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{{Short description|Wave-driven mound of ice formed on terrestrial lakes}} |
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{{for|the |
{{for|the extraterrestrial volcanoes in the outer Solar System|Cryovolcano}} |
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[[File:Ice_Volcano_over_Lake_Michigan,_March_2013.jpg|thumb| |
[[File:Ice_Volcano_over_Lake_Michigan,_March_2013.jpg|thumb|300px|An ice volcano over [[Lake Michigan]]]] |
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[[File:Isvulkan - Ystad-2018.jpg|thumb|300px|Ice volcanoes in [[Ystad]], Sweden, 2018]] |
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An '''ice volcano''' is a conical mound of ice formed over a terrestrial lake via the eruption of [[water]] and [[slush]] through an [[ice shelf]]. The process is wave-driven, with wind providing the energy for the waves to cut through the ice and |
An '''ice volcano''' is a conical mound of ice formed over a terrestrial [[lake]] via the eruption of [[water]] and [[slush]] through an [[ice shelf]]. The process is wave-driven, with wind providing the energy for the waves to cut through the ice and create formations that loosely mimic the shape and activity of [[volcano]]es.<ref name="ChicagoTribune">{{cite news |last=Swasko |first=Mick |date=2015-02-12 |title='Ice volcanoes' are a frozen Chicago beach phenomenon |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/redeye/redeye-chicago-beach-ice-volcanoes-20150212-story.html |work=Chicago Tribune |access-date=2018-05-25}}</ref> After being ejected into the atmosphere, the liquid water and slush freeze and fall back to the surface, growing the formation. [[Ice]] may also be erupted. The phenomenon is most often observed along the southern coast of [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Ontario]], when the temperature is below freezing and the wind blows onshore with a velocity of at least {{cvt|40|km/h|order=flip||}}. They are known to reduce [[coastal erosion]] there. The formations are temporary: they are frequently destroyed by storms and warm weather, and once the lake wholly freezes over, eruptions are no longer possible.<ref name="Fahnestock1973">{{cite journal |last1=Fahnestock |first1=R. K. |last2=Crowley |first2=D. J. |last3=Wilson |first3=M. |last4=Schneider |first4=H. |date=1973 |title=Ice Volcanoes of the Lake Erie Shore Near Dunkirk, New York, U.S.A. |journal=Journal of Glaciology |volume=12 |issue=64 |pages=93–99 |doi=10.1017/s0022143000022735 |bibcode=1973JGlac..12...93F |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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There is no consensus name for this phenomenon. Due to its similarity to volcanism and particularly [[cryovolcano|cryovolcanism]], the term "ice volcano" is frequently used, but it remains controversial.<ref name="ChicagoTribune"/><ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> Unlike [[geysers]] and related structures, ice volcanoes are not [[hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal]]. |
There is no consensus name for this phenomenon. Due to its visual similarity to volcanism and particularly [[cryovolcano|cryovolcanism]], the term "ice volcano" is frequently used, but it remains controversial.<ref name="ChicagoTribune"/><ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> Unlike [[geysers]] and related structures, ice volcanoes are not [[hydrothermal circulation|hydrothermal]]. |
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The uplifts may attract a number of visitors, but they are dangerous, and experts warn that people may fall through the ice or slip into the cold lake. Ice volcanoes are used by [[snowy owls]] as hunting platforms to search for [[waterfowl]].<ref name="ChicagoTribune"/><ref name="Weather">{{cite web |url=https://weather.com/science/nature/news/great-lakes-oddity-ice-volcanoes-20140301 |title=A Great Lakes Oddity: Ice Volcanoes (PHOTOS) |last1=Burlingame |first1=Liz |publisher=The Weather Company |date=2014-03-01 |website=The Weather Channel |access-date=2018-05-26}}</ref> |
The uplifts may attract a number of visitors, but they are dangerous, and experts warn that people may fall through the ice or slip into the cold lake. Ice volcanoes are used by [[snowy owls]] as hunting platforms to search for [[waterfowl]].<ref name="ChicagoTribune"/><ref name="Weather">{{cite web |url=https://weather.com/science/nature/news/great-lakes-oddity-ice-volcanoes-20140301 |title=A Great Lakes Oddity: Ice Volcanoes (PHOTOS) |last1=Burlingame |first1=Liz |publisher=The Weather Company |date=2014-03-01 |website=The Weather Channel |access-date=2018-05-26 |archive-date=2020-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102221535/https://weather.com/science/nature/news/great-lakes-oddity-ice-volcanoes-20140301 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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== Cyrovolcano/Ice volcano locations == |
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Cyrovolcanos potentially may form on icy moons and other objects with abundant water past the Solar System snow line such as Pluto. Scientists have been debating whether there has been recent activity of this type, including on [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], and [[Miranda (moon)|Miranda]]{{cn}}. |
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==Formation== |
==Formation== |
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These features are distinct from [[pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridges]],<ref name="LeonardBryan1972">{{cite journal |last1=Leonard Bryan |first1=M. |last2=Marcus |first2=Melvin G. |date=September 1972 |title=Physical Characteristics of Near-Shore Ice Ridges |jstor=40508045|journal=Arctic |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=182–192 |doi= 10.14430/arctic2960}}</ref> which are uplifts formed by the compression of ice against a shoreline or another [[ice floe|floe]].<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jeffries |first=Martin O. |editor1-last=Rafferty |editor1-first=John P. |title=Sea ice |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=December 29, 2006 |location=Chicago }}</ref> Instead, ice volcanoes are created by waves colliding with irregularities at the edge of an ice sheet. The abnormalities concentrate the wave energy in a small area, where the ice is eroded to form a V-shaped channel. Spray, ice, and slush splashing out of the feature create a volcanic cone at the channel's shoreward end. This process takes only a few hours.<ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> The lakeward end of the channel may then |
These features are distinct from [[pressure ridge (ice)|pressure ridges]],<ref name="LeonardBryan1972">{{cite journal |last1=Leonard Bryan |first1=M. |last2=Marcus |first2=Melvin G. |date=September 1972 |title=Physical Characteristics of Near-Shore Ice Ridges |jstor=40508045|journal=Arctic |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=182–192 |doi= 10.14430/arctic2960|doi-access=free }}</ref> which are uplifts formed by the compression of ice against a shoreline or another [[ice floe|floe]].<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jeffries |first=Martin O. |editor1-last=Rafferty |editor1-first=John P. |title=Sea ice |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |date=December 29, 2006 |location=Chicago }}</ref> Instead, ice volcanoes are created by waves colliding with irregularities at the edge of an ice sheet. The abnormalities concentrate the wave energy in a small area, where the ice is eroded to form a V-shaped channel. Spray, ice, and slush splashing out of the feature create a volcanic cone at the channel's shoreward end. This process takes only a few hours.<ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> The lakeward end of the channel may then be sealed by ice, but the volcano may continue to erupt. A wave [[amplitude]] of at least {{convert|1|m|spell=in||}} is needed to induce eruptions, so ice volcanoes are rarely active without storm-force winds. Formation near land is suppressed by [[reef]]s and [[shoals]], which absorb the wave energy needed for the phenomenon. Nonetheless, they may produce larger cones further out at sea, where the greater depth makes this possible.<ref name="MTU">{{cite web |url=http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/ice/ |title=Ice Volcanoes of Lake Superior's South Shore |last1=Dolan |first1=Michael |last2=Kimberly |first2=Paul |publisher=Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences at Michigan Technological University |date=2011-02-07 |website=Michigan Technological University |access-date=2018-05-25}}</ref> Formation is more thoroughly suppressed by powerful storms, which erode the ice too fast for mound creation.<ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> |
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One type of ice volcano, known as a cold spot, does not require waves to break against the edge of an ice shelf. Instead, water and slush erupt through a region of weak ice near the coast and form a mound. This is analogous to a [[geological hotspot]].<ref name="MTU"/> |
One type of ice volcano, known as a "cold spot", does not require waves to break against the edge of an ice shelf. Instead, water and slush erupt through a region of weak ice near the coast and form a mound. This is analogous to a [[geological hotspot]].<ref name="MTU"/> |
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==Appearance and eruptions== |
==Appearance and eruptions== |
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[[Fast ice|Landfast ice]] is required, so the volcanoes normally form near land. They are found in successive rows, and within one row, the features usually have equal height and spacing. However, when comparing two rows, the height and spacing may be drastically different.<ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> Ice volcanoes range in height from less than one meter to ten meters, with the largest ones located far from the shore.<ref name="MTU"/> Eruptions over ten meters high have been observed, but it is believed that the height of the eruptions are proportional to the size of the mounds. A single eruption may increase the height of the volcano by several centimeters.<ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> When an eruption occurs above 0 |
[[Fast ice|Landfast ice]] is required, so the volcanoes normally form near land. They are found in successive rows, and within one row, the features usually have equal height and spacing. However, when comparing two rows, the height and spacing may be drastically different.<ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> Ice volcanoes range in height from less than one meter to ten meters, with the largest ones located far from the shore.<ref name="MTU"/> Eruptions over ten meters high have been observed, but it is believed that the height of the eruptions are proportional to the size of the mounds. A single eruption may increase the height of the volcano by several centimeters.<ref name="Fahnestock1973"/> When an eruption occurs above {{Cvt|0|C}}, however, the water erodes the uplift instead of expanding it. Spacing is determined by the amplitude and direction of the waves. In general, the appearance and number of ice volcanoes change considerably between winters.<ref name="MTU"/> |
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Different types of ice volcanoes have been compared to [[shield volcano]]es and [[stratovolcano]]es. They are noted for their symmetry. Cold spot volcanoes are particularly symmetrical, but their eruption has not been observed.<ref name="MTU"/> |
Different types of ice volcanoes have been compared to [[shield volcano]]es and [[stratovolcano]]es. They are noted for their symmetry. Cold spot volcanoes are particularly symmetrical, but their eruption has not been observed.<ref name="MTU"/> |
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== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
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* {{cite web |title=Bizarre 'ice volcanoes' erupt on Lake Michigan beach |language=en |date=19 Feb 2020 |website=Live Science |url=https://www.livescience.com/ice-volcanoes-on-lake-michigan-beach.html}} |
* {{cite web |title=Bizarre 'ice volcanoes' erupt on Lake Michigan beach |language=en |date=19 Feb 2020 |website=Live Science |url=https://www.livescience.com/ice-volcanoes-on-lake-michigan-beach.html}} |
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* {{cite web |title=Dozens of Ice Volcanoes Discovered on Nearby Dwarf Planet |author=Nadia Drake |language=en |date=17 Sep 2018 |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/09/news-ice-volcanoes-ceres-nasa-dawn-dwarf-planets-space/}} |
* {{cite web |title=Dozens of Ice Volcanoes Discovered on Nearby Dwarf Planet |author=Nadia Drake |author-link=Nadia Drake |language=en |date=17 Sep 2018 |website=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/09/news-ice-volcanoes-ceres-nasa-dawn-dwarf-planets-space/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917233005/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/09/news-ice-volcanoes-ceres-nasa-dawn-dwarf-planets-space/|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 17, 2018}} |
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Latest revision as of 23:22, 22 December 2024
An ice volcano is a conical mound of ice formed over a terrestrial lake via the eruption of water and slush through an ice shelf. The process is wave-driven, with wind providing the energy for the waves to cut through the ice and create formations that loosely mimic the shape and activity of volcanoes.[1] After being ejected into the atmosphere, the liquid water and slush freeze and fall back to the surface, growing the formation. Ice may also be erupted. The phenomenon is most often observed along the southern coast of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, when the temperature is below freezing and the wind blows onshore with a velocity of at least 25 mph (40 km/h). They are known to reduce coastal erosion there. The formations are temporary: they are frequently destroyed by storms and warm weather, and once the lake wholly freezes over, eruptions are no longer possible.[2]
There is no consensus name for this phenomenon. Due to its visual similarity to volcanism and particularly cryovolcanism, the term "ice volcano" is frequently used, but it remains controversial.[1][2] Unlike geysers and related structures, ice volcanoes are not hydrothermal.
The uplifts may attract a number of visitors, but they are dangerous, and experts warn that people may fall through the ice or slip into the cold lake. Ice volcanoes are used by snowy owls as hunting platforms to search for waterfowl.[1][3]
Formation
[edit]These features are distinct from pressure ridges,[4] which are uplifts formed by the compression of ice against a shoreline or another floe.[5] Instead, ice volcanoes are created by waves colliding with irregularities at the edge of an ice sheet. The abnormalities concentrate the wave energy in a small area, where the ice is eroded to form a V-shaped channel. Spray, ice, and slush splashing out of the feature create a volcanic cone at the channel's shoreward end. This process takes only a few hours.[2] The lakeward end of the channel may then be sealed by ice, but the volcano may continue to erupt. A wave amplitude of at least one metre (3 ft 3 in) is needed to induce eruptions, so ice volcanoes are rarely active without storm-force winds. Formation near land is suppressed by reefs and shoals, which absorb the wave energy needed for the phenomenon. Nonetheless, they may produce larger cones further out at sea, where the greater depth makes this possible.[6] Formation is more thoroughly suppressed by powerful storms, which erode the ice too fast for mound creation.[2]
One type of ice volcano, known as a "cold spot", does not require waves to break against the edge of an ice shelf. Instead, water and slush erupt through a region of weak ice near the coast and form a mound. This is analogous to a geological hotspot.[6]
Appearance and eruptions
[edit]Landfast ice is required, so the volcanoes normally form near land. They are found in successive rows, and within one row, the features usually have equal height and spacing. However, when comparing two rows, the height and spacing may be drastically different.[2] Ice volcanoes range in height from less than one meter to ten meters, with the largest ones located far from the shore.[6] Eruptions over ten meters high have been observed, but it is believed that the height of the eruptions are proportional to the size of the mounds. A single eruption may increase the height of the volcano by several centimeters.[2] When an eruption occurs above 0 °C (32 °F), however, the water erodes the uplift instead of expanding it. Spacing is determined by the amplitude and direction of the waves. In general, the appearance and number of ice volcanoes change considerably between winters.[6]
Different types of ice volcanoes have been compared to shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes. They are noted for their symmetry. Cold spot volcanoes are particularly symmetrical, but their eruption has not been observed.[6]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c Swasko, Mick (2015-02-12). "'Ice volcanoes' are a frozen Chicago beach phenomenon". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2018-05-25.
- ^ a b c d e f Fahnestock, R. K.; Crowley, D. J.; Wilson, M.; Schneider, H. (1973). "Ice Volcanoes of the Lake Erie Shore Near Dunkirk, New York, U.S.A." Journal of Glaciology. 12 (64): 93–99. Bibcode:1973JGlac..12...93F. doi:10.1017/s0022143000022735.
- ^ Burlingame, Liz (2014-03-01). "A Great Lakes Oddity: Ice Volcanoes (PHOTOS)". The Weather Channel. The Weather Company. Archived from the original on 2020-01-02. Retrieved 2018-05-26.
- ^ Leonard Bryan, M.; Marcus, Melvin G. (September 1972). "Physical Characteristics of Near-Shore Ice Ridges". Arctic. 25 (3): 182–192. doi:10.14430/arctic2960. JSTOR 40508045.
- ^ Jeffries, Martin O. (December 29, 2006). "Sea ice". In Rafferty, John P. (ed.). Encyclopedia Britannica. Chicago.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ a b c d e Dolan, Michael; Kimberly, Paul (2011-02-07). "Ice Volcanoes of Lake Superior's South Shore". Michigan Technological University. Department of Geological and Mining Engineering and Sciences at Michigan Technological University. Retrieved 2018-05-25.
Further reading
[edit]- "Bizarre 'ice volcanoes' erupt on Lake Michigan beach". Live Science. 19 Feb 2020.
- Nadia Drake (17 Sep 2018). "Dozens of Ice Volcanoes Discovered on Nearby Dwarf Planet". National Geographic. Archived from the original on September 17, 2018.
- ^ "Evidence of Cryovolcanism on Titan". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2021-10-13.