroastrian minorities, such as the Mandaeans

A number of ancient Aramaic inscriptions dating back to the 2nd century CE were uncovered in Elymais. Although the letters appear quite similar to the Mandaean ones, it is impossible to know whether the inhabitants of Elymais were Mandaeans.[64]: 4  Rudolf Macúch believes Mandaean letters predate Elymaic ones.[64]: 4  Under Parthian and early Sasanian rule, foreign religions were tolerated and Mandaeans appear to have enjoyed royal protection.[64]: 4  The situation changed by the ascension of Bahram I in 273, who under the influence of the zealous Zoroastrian high priest Kartir persecuted all non-Zoroastrian religions. It is thought that this persecution encouraged the consolidation of Mandaean religious literature.[64]: 4  The persecutions instigated by Kartir seems to temporarily erase Mandaeans from recorded history. Their presence, however can still be found in Mandaean magical bowls and lead strips which were produced from the 3rd to the 7th century.[64]: 4 

Islamic period

[edit]

The Mandaeans re-emerged at the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia in c. 640, when their leader, Anush bar Danqa, is said to have appeared before the Muslim authorities, showing them a copy of the Ginza Rabba, the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be John the Baptist, who is also mentioned in the Quran by the name Yahya ibn Zakariya. Consequently, the Muslim caliph provided them acknowledgement as People of the Book (ahl al-kitāb, adherents of religions recognized as guided by previous revelations).[64]: 5  However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush bar Danqa traveled to Baghdad, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all.[65]

Mandaeans appeared to have flourished during the early Islamic period, as attested by the voluminous expansion of Mandaic literature and canons. Tib near Wasit is particularly noted as an important scribal center.[64]: 5  Yaqut al-Hamawi describes Tib as a town inhabited by 'Nabatean' (i.e. Aramaic speaking) 'Sabians' (see below) who consider themselves to be descendants of Seth.[64]: 5 

The status of the Mandaeans was questioned by the Abbasid caliph al-Qahir Billah (899–950 CE), even though they had received recognition as People of the Book. To avoid further investigation by the authorities, the Mandaeans paid a bribe of 50,000 dinars and were left alone. It appeared that the Mandaeans were even exempt from paying the Jizya, otherwise imposed upon non-Muslims.[64]: 5 

It has been suggested by some scholars that Harranian intellectuals who worked at the Abbasid court such as Thābit ibn Qurra may have been Mandaeans,[66] though most scholars believe they were adherents of the pagan astral religion of Harran.[67]

Early modern period

[edit]

Early contact with Europeans came about in the mid-16th century, when Portuguese missionaries encountered Mandaeans in Southern Iraq and controversially designated them "Christians of St. John". In the next centuries Europeans became more acquainted with the Mandaeans and their religion.[64]: 5 

The Mandaeans suffered persecution under the Qajar rule in the 1780s. The dwindling community was threatened with complete annihilation, when a cholera epidemic broke out in Shushtar and half of its inhabitants died. The entire Mandaean priesthood perished and Mandaeism was restored due to the efforts of few learned men such as Yahya Bihram.[64]: 6  Another danger threatened the community in 1870, when the local governor of Shushtar massacred the Mandaeans against the will of the Shah.[64]: 6 

















Modern Iraq and Iran

[edit]
Mandaean silversmith at work in Baghdad, Iraq, 1932

Following the First World War, the Mandaeans were still largely living in rural areas in the lower parts of British protected Iraq and Iran. Owing to the rise of Arab nationalism, Iraqi Mandaeans were Arabised at an accelerated rate, especially during the 1950s and '60s. The Mandaeans were also forced to abandon their stances on the cutting of hair and forced military service, which are strictly prohibited in Mandaeaism.[68]

However, during the time of Abdul-Karim Qasim persecution decreased.[69] Under Saddam Hussein, Mandaeans flourished in Iraq.[69] They were granted permission to practice their religion and the government allocated them lands to build their place of worship.[69] In 1972, a decree was issued allowing Mandaeans to enjoy their religious festivals.[69] According to local sources, their population until 2003 was 75,000.[69]

The 2003 American invasion of Iraq and the war that followed brought more troubles to the Mandaeans, as the security situation deteriorated. Many members of the Mandaean community, who were known as goldsmiths, were targeted by criminal gangs for ransoms. The rise of ISIS forced thousands to flee the country, after they were given the choice of conversion or death.[70] It is estimated that around 90% of Iraqi Mandaeans were either killed or have fled after the U.S. led invasion.[70]

The Mandaeans of Iran lived chiefly in Ahvaz, Iranian Khuzestan, but have moved as a result of the Iran–Iraq War to other cities such as Tehran, Karaj and Shiraz. The Mandaeans, who were traditionally considered as People of the Book (members of a protected religion under Islamic rule), lost this status after the Iranian Revolution. However, despite this, Iranian Mandaeans still maintain successful businesses and factories in areas such as Ahwaz. In April 1996, the cause of the Mandaeans' religious status in the Islamic Republic was raised. The parliament came to the conclusion that Mandaeans were included in the protected status of People of the Book alongside Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians and specified that, from a legal viewpoint, there is no prohibition against Muslims associating with Mandaeans, whom the parliament identified as being the Sabians mentioned explicitly in the Quran. That same year, Ayatollah Sajjadi of Al-Zahra University in Qom posed three questions regarding the Mandaeans' beliefs and seemed satisfied with the answers. These rulings, however, did not lead to Mandaeans regaining their more officially recognized status as People of the Book.[71] In 2009, Iran's Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwā recognizing the Mandaeans as People of the Book.[72][c]

Population

[edit]
Mandaeans celebrating Parwanaya and bearing witness to the Yardena at the Tigris River, Amarah, Iraq – March 17, 2019

Iraqi Mandaeans

[edit]
Further information (in Arabic): Mandaeans in Iraq

Prior to the Iraq War, the Iraqi Mandaean community was centered in southern Iraq in cities such as Nasiriyah, Amarah, Qal'at Saleh,[75] Wasit,[41]: 92  and Basra, as well as in Baghdad (particularly the district of Dora[76]). Historically, Mandaean quarters had also existed in southern Iraqi towns such as Qurna and Suq al-Shuyukh.[77]

Baptism (masbuta) during Parwanaya in the Tigris River, Amarah, Iraq – March 17, 2019

Many also live across the border in Southwestern Iran in the cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr.[78] Mandaean emigration from Iraq began during Saddam Hussein's rule, but accelerated greatly after the American-led invasion and subsequent occupation.[79] Since the invasion Mandaeans, like other Iraqi ethno-religious minorities (such as Assyrians, Armenians, Yazidi, Roma and Shabaks), have been subjected to violence, including murders, kidnappings, rapes, evictions, and forced conversions.[79][80] Mandaeans, like many other Iraqis, have also been targeted for kidnapping since many worked as goldsmiths.[79] Mandaeism is pacifistic and forbids its adherents from carrying weapons.[79][81]: 91  During the 20th century in Iraq, most Mandaeans lived in large towns and cities, although a minority also lived in rural villages in the marshlands of southern Iraq.[41]

Many Iraqi Mandaeans have fled the country in the face of this violence, and the Mandaean community in Iraq faces extinction.[82][27] Out of the over 60,000 Mandaeans in Iraq in the early 1990s, fewer than 5,000 to 10,000 remain there as of 2007. In early 2007, more than 80% of Iraqi Mandaeans were refugees in Syria and Jordan as a result of the Iraq War.[31] In 2019, an Al-Monitor study estimated the Iraqi Mandaean population to be 3,000, 400 of which lived in the Erbil Governorate, which is 5% or less than the pre-Iraq war Mandaean population.[14]

Mandaeans in the past were renowned silver and gold smiths, blacksmiths and boatbuilders, even before the Abbasid Caliphate when they gained fame as intellectuals in the cultural and scientific fields. In modern Iraq, Mandaeans have gained prominence as academics, writers, artists, poets, physicians, engineers and jewelers.[5]: 161 

Notable Iraqi Mandaeans

[edit]
Left to right - Ganzibra Dakheel Edan (1881–1964), Abdullah bar Sam (1890-1981) High Priests of the Mandaeans

Iranian Mandaeans

[edit]
Mīnākārī on gold, an ancient art of Mandaeans, Ahvaz, Iran

The number of Iranian Mandaeans is a matter of dispute. In 2009, there were an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 Mandaeans in Iran, according to the Associated Press.[15] Alarabiya has put the number of Iranian Mandaeans as high as 60,000 in 2011.[98]

Until the Iranian Revolution, Mandaeans were mainly concentrated in the Khuzestan Province, where the community used to coexist with the local Arab population. Other than the main cities of Ahvaz and Khorramshahr, Mandaean communities also existed in towns such as Chogha Zanbil in Shush County, Shushtar, and Abadan,[64] as well as Mahshahr, Shadegan, Behbahan, and Susangerd (Khafajiyeh). Mandaean communities had also formerly existed in Dezful, Hamidiyeh, Hoveyzeh, Karun, and Abadan.[41]: 48 

Mandaeans undergoing baptism (Masbuta) in the Karun River, Ahvaz, Iran

They were mainly employed as goldsmiths, passing their skills from generation to generation.[98] After the fall of the shah, its members faced increased religious discrimination, and many emigrated to Europe and the Americas.

In Iran, the Gozinesh Law (passed in 1985) has the effect of prohibiting Mandaeans from fully participating in civil life. This law and other gozinesh provisions make access to employment, education, and a range of other areas conditional upon a rigorous ideological screening, the principal prerequisite for which is devotion to the tenets of Islam.[99] These laws are regularly applied to discriminate against religious and ethnic groups that are not officially recognized, such as the Mandaeans, Yarsanis and Baháʼís.[100]

In 2002, the US State Department granted Iranian Mandaeans protective refugee status. Since then, roughly 1,000 have emigrated to the US,[15] now residing in cities such as San Antonio, Texas.[101][102] On the other hand, the Mandaean community in Iran has increased over the last decade because of the exodus from Iraq of the main Mandaean community, which used to be 50,000–70,000 strong.[103]

Notable Iranian Mandaeans

[edit]

Other Middle Eastern Mandaeans

[edit]

Following the Iraq War, the Mandaean community dispersed mostly throughout Jordan, Syria,[106] and Iran. Mandaeans in Jordan number about 2,500 (2018)[18][107] and in Syria there are about 1,000 remaining (2015).[107][13]

Diaspora

[edit]
Mandaean community in Finland, May 2018

There are Mandaean diaspora populations in Sweden (c. 10,000–20,000),[5][4] Australia (c. 10,000),[7][108] the US (c. 4,000–7,000),[13][11] the UK (c. 2,500),[3] New Zealand and Canada.[109][110][111][79] There are also Mandaeans living in Germany, the Netherlands (in Nijmegen, The Hague, etc.), Denmark,[21] Finland,[112] France,[23] and smaller communities in Norway and Italy.[13][113]

Australia

[edit]

The Sydney metropolitan area in Australia has one of the largest Mandaean diaspora communities in the world.[75] The community is centered in Greater Western Sydney suburbs such as Penrith[114] and Liverpool.[115] In Liverpool, the main mandi (Beth Manda) is Ganzibra Dakhil Mandi.[116] The Sabian Mandaean Association of Australia has purchased land by the banks of the Nepean River at Wallacia, New South Wales in order to build a new mandi.[117]

Sweden

[edit]

Sweden became a popular destination because a Mandaean community existed there before the war and the Swedish government has a liberal asylum policy toward Iraqis. There are between 10,000 and 20,000 Mandaeans in Sweden (2019).[5][110][79] The scattered nature of the Mandaean diaspora has raised fears among Mandaeans for the religion's survival. Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.[15][80]

On September 15, 2018, the Beth Manda Yardna was consecrated in Dalby, Scania, Sweden.[118][119]

United States

[edit]

In the United States, Mandaean communities are centered in San Antonio (c. 2,500),[12] New York City, San Diego,[64] Winnetka, California, Austin, Texas,[120] Worcester, Massachusetts (c. 2,500),[9][10] Warren, Michigan,[121] Chicago,[122] and other major metropolitan areas. There is a mandi in Detroit.[123]

The status of the Mandaeans has prompted a number of American intellectuals and civil rights activists to call upon the US government to extend refugee status to the community. In 2007, The New York Times ran an op-ed piece in which Swarthmore professor Nathaniel Deutsch called for the Bush administration to take immediate action to preserve the community.[31] Iraqi Mandaeans were given refugee status by the US State Department in 2007. Since then, more than 2500 have entered the US, many settling in Worcester, Massachusetts.[15][1] The community in Worcester is believed to be the largest in the United States and the second largest community outside the Middle East.[10] About 2,600 Mandaeans from Iran have been settled in Texas since the Iraq War.[124]

Religion

[edit]
Mandaean Drabsha, symbol of the Mandaean faith

Mandaeans are a closed ethno-religious community, practicing Mandaeism, which is a monotheistic, Gnostic, and ethnic religion[64]: 4 [125][126] (Aramaic manda means "knowledge," and is conceptually related to the Greek term gnosis.)[126] Its adherents revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram, and especially John the Baptist.[126][32][127] Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet.[128][129]

The Mandaeans group existence into two main categories: light and darkness.[126] They have a dualistic view of life, that encompasses both good and evil; all good is thought to have come from the World of Light (i.e. lightworld) and all evil from the World of Darkness.[126] In relation to the body–mind dualism coined by Descartes, Mandaeans consider the body, and all material, worldly things, to have come from the dark, while the soul (sometimes referred to as the mind) is a product of the lightworld.

Mandaeans believe that there is a constant battle or conflict between the forces of good and evil. The forces of good are represented by Nhura (Light) and Maia Hayyi (Living Water) and those of evil are represented by Hshuka (darkness) and Maia Tahmi (dead or rancid water). The two waters are mixed in all things in order to achieve a balance. Mandaeans also believe in an afterlife or heaven called Alma d-Nhura (World of Light).[130]

Inside Mandaean Mandi of Baghdad

In Mandaeism, the World of Light is ruled by a Supreme God, known as Hayyi Rabbi ('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God').[130] Other names used are Mare d'Rabuta ('Lord of Greatness'), Mana Rabba ('The Great Mind'), Melka d'Nhura ('King of Light') and Hayyi Qadmaiyi ('The First Life').[60][131] God is so great, vast, and incomprehensible that no words can fully depict how awesome God is. It is believed that an innumerable number of uthras (angels or guardians),[64]: 8  manifested from the light, surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. They inhabit worlds separate from the lightworld and some are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e. Yōšamin, Abathur, and Ptahil).[132][64]: 8 

Saint John the Baptist by Leonardo da Vinci

The Lord of Darkness (Krun) is the ruler of the World of Darkness formed from dark waters representing chaos.[132][60] A main defender of the darkworld is a giant monster, or dragon, with the name Ur, and an evil, female ruler also inhabits the darkworld, known as Ruha.[132] The Mandaeans believe these malevolent rulers created demonic offspring who consider themselves the owners of the seven planets and twelve zodiac constellations.[132]

According to Mandaean beliefs, the material world is a mixture of light and dark created by Ptahil, who fills the role of the demiurge, with help from dark powers, such as Ruha, the Seven, and the Twelve.[132] Adam's body (believed to be the first human created by God in Abrahamic tradition) was fashioned by these dark beings, however his soul (or mind) was a direct creation from the Light. Therefore, many Mandaeans believe the human soul is capable of salvation because it originates from the lightworld. The soul, sometimes referred to as the 'inner Adam' or Adam kasia, is in dire need of being rescued from the dark, so it may ascend into the heavenly realm of the lightworld.[132] Baptisms are a central theme in Mandaeism, believed to be necessary for the redemption of the soul. Mandaeans do not perform a single baptism, as in religions such as Christianity; rather, they view baptisms as a ritual act capable of bringing the soul closer to salvation.[24] Therefore, Mandaeans are baptized repeatedly during their lives.[133][1] John the Baptist is a key figure for the Mandaeans; they consider him to have been a Nasoraean Mandaean.[60]: 3 [134][7] John is referred to as their greatest and final teacher.[64][60]

Scholarship

[edit]

According to Edmondo Lupieri, as stated in his article in Encyclopædia Iranica,

The possible historical connection with John the Baptist, as seen in the newly translated Mandaean texts, convinced many (notably R. Bultmann) that it was possible, through the Mandaean traditions, to shed some new light on the history of John and on the origins of Christianity. This brought around a revival of the otherwise almost fully abandoned idea of their Palestinian origins. As the archeological discovery of Mandaean incantation bowls and lead amulets proved a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in the southern Mesopotamia, scholars were obliged to hypothesize otherwise unknown persecutions by Jews or by Christians to explain the reason for Mandaeans' departure from Palestine.

Mandaean Book of John

Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims that Zazai d-Gawazta to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd century. Jorunn J. Buckley refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied the Ginza Rabba.[75][37] In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian.[135] Edwin Yamauchi believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the Transjordan where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd century CE.[136]: 78 [137] Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than 5th century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized by James F. McGrath.[138] Al-Zuhairy (1998) believes that the roots of Mandaeism lies in Mesopotamia, inherited from the Sumerians, and the present form of Mandaeism likely emerged in Mesopotamia in the 3rd century BCE.[139]

The Mandaean author Aziz Sbahi in his book, The Origins of Sabians and their Religious Beliefs, traced the Mandaeans to the Babylonian Era. Sbahi, who is known more as a secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party, acknowledges that Mandaeism may have been affected by religions in Mesopotamia and the Dead Sea region. Sbahi believes that Mandaeism originated in surroundings that had Hellenic, Babylonian, Gnostic and Judaic influence. However, due to Sbahi's lack of knowledge of the Mandaic language, he read only secondary sources on the Mandaeans.[140] Brikha Nasoraia, a Mandaean priest and scholar, believes in a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both proto-Mandaeans originating in the Jordan valley as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) indigenous to southern Mesopotamia.[41]: 55 

Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as Kurt Rudolph, Mark Lidzbarski, Rudolf Macúch, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath, Charles G. Häberl, Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley, and Şinasi Gündüz argue for an Israelite origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples.[141][142][143][144] Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in Mandaic, finds Jewish Aramaic, Samaritan Aramaic, Hebrew, Greek and Latin influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Israelite history with Jews".[145][146] In addition, scholars such as Richard August Reitzenstein, Rudolf Bultmann, G. R. S. Mead, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, Gilles Quispel, and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or Jordan Valley origin for the Mandaeans.[147][148][149][150][151][152] James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion.[153][154] Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy"[155] and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."[156] Barbara Thiering questions the dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls and suggests that the Teacher of Righteousness (leader of the Essenes) was John the Baptist.[157] Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins[25]: 97  and adds:

[T]he Mandaeans may well have become the inventors of – or at least contributors to the development of – Gnosticism ... and they produced the most voluminous Gnostic literature we know, in one language... influenc[ing] the development of Gnostic and other religious groups in late antiquity [e.g. Manichaeism, Valentianism].[25]: 109 

Other names

[edit]

Sabians

[edit]

During the 9th and 10th centuries several religious groups came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with the Sabaeans of South Arabia) mentioned in the Quran alongside the Jews, the Christians, and the Zoroastrians as a 'people of the book' (ahl al-kitāb).[158] These religious groups, which included the Mandaeans but also various pagan groups in Harran (Upper Mesopotamia) and the marshlands of southern Iraq, claimed the name in order to be recognized by the Muslim authorities as a people of the book deserving of legal protection (dhimma).[159] The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans was al-Hasan ibn Bahlul (fl. 950–1000) citing the Abbasid vizier Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla (c. 885–940).[160] However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla.[161]

Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans,[162] although many other possible identifications have been proposed.[163] Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty.[164] Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.[165]

Nasoraeans

[edit]

The Haran Gawaita uses the name Nasoraeans for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge.[44] Scholars such as Kurt Rudolph, Rudolf Macúch, Mark Lidzbarski and Ethel S. Drower connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the Essenes according to Joseph Lightfoot.[166][167][144] Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.[168][169]

The Nasaraeans ‐ they were Jews by nationality ‐ originally from Gileaditis, Bashanitis and the Transjordan ... They acknowledged Moses and believed that he had received laws ‐ not this law, however, but some other. And so, they were Jews who kept all the Jewish observances, but they would not offer sacrifice or eat meat. They considered it unlawful to eat meat or make sacrifices with it. They claim that these Books are fictions, and that none of these customs were instituted by the fathers. This was the difference between the Nasaraeans and the others.

— Epiphanius' Panarion 1:18

Language

[edit]

Neo-Mandaic is the contemporary language spoken by some Mandaeans, while Classical Mandaic is the liturgical language of Mandaeism.[170] However, most Mandaeans currently do not speak conversational Neo-Mandaic in everyday life, but rather the languages of their host countries, such as Arabic, Farsi, or English.

Genetics

[edit]

According to the Iranian Journal of Public Health:[171]

About 20 centuries ago, Mandaeans migrated from Jordan/Palestine areas to Iraq and Iran. Therefore, their gene pool was separated from their origins for about 20 centuries. During this period, evolutionary forces might have some effects on the Mandaeans' gene pool. The frequency of the GSTM1 null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 27.1%, 56.0%, 55.2%, and 55.2% (9, 10), respectively. On the other hand, the frequency of the GSTT1 null genotype among Jordanian, Palestinian, Ashkenazi Jews and non-Ashkenazi Jews was 24.2%, 22.0%, 26.0%, 22.1% (9, 10), respectively. Comparisons between Iranian Mandaeans and above-mentioned populations demonstrating that Mandaeans showed higher and lower levels of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 null genotypes, respectively. There was [a] remarkable difference between Mandaeans and other mentioned populations for the frequency of the GSTM1 null genotype. Mutation, gene flow and natural selection should be disregarded in [the] interpretation [of] the influence of evolutionary forces on Mandaeans and their surrounding gene pools. In Iran and Iraq Mandaeans lived as small and isolated ethno-religious communities. Therefore, genetic drift, at least in part might account for differences between Mandaeans and other populations.

See also

[edit]
Related historical groups
Other topics

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Including 450 in Iraqi Kurdistan
  2. ^ After the mysterious Sabians mentioned in the Quran, a name historically claimed by several religious groups. For adherents of other religions sometimes called 'Sabians', see Sabians#Pagan Sabians.
  3. ^ The fatwā is numbered differently between Persian (S 322) and its official English (Q 321) translation but reads as follows:

    س 322. تعداد زیادی از مردم در خوزستان زندگی می کنند که خود را «صابئه» می نامند و ادعای پیروی از پیامبر خدا حضرت یحیی(ع) را دارند و می گویند کتاب او نزد ما موجود است. نزد علمای ادیان ثابت شده که آن ها همان صابئون هستند که در قرآن آمده است. لطفاً بیان فرمایید که این گروه از اهل کتاب هستند یا خیر؟
    ج. گروه مذکور در حکم اهل کتاب هستند.[73]

    Translation of the Persian original:
    S 322. There are a large number of people living in Khuzestan who call themselves "Ṣābeʾe" and who claim to follow God's holy Prophet Yahya (ʿayn[broken anchor]) and say that his book is available to us. It has also been proven by scholars of religions and they are the Ṣābeʾūn mentioned in the Qorʾān. Please state if this group is among the People of the Book [Ahl-e Ketāb] or not?
    J: The mentioned group are subject to the ruling on People of the Book [ahl-e Ketāb].

    Official English translation:
    Q 321: There live a large number of people in Khuzestan who call themselves Sabeans and claim that they are the followers Prophet Yaḥyā (a.s.) and that they possess his scripture. It has also been established for the religious scholars that they are the Sabeans mentioned in the Qur'an. Please explain whether they are among the People of the Book.
    A: The rule of the People of the Book is applicable to this group.[74]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Bell, Matthew (October 6, 2016). "These Iraqi immigrants revere John the Baptist, but they're not Christians". The World. Retrieved November 3, 2021.
  2. ^ Thaler 2007.
  3. ^ a b c d "The Mandaeans – Who are the Mandaeans?". The Worlds of Mandaean Priests. Retrieved November 5, 2021.
  4. ^ a b Larsson, Göran; Sorgenfrei, Simon; Stockman, Max (2017). "Religiösa minoriteter från Mellanöstern" (PDF). Myndigheten för stöd till trossamfund. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Hanish, Shak (2019). The Mandaeans In Iraq. In Rowe, Paul S. (2019). Routledge Handbook of Minorities in the Middle East. London and New York: Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-317-23379-4.
  6. ^ "The strength within: The role of refugee community organisations in settlement-Case study: Sabean Mandean Association". Refugee Council of Australia. January 26, 2019. Retrieved November 8, 2021.
  7. ^ a b c d Hegarty, Siobhan (July 21, 2017). "Meet the Mandaeans: Australian followers of John the Baptist celebrate new year". ABC. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
  8. ^ Hinchey, Rebecca. "Mandaens, a unique culture" (PDF). NSW Service for the Treatment and Rehabilitation of Torture and Trauma Survivors. Retrieved November 4, 2021.
  9. ^ a b MacQuarrie, Brian (August 13, 2016). "Embraced by Worcester, Iraq's persecuted Mandaean refugees now seek 'anchor'—their own temple". The Boston Globe. Retrieved August 19, 2016.
  10. ^ a b c Moulton, Cyrus. "Mandaean community opens office in Worcester". telegram.com. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
  11. ^ a b c Sly, Liz (November 16, 2008). "'This is one of the world's oldest religions, and it is going to die.'". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved November 5, 2021.
  12. ^ a b Busch, Matthew; Ross, Robyn (February 18, 2020). "Against The Current". Texas Observer. Retrieved November 8, 2021.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Farhan, Salam; al Roomi, Layla; Nashi, Suhaib (October 2015). "Submission on behalf of the Mandaean Human Rights Group to the Human Rights Committee's Periodic Review of Iraq in October 2015" (PDF). OHCHR. Retrieved November 15, 2021.
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