Foibe massacres: Difference between revisions
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{{Short description|Mass killings against Italians and pro-Italian Slavs}} |
{{Short description|Mass killings and ethnic cleansing against Italians and pro-Italian Slavs}} |
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{{Infobox civilian attack |
{{Infobox civilian attack |
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|title = Foibe massacres |
| title = Foibe massacres |
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| native_name = {{native name|it|Massacri delle foibe}}<br/>{{native name|sl|Poboji v fojbah}}<br/>{{native name|hr|Masakri fojbe}} |
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|map = Foibe seats.png |
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|map_caption = Locations of some of the [[foibe]] |
| map_caption = Locations of some of the [[foibe]] |
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|location = [[Julian March]], [[Kvarner]], [[Dalmatia]] (Italy and Yugoslavia) |
| location = [[Julian March]], [[Kvarner]], [[Dalmatia]] (Italy and Yugoslavia) |
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|target = * |
| target = * Local ethnic Italians ([[Istrian Italians|Istrian]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]){{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc="In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'"}} |
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*Members of fascist military and police forces<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Siviero|first=Tommi|date=27 December 2022|title=Italian Right Stirs Up Grievances About Yugoslavs' WWII 'Foibe Massacres'|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2022/12/27/italian-right-stirs-up-grievances-about-yugoslavs-wwii-foibe-massacres/|access-date=25 April 2023|website=Balkan Insight|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":3" />{{sfn|Baracetti|2009}}<ref name="Zamparutti 75–91">{{Cite journal|last=Zamparutti|first=Louise|date=1 April 2015|title=Foibe literature: documentation or victimhood narrative?|url=https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/view/journals/hrv/1/1/article-p75.xml|journal=Human Remains and Violence|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=75–91|doi=10.7227/HRV.1.1.6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Pupo|first=Raoul|date=15 May 2021|title=Le foibe giuliane|url=http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html|access-date=24 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515173059/http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html|archive-date=15 May 2021}}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3"/>{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc=p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings"}}{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc="In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'"}} |
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* [[Italians|Italian]], [[Germans|German]], [[Croats|Croat]] and [[Slovenes|Slovene]] [[Anti-communism|anti-communists]], presumed to be associated with [[fascism]], [[Nazism]] and collaboration with [[Axis powers|Axis]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002|p=350}} |
* [[Italians|Italian]], [[Germans|German]], [[Croats|Croat]] and [[Slovenes|Slovene]] [[Anti-communism|anti-communists]] against the regime of [[Josip Broz Tito]], presumed to be associated with [[fascism]], [[Nazism]] and collaboration with [[Axis powers|Axis]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002|p=350}} |
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* Preventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of [[Titoism]]{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
* Preventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of [[Titoism]]{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
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|coordinates = |
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|date = 1943–1945 |
| date = 1943–1945 |
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| type = * [[Ethnic cleansing]] against local Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]){{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} |
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|type = * [[Reprisal|Reprisal killings]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Lowe|2012}} |
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* [[Reprisal|Reprisal killings]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Lowe|2012}} |
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|fatalities = Estimates range from 3,000 to 5,000 killed,{{sfn|Pupo|Spazzali|2003}}<ref name=":6" /> according to other sources 11,000{{sfn|Rumici|2002}}<ref name="huffingtonpost">{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/micol-sarfatti/perche-quasi-nessuno-ricorda-le-foibe_b_2658946.html|author=Micol Sarfatti|title=Perché quasi nessuno ricorda le foibe?|language=Italian|website= huffingtonpost.it|date=11 February 2013}}</ref> or 20,000;{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002}} 4,000 deported |
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| fatalities = Estimates range from 3,000 to 5,000 killed,{{sfn|Pupo|Spazzali|2003}}<ref name=":6" /> according to other sources 11,000{{sfn|Rumici|2002}}<ref name="huffingtonpost">{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.it/micol-sarfatti/perche-quasi-nessuno-ricorda-le-foibe_b_2658946.html|author=Micol Sarfatti|title=Perché quasi nessuno ricorda le foibe?|language=Italian|website= huffingtonpost.it|date=11 February 2013}}</ref> or 20,000;{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002}} 4,000 deported |
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|perpetrators = * [[Yugoslav Partisans]] |
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| perpetrators = * [[Yugoslav Partisans]] |
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* [[OZNA]] |
* [[OZNA]] |
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{{Aftermath of World War II in Yugoslavia}} |
{{Aftermath of World War II in Yugoslavia}} |
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The '''foibe massacres''' ({{Langx|it|massacri delle foibe}}; {{Langx|sl|poboji v fojbah}}; {{Langx|hr|masakri fojbe}}), or simply '''the foibe''', refers to mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after [[World War II]], mainly committed by [[Yugoslav Partisans]] and [[OZNA]] in the [[Italian Empire|then-Italian territories]]{{efn|Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|Treaty of Peace (1947)]].}} of [[Julian March]] ([[Karst Region]] and [[Istria]]), [[Kvarner]] and [[Dalmatia]], against local Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]){{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities |
The '''foibe massacres''' ({{Langx|it|massacri delle foibe}}; {{Langx|sl|poboji v fojbah}}; {{Langx|hr|masakri fojbe}}), or simply '''the foibe''', refers to [[ethnic cleansing]], mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after [[World War II]], mainly committed by [[Yugoslav Partisans]] and [[OZNA]] in the [[Italian Empire|then-Italian territories]]{{efn|Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|Treaty of Peace (1947)]].}} of [[Julian March]] ([[Karst Region]] and [[Istria]]), [[Kvarner]] and [[Dalmatia]], against local Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]){{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities,{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc=p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings"}}{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc="In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'"}}<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Troha|first=Nevenka|date=2014|title=Nasilje vojnih in povojnih dni|url=https://www.sistory.si/11686/www.sistory.si/11686/42309|access-date=4 June 2023|website=www.sistory.si|publisher=Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino|language=sl|quote=By this definition, among the 601 victims [documented from the Trieste region], 475 were members of armed formations and 126 were civilians.}}</ref> and [[Italians|Italian]], [[Germans|German]], [[Croats|Croat]] and [[Slovenes|Slovene]] [[Anti-communism|anti-communists]] against the regime of [[Josip Broz Tito]], presumed to be associated with [[fascism]], [[Nazism]], collaboration with [[Axis powers|Axis]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002|p=350}} and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of [[Titoism]].{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
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The term refers to some victims who were thrown alive into the {{lang|it|[[foibe]]}}<ref name="repubblica2">{{cite news|date=10 February 2021|title=Foibe, oggi è il Giorno del Ricordo: cos'è e perché si chiama così|url=https://www.repubblica.it/cronaca/2021/02/10/news/foibe_oggi_e_il_giorno_del_ricordo_cos_e_e_perche_si_chiama_cosi_-286926345/|access-date=19 October 2021|newspaper=[[La Repubblica]] | publisher=[[GEDI Gruppo Editoriale]] | language=it|quote=La ricorrenza istituita nel 2004 nell'anniversario dei trattati di Parigi, che assegnavano l'Istria alla Jugoslavia. Si ricordano gli italiani vittime dei massacri messi in atto dai partigiani e dai Servizi jugoslavi.|trans-quote=The anniversary [was] established in 2004 on the anniversary of the Paris treaties, which assigned Istria to Yugoslavia. We remember the Italians victims of the massacres carried out by the partisans and the Yugoslav services.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=20 May 1997|title=In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/20/world/in-trieste-investigation-of-brutal-era-is-blocked.html|access-date=3 April 2023|website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=22 November 2018|title=Italy film recalls pain of forgotten WWII massacres|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20181122-italy-film-recalls-pain-forgotten-wwii-massacres|access-date=3 May 2023|website=France 24}}</ref> (from [[Italian language|Italian]]: {{IPA|it|'fɔibe|pron}}), deep natural [[sinkhole]]s characteristic of the [[Karst Region]]. In a wider or symbolic sense, some authors used the term to apply to all disappearances or killings of Italian and Slavic people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces. Others included deaths resulting from the forced deportation of Italians, or those who died while trying to flee from these contested lands. |
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There is academic consensus that these attacks were [[Reprisal|reprisal killings]], triggered by forced [[Italianization]] and [[Fascism|fascist]] [[Italian war crimes#Yugoslavia|Italian war crimes against Yugoslavs]].{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Lowe|2012}}<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Pupo|first=Raoul|date=2021-05-15|title=Le foibe giuliane|url=http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html|access-date=2023-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515173059/http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html|archive-date=15 May 2021}}</ref>{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|pp=657–674}}<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Siviero|first=Tommi|date=2022-12-27|title=Italian Right Stirs Up Grievances About Yugoslavs' WWII 'Foibe Massacres'|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2022/12/27/italian-right-stirs-up-grievances-about-yugoslavs-wwii-foibe-massacres/|access-date=2023-04-25|website=Balkan Insight|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":3"/> In addition, some historians also describe them as [[state terrorism]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}<ref name="Rai" /> and [[ethnic cleansing]] against [[Italians]],{{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} including Italian anti-fascist militias and civilians.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="Sussidi12">Società di Studi Fiumani-Roma, Hrvatski Institut za Povijest-Zagreb ''[http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf|date=October 31, 2008|data=31 ottobre 2008}}'', Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali – Direzione Generale per gli Archivi, Roma 2002. {{ISBN|88-7125-239-X}}, p. 190. "''Therefore, the largest number of Italians from Rijeka and the former Kvarner province died immediately after the end of the Second World War, were tried before military courts and accused of war crimes"''</ref><ref name="FECO">{{cite web|url=https://www.convittocicogniniprato.edu.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/dossier_foibe_e_confine_orientale.pdf|title=Le foibe e il confine orientale|access-date=12 May 2021|language=it|archive-date=5 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105145420/https://www.convittocicogniniprato.edu.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/dossier_foibe_e_confine_orientale.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other historians dispute this, stating that Italians were not targeted for their ethnicity,<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />{{sfn|Baracetti|2009}}<ref name="Zamparutti 75–91">{{Cite journal|last=Zamparutti|first=Louise|date=2015-04-01|title=Foibe literature: documentation or victimhood narrative?|url=https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/view/journals/hrv/1/1/article-p75.xml|journal=Human Remains and Violence|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=75–91|doi=10.7227/HRV.1.1.6|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> that the majority of victims were members of fascist military and police forces,<ref name=":3" />{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc=p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings"}}{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc="In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'"}} and that many more Slavic collaborators were killed in postwar reprisals. Secret Communist instructions directed to cleanse, "not on the basis of nationality, but on the basis of fascism".{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|p=667}} The Italian historian, Raoul Pupo, states that, “the {{lang|it|foibe}} are not genocide and are not ethnic cleansing,” instead they were acts of political violence that had “nothing to do with nationality or religion”.<ref>{{Citation|last=Hazareesingh|first=Sudhir|title=French Intellectuals and the Communist Party: Roots of Affiliation|date=1991-12-12|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198278702.003.0003|work=Intellectuals and the French Communist Party|pages=62–104|access-date=2024-01-06|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198278702.003.0003|isbn=978-0-19-827870-2}}</ref> |
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Italian and German reports mention members of local fascist militias as the primary victims in 1943.{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|p=667}} Among documented victims from Trieste in 1945, 80% were members of fascist and collaborationist forces, 97% were males, while of the 3% female victims at least half were Slovene.{{sfn|Troha|2014}} Victims also included unarmed and uninvolved civilians, killed in a preventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of [[Titoism]],{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} killed along with native [[anti-fascist]] autonomists — including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations, opposed to Yugoslav annexation, and leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, [[Mario Blasich]] and [[Nevio Skull]], who supported local independence from both Italy and Yugoslavia – resulting in the [[Fiume Autonomists purge|purge in the city of Fiume]], where at least 650 were killed during and after the war by Yugoslav units, tried for war crimes before military courts.<ref name="Sussidi122">Società di Studi Fiumani-Roma, Hrvatski Institut za Povijest-Zagreb ''[http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf|date=October |
There is academic consensus that these attacks were [[state terrorism]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}<ref name="Rai">''Il tempo e la storia: Le Foibe'', Rai tv, Raoul Pupo</ref> and [[ethnic cleansing]] against local Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]),{{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} including Italian anti-fascist militias and civilians.<ref name=":3" /><ref name="Sussidi12">Società di Studi Fiumani-Roma, Hrvatski Institut za Povijest-Zagreb ''[http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf|date=31 October 2008|data=31 ottobre 2008}}'', Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali – Direzione Generale per gli Archivi, Roma 2002. {{ISBN|88-7125-239-X}}, p. 190. "''Therefore, the largest number of Italians from Rijeka and the former Kvarner province died immediately after the end of the Second World War, were tried before military courts and accused of war crimes"''</ref><ref name="FECO">{{cite web|url=https://www.convittocicogniniprato.edu.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/dossier_foibe_e_confine_orientale.pdf|title=Le foibe e il confine orientale|access-date=12 May 2021|language=it|archive-date=5 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105145420/https://www.convittocicogniniprato.edu.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/dossier_foibe_e_confine_orientale.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Italian and German reports mention members of local fascist militias as the primary victims in 1943.{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|p=667}} Among documented victims from Trieste in 1945, 80% were members of fascist and collaborationist forces, 97% were males, while of the 3% female victims at least half were Slovene.{{sfn|Troha|2014}} Victims also included unarmed and uninvolved civilians, killed in a preventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of [[Titoism]],{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} killed along with native [[anti-fascist]] autonomists — including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations, opposed to Yugoslav annexation, and leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, [[Mario Blasich]] and [[Nevio Skull]], who supported local independence from both Italy and Yugoslavia – resulting in the [[Fiume Autonomists purge|purge in the city of Fiume]], where at least 650 were killed during and after the war by Yugoslav units, tried for war crimes before military courts.<ref name="Sussidi122">Società di Studi Fiumani-Roma, Hrvatski Institut za Povijest-Zagreb ''[http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf|date=31 October 2008|data=31 ottobre 2008}}'', Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali – Direzione Generale per gli Archivi, Roma 2002. {{ISBN|88-7125-239-X}}, p. 190. "''Therefore, the largest number of Italians from Rijeka and the former Kvarner province died immediately after the end of the Second World War, were tried before military courts and accused of war crimes"''</ref><ref name="FECO2">{{cite web|title=Le foibe e il confine orientale|url=https://www.convittocicogniniprato.edu.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/dossier_foibe_e_confine_orientale.pdf|access-date=12 May 2021|language=it|archive-date=5 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105145420/https://www.convittocicogniniprato.edu.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/dossier_foibe_e_confine_orientale.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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The estimated number of foibe victims is disputed, varying from hundreds to thousands,<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|author-link=Chris Hedges|date=1997 |
The estimated number of foibe victims is disputed, varying from hundreds to thousands,<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|author-link=Chris Hedges|date=20 April 1997|title=In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked|at=Section 1, Page 6|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/20/world/in-trieste-investigation-of-brutal-era-is-blocked.html|access-date=19 October 2021|author-last=Hedges|author-first=Chris}}</ref> according to some sources 11,000{{sfn|Rumici|2002}}<ref name="huffingtonpost" /> or 20,000.{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} Many foibe victim lists are deficient, with repeated names, victims of fascist or German forces, victims killed in combat, or who were still alive or died in completely different circumstances.{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|p=660}} Italians and Germans also used foibe to dispose of victims. Italian historian Raoul Pupo estimates 3,000 to 4,000 total victims, across all areas of former Yugoslavia and Italy from 1943 to 1945,<ref name=":6">{{cite web|author-last=Boscarol|author-first=Francesco|date=10 February 2019|title='Foibe, fascisti e comunisti: vi spiego il Giorno del ricordo': parla lo storico Raoul Pupo [Interviste]|url=https://www.tpi.it/news/foibe-giorno-del-ricordo-fascisti-comunisti-20190210248565/|access-date=19 October 2021|website=TPI The Post Internazionale|language=it-IT}}</ref> noting that estimates of 10,000 to 12,000 must also include those killed or missing in combat, and states victim numbers of 20,000 to 30,000 are "pure propaganda".{{sfn|Pupo|1996}} Historians note that it is difficult to determine the ethnicity of victims, since fascist authorities forcibly Italianized people's names,{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|p=660}} however of documented victims from Italian-majority Trieste, at least 23% were either Slavs or had at least one Slavic parent.{{sfn|Troha|2014}} |
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The foibe massacres were followed by the [[Istrian–Dalmatian exodus]], which was the post-[[World War II]] exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) from the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March, lost by Italy after the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] (1947), as well as Dalmatia,<ref name="Iggers">{{cite book|author=Georg G. Iggers|editor1=Franz L. Fillafer|editor2=Georg G. Iggers|editor3=Q. Edward Wang|title=The Many Faces of Clio: cross-cultural Approaches to Historiography, Essays in Honor of Georg G. Iggers|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2007|isbn=9781845452704|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0b6HKgl9ewC&dq=foibe+massacre+followed+istrian+dalmatian+exodus&pg=PA430|page=430}}</ref> towards [[Italy]], and in smaller numbers, towards the [[Americas]], [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]].<ref name="rainews">{{cite web|url=https://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/giorno-ricordo-10-febbraio-2004-2014-dieci-anni-strage-foibe-eccidio-tito-comunisti-slavi-esodo-giuliano-dalmata-77ba65a1-a1e5-460e-bb57-946819b4b905.html|title=Il Giorno del Ricordo|date=10 February 2014|access-date=16 October 2021|language=it}}</ref><ref name="ilgiornale">{{cite web|url=https://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/lesodo-giuliano-dalmata-e-quegli-italiani-fuga-che-nacquero-1639585.html|title=L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte|date=5 February 2019|access-date=24 January 2023|language=it}}</ref> According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians. A joint Italian-Slovene commission noted that the majority of the exodus happened in the early 1950s, more than five years after the massacres, when it was clear these parts would become permanently Yugoslav, and that the exodus had multiple causes, including war-caused economic hardship and general repressive policies in the immediate postwar years.<ref name=":1" /> |
The foibe massacres were followed by the [[Istrian–Dalmatian exodus]], which was the post-[[World War II]] exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) from the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March, lost by Italy after the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] (1947), as well as Dalmatia,<ref name="Iggers">{{cite book|author=Georg G. Iggers|editor1=Franz L. Fillafer|editor2=Georg G. Iggers|editor3=Q. Edward Wang|title=The Many Faces of Clio: cross-cultural Approaches to Historiography, Essays in Honor of Georg G. Iggers|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2007|isbn=9781845452704|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0b6HKgl9ewC&dq=foibe+massacre+followed+istrian+dalmatian+exodus&pg=PA430|page=430}}</ref> towards [[Italy]], and in smaller numbers, towards the [[Americas]], [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]].<ref name="rainews">{{cite web|url=https://www.rainews.it/dl/rainews/articoli/giorno-ricordo-10-febbraio-2004-2014-dieci-anni-strage-foibe-eccidio-tito-comunisti-slavi-esodo-giuliano-dalmata-77ba65a1-a1e5-460e-bb57-946819b4b905.html|title=Il Giorno del Ricordo|date=10 February 2014|access-date=16 October 2021|language=it}}</ref><ref name="ilgiornale">{{cite web|url=https://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/lesodo-giuliano-dalmata-e-quegli-italiani-fuga-che-nacquero-1639585.html|title=L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte|date=5 February 2019|access-date=24 January 2023|language=it}}</ref> According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians. A joint Italian-Slovene commission noted that the majority of the exodus happened in the early 1950s, more than five years after the massacres, when it was clear these parts would become permanently Yugoslav, and that the exodus had multiple causes, including war-caused economic hardship and general repressive policies in the immediate postwar years.<ref name=":1" /> |
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== Origin and meaning of the term == |
== Origin and meaning of the term == |
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[[File:Foibe1.jpg|thumb|280px|[[Labin]], December 1943: bodies recovered from a foiba by Italian firefighters and German soldiers. Local civilians are trying to identify relatives or friends.<ref>Other photos from the footage can be seen in Giorgio Pisanò, ''Storia della Guerra Civile in Italia 1943–1945'', Milan, FPE, 1965</ref>]] |
[[File:Foibe1.jpg|thumb|280px|[[Labin]], December 1943: bodies recovered from a foiba by Italian firefighters and German soldiers. Local civilians are trying to identify relatives or friends.<ref>Other photos from the footage can be seen in Giorgio Pisanò, ''Storia della Guerra Civile in Italia 1943–1945'', Milan, FPE, 1965</ref>]] |
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== Background == |
== Background == |
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{{Main|Istria|History of Dalmatia|Italianization|Fascist Legacy|Italian war crimes|Julian March|Istrian Italians|Dalmatian Italians}} |
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The eastern shore of the Adriatic was originally inhabited by indigenous [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[Dalmatae]] (for whom Dalmatia is named), Histrians and Liburnians. Rome conquered their kingdoms through [[Illyro-Roman Wars|a series of wars]]. As elsewhere, some of the populace became Latinized, particularly along the coast. From the 6th century, large migrations [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|brought Slavs to the area]], establishing [[Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)|Croatian]], [[Kingdom of Bosnia|Bosnian]] and [[Serbian Empire|Serb kingdoms]] in Dalmatia. Starting in the 9th century, via conquest (e.g. [[Siege of Zadar (1345–1346)|Siege of Zadar)]] Venice spread its rule over Istria and Dalmatia, except for the [[Republic of Ragusa]] (nowadays called [[Dubrovnik]]), thus becoming part of [[Stato da Màr|Venice's overseas empire]]. [[Venetian language|Venetian]]-Italian replaced [[Dalmatian language|local Romance languages]] in coastal areas, and there was some migration from Venice to Dalmatia. |
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{{Main|Istria|History of Dalmatia|Istrian Italians|Dalmatian Italians}} |
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===Austrian Empire=== |
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[[File:Serenissima.png|1000px|thumb|center|Map of [[Dalmatia]] and [[Istria]] with the boundaries set by the [[Treaty of London (1915)]] (red line) and those actually obtained from Italy (green line). The black line marks the border of the [[Governorate of Dalmatia]] (1941–1943). The ancient domains of the [[Republic of Venice]] are indicated in fuchsia (dashed diagonally, the territories that belonged occasionally).]] |
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{{further|Italian irredentism in Dalmatia|Italian irredentism in Istria}} |
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[[File:VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg|thumb|400px|Austrian linguistic map from 1896. In green the areas where [[Slavs]] were the majority of the population, in orange the areas where [[Istrian Italians]] and Dalmatian Italians were the majority of the population. The boundaries of [[Venetian Dalmatia]] in 1797 are delimited with blue dots.]] |
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=== From Roman era to early history === |
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[[File:Split12(js).jpg|thumb|[[Diocletian's Palace|Palace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian]], [[Split, Croatia|Split]]]] |
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Roman Dalmatia was fully Latinized by 476 AD when the [[Western Roman Empire]] disappeared.<ref>[[Theodor Mommsen]] in his book "The Provinces of the Roman Empire"</ref> In the [[Early Middle Ages]], the territory of the Byzantine province of Dalmatia reached in the North up to the river [[Sava]], and was part of the [[Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum]]. In the middle of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century began the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration]], which caused the Romance-speaking population, descendants of Romans and Illyrians (speaking [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]]), to flee to the coast and islands.{{sfn|Ivetic|2022|pp=64, 73}} The hinterland, semi-depopulated by the [[Barbarian Invasions]], [[Slavic tribes]] settled. The Dalmatian cities retained their Romanic culture and [[Latin language|language]] in cities such as [[Zadar]], [[Split, Croatia|Split]] and [[Dubrovnik]]. Their own [[Vulgar Latin]], developed into [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]], a now extinct [[Romance languages|Romance language]]. These coastal cities (politically part of the [[Byzantine Empire]]) maintained political, cultural and economic links with Italy, through the [[Adriatic Sea]]. On the other side communications with the mainland were difficult because of the [[Dinaric Alps]]. Due to the sharp [[orography]] of Dalmatia, even communications between the different Dalmatian cities, occurred mainly through the sea. This helped Dalmatian cities to develop a unique Romance culture, despite the mostly Slavicized mainland. |
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Historian [[Theodor Mommsen]] wrote that Istria (included in the Regio X ''[[Venetia et Histria]]'' of [[Roman Italy]] since [[Augustus]]) was fully romanized in the 5th century AD.<ref>Theodore Mommsen. ''The Provinces of the Roman Empire''.Chapter I.</ref> Between 500 and 700 AD, Slavs settled in Southeastern Europe (Eastern Adriatic), and their number ever increased, and with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman invasion]] Slavs were pushed from the south and east.<ref>{{cite web|title=Demography and the Origins of the Yugoslav Civil War |url=http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/~gene/migr.html |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609212454/http://demog.berkeley.edu/~gene/migr.html |archivedate=9 June 2010 }}</ref> This led to Italic people becoming ever more confined to urban areas, while some areas of the countryside were populated by Slavs, with exceptions in western and southern Istria which remained fully Romance-speaking.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Olive Grove Revolution |author=Jaka Bartolj |work=Transdiffusion |url=http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/intertel/features/the_olive_grove.php |quote=While most of the population in the towns, especially those on or near the coast, was Italian, Istria's interior was overwhelmingly Slavic – mostly Croatian, but with a sizeable Slovenian area as well. |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918031325/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/intertel/features/the_olive_grove.php |archivedate=18 September 2010 }}</ref> |
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By the 11th century, most of the interior mountainous areas of northern and eastern Istria ([[Liburnia]]) were inhabited by [[South Slavs]], while the Romance population continued to prevail in the south and west of the peninsula. Linguistically, the Romance inhabitants of Istria were most probably divided into two main linguistic groups: in the north-west, the speakers of a [[Rhaeto-Romance language]] similar to [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Friulian language|Friulian]] prevailed, while in the south, the natives most probably spoke a variant of the [[Dalmatian language]]. One modern claim suggests the original language of the romanized Istrians survived the invasions, this being the [[Istriot language]] which was spoken by some near [[Pula]].<ref>[http://xoomer.virgilio.it/arupinum/menuistrioto.html Istrioto, the autochthonous language of southern Istria (in Italian)]</ref> |
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Via conquests, the [[Republic of Venice]], between the 9th century and 1797, extended its dominion to coastal parts of [[Istria]] and [[Dalmatia]].<ref>Alvise Zorzi, ''La Repubblica del Leone. Storia di Venezia'', Milano, Bompiani, 2001, ISBN 978-88-452-9136-4., pp. 53–55 (in italian)</ref> Thus Venice invaded and attacked [[Zadar#High Middle Ages|Zadar]] multiple times, especially devastating the city in 1202 when Venice used the [[crusaders]], on their [[Fourth Crusade]], to lay siege, then ransack, demolish and rob the city,<ref name="Sethre">{{cite book |last=Sethre |first=Janet |title=The Souls of Venice |year=2003 |isbn=0-7864-1573-8 |pages=54–55|publisher=McFarland }}</ref> the population fleeing into countryside. [[Pope Innocent III]] excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders for attacking a Catholic city.<ref name="Sethre" /> The Venetians used the same Crusade [[Republic of Ragusa#Venetian suzerainty (1205–1358)|to attack the Dubrovnik Republic]], and force it to pay tribute, then continued to [[Sack of Constantinople#Sack of Constantinople|sack Christian Orthodox Constantinople]] where they [[Looting|looted]], terrorized, and vandalized the city, killing 2.000 civilians, raping nuns and destroying Christian Churches, with Venice receiving a big portion of the plundered treasures. |
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[[File:1807KingdomItaly.jpg|thumb|The [[Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy]] from 1806 to 1810 included Istria and Dalmatia that had belonged to the Republic of Venice until 1797.]] |
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The coastal areas and cities of Istria came under Venetian Influence in the 9th century. In 1145, the cities of [[Pula]], [[Koper]] and [[Izola]] rose against the Republic of Venice but were defeated, and were since further controlled by Venice.<ref name="istra-istra">{{cite web |url=http://www.istra-istra.hr/index.php?id=860 |title=Historic overview-more details |website=Istra-Istria.hr |publisher=[[Istria County]] | access-date=19 December 2018 }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> On 15 February 1267, [[Poreč]] was formally incorporated with the Venetian state.<ref>John Mason Neale, [https://archive.org/details/notese00neal/page/76 ''Notes Ecclesiological & Picturesque on Dalmatia, Croatia, Istria, Styria, with a visit to Montenegro''], pg. 76, J.T. Hayes – London (1861)</ref> Other coastal towns followed shortly thereafter. The Republic of Venice gradually dominated the whole coastal area of western Istria and the area to [[Plomin]] on the eastern part of the peninsula.<ref name="istra-istra"/> Dalmatia was first and finally sold to the Republic of Venice in 1409 but [[Venetian Dalmatia]] was not fully consolidated from 1420.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/balkans/xdalmatia.html|title=Dalmatia history|access-date=10 July 2022}}</ref> |
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From the [[Middle Ages]] onwards, numbers of Slavic people near and on the Adriatic coast were ever increasing, due to their expanding population and due to pressure from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] pushing them from the south and east.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.demog.berkeley.edu/~gene/migr.html | title=Demography and the Origins of the Yugoslav Civil War |first=E. A.|last= Hammel |work=Anthropology Today|volume =9 |issue=1|pages= 4–9|date=February 1993 |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609212454/http://demog.berkeley.edu/~gene/migr.html |archive-date=9 June 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.istra-istria.hr/index.php?id=860|title=Region of Istria: Historic overview-more details|website=Istra-istria.hr|access-date=9 June 2016|archive-date=11 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611033243/http://www.istra-istria.hr/index.php?id=860|url-status=dead}}</ref> This led to Italic people becoming ever more confined to urban areas, while the countryside was populated by Slavs, with certain isolated exceptions.<ref name=bartolj>{{cite web|title=The Olive Grove Revolution|author=Jaka Bartolj|work=Transdiffusion|url=http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/intertel/features/the_olive_grove.php|quote=While most of the population in the towns, especially those on or near the coast, was Italian, Istria's interior was overwhelmingly Slavic – mostly Croatian, but with a sizeable Slovenian area as well.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918031325/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/intertel/features/the_olive_grove.php|archive-date=18 September 2010}}</ref> In particular, the population was divided into urban-coastal communities (mainly [[Romance languages|Romance-speakers]]) and rural communities (mainly [[Slavic languages|Slavic-speakers]]), with small minorities of [[Morlachs]] and [[Istro-Romanians]].<ref>"Italian islands in a Slavic sea". Arrigo Petacco, Konrad Eisenbichler, ''A tragedy revealed'', p. 9.</ref> |
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[[Republic of Venice]] influenced the neolatins of [[Istria]] and [[Dalmatia]] until 1797, when it [[Fall of the Republic of Venice|was conquered]] by [[Napoleon]]: [[Koper|Capodistria]] and [[Pula|Pola]] were important centers of art and culture during the [[Italian Renaissance]].<ref>[http://www.istrianet.org/istria/illustri/index.htm Prominent Istrians]</ref> Istria and Dalmatia were then aggregated to the [[Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)|Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy]] in 1805, and annexed to the [[Illyrian Provinces]] in 1809 (for some years also the [[Republic of Ragusa]] was included, since 1808). From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in [[Istria]] and [[Dalmatia]] had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as "[[Istrian identity|Istrians]]" and "[[Dalmatian identity|Dalmatians]]", of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://xoomer.alice.it/histria/storiaecultura/testiedocumenti/articoligiornali/artadriatico.htm| title = "L'Adriatico orientale e la sterile ricerca delle nazionalità delle persone" di Kristijan Knez; La Voce del Popolo (quotidiano di Fiume) del 2/10/2002| access-date = 10 May 2021| language = it| archive-date = 22 February 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210222025553/https://xoom.virgilio.it/jump.html| url-status = dead}}</ref> |
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=== Austrian Empire === |
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{{Further|Italian irredentism in Dalmatia|Italian irredentism in Istria}} |
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[[File:VenetianDalmatia1797.jpg|thumb|400px|Austrian linguistic map from 1896. In green the areas where [[Slavs]] were the majority of the population, in orange the areas where [[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]] were the majority of the population. The boundaries of [[Venetian Dalmatia]] in 1797 are delimited with blue dots.]] |
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After the [[Third Italian War of Independence]] (1866), when the [[Veneto]] and [[Friuli]] regions were ceded by the [[Austrian Empire|Austrians]] to the newly formed [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom Italy]], Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of [[Italian irredentism]] among |
After the fall of [[Napoleon]] (1814), Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia were annexed to the [[Austrian Empire]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coordinamentoadriatico.it/lottocento-austriaco/|title=L'ottocento austriaco|date=7 March 2016|access-date=11 May 2021|language=it}}</ref> Many [[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]] looked with sympathy towards the [[Risorgimento]] movement that fought for the unification of Italy.<ref name="corsadelricordo">{{cite web|url=http://www.corsadelricordo.it/la-storia|title=Trieste, Istria, Fiume e Dalmazia: una terra contesa|access-date=2 June 2021|language=it}}</ref> However, after the [[Third Italian War of Independence]] (1866), when the [[Veneto]] and [[Friuli]] regions were ceded by the [[Austrian Empire|Austrians]] to the newly formed [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom Italy]], Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of [[Italian irredentism]] among many Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the [[Julian March]], [[Kvarner Gulf|Kvarner]] and [[Dalmatia]] with Italy. The Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian [[Italian unification|Risorgimento]]: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia.<ref name="ReferenceB">''Die Protokolle des Österreichischen Ministerrates 1848/1867. V Abteilung: Die Ministerien Rainer und Mensdorff. VI Abteilung: Das Ministerium Belcredi'', Wien, Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst 1971</ref> |
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During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria]] outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the [[Germanization]] or [[Slavization]] of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:<ref>''Die Protokolle des Österreichischen Ministerrates 1848/1867. V Abteilung: Die Ministerien Rainer und Mensdorff. VI Abteilung: Das Ministerium Belcredi'', Wien, Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst 1971, vol. 2, p. 297. Citazione completa della fonte e traduzione in Luciano Monzali, ''Italiani di Dalmazia. Dal Risorgimento alla Grande Guerra'', Le Lettere, Firenze 2004, p. 69.</ref> |
During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria]] outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the [[Germanization]] or [[Slavization]] of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:<ref>''Die Protokolle des Österreichischen Ministerrates 1848/1867. V Abteilung: Die Ministerien Rainer und Mensdorff. VI Abteilung: Das Ministerium Belcredi'', Wien, Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst 1971, vol. 2, p. 297. Citazione completa della fonte e traduzione in Luciano Monzali, ''Italiani di Dalmazia. Dal Risorgimento alla Grande Guerra'', Le Lettere, Firenze 2004, p. 69.</ref> |
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{{blockquote|text=His Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in [[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol|South Tyrol]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Austrian Littoral|Littoral]] for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established.|author=|source=Franz Joseph I of Austria, Council of the Crown of 12 November 1866<ref name=" |
{{blockquote|text=His Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in [[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol|South Tyrol]], [[Dalmatia]] and [[Austrian Littoral|Littoral]] for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established.|author=|source=Franz Joseph I of Austria, Council of the Crown of 12 November 1866<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref>{{cite book|author1=Jürgen Baurmann|author2=Hartmut Gunther|author3=Ulrich Knoop|title=Homo scribens: Perspektiven der Schriftlichkeitsforschung|year= 1993|isbn= 3484311347|page=279|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|language=de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l3tCTXoeAysC&pg=279}}</ref>}} |
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In 1909 the [[Italian language]] lost its [[Status (law)|status]] as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian: thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.<ref>{{Citation|year=1970|title=Dalmazia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=III|page=730|publisher=[[Treccani]]|language=it}}</ref> |
In 1909 the [[Italian language]] lost its [[Status (law)|status]] as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian: thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.<ref>{{Citation|year=1970|title=Dalmazia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=III|page=730|publisher=[[Treccani]] | language=it}}</ref> |
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[[File:Dalmatia.png|thumb|247x247px|Proportion of [[Dalmatian Italians]] in districts of Dalmatia in 1910, per the Austro-Hungarian census]] |
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[[Istrian Italians]] were more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries,<ref name="iemed">{{cite web|url=https://www.iemed.org/publication/istrian-spring/|title=Istrian Spring|access-date=24 October 2022}}</ref>while making up about a third of the population in 1900.<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Istria | volume= 14 | pages = 886–887 |short= 1}}</ref> Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population ([[Dalmatian Italians]]), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803,<ref name="Bartoli">{{cite book| last= Bartoli | first= Matteo | author-link=Matteo Bartoli| title= Le parlate italiane della Venezia Giulia e della Dalmazia | publisher= Tipografia italo-orientale | page=16 | year= 1919|language=it}}{{No ISBN}}</ref><ref name="Seton-Watson">{{cite book| last= Seton-Watson| first= Christopher| title= Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870–1925 | publisher= Methuen | page=107| year= 1967|isbn=9780416189407}}</ref> but this was reduced to 20% in 1816.<ref>{{Citation|year=1970|title=Dalmazia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=III|page=729|publisher=[[Treccani]] | language=it}}</ref> Bartoli's evaluation was followed by other claims that [[Auguste de Marmont]], the French Governor General of the Napoleonic [[Illyrian Provinces]] commissioned a census in 1809 which found that [[Dalmatian Italians]] comprised 29% of the total population of Dalmatia. In Dalmatia, there was a constant decline in the Italian population, in a context of repression that also took on violent connotations.<ref>{{cite book|author=Raimondo Deranez|url=http://xoomer.alice.it/histria/storiaecultura/testiedocumenti/bombardieritesti/particolari_dalmazia.htm|title=Particolari del martirio della Dalmazia|publisher=Stabilimento Tipografico dell'Ordine|location=Ancona|year=1919|language=it}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> During this period, Austrians carried out an aggressive [[Anti-Italianism|anti-Italian]] policy through a forced Slavization of Dalmatia.<ref>{{cite book|title= La campagna del 1866 nei documenti militari austriaci: operazioni terrestri|publisher= [[University of Padova]] | author= Angelo Filipuzzi|page=396|year=1966|language=it}}{{No ISBN}}</ref> According to Austrian census, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Peričić|first=Šime|date=19 September 2003|title=O broju Talijana/talijanaša u Dalmaciji XIX. stoljeća|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/12136|journal=Radovi Zavoda za povijesne znanosti HAZU u Zadru|language=hr|issue=45|pages=342|issn=1330-0474}}</ref> In the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria had a population of 57.8% Slavic-speakers (Croat and Slovene), and 38.1% Italian speakers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.omm1910.hu/?%2Fde%2Fdatenbank |title=Spezialortsrepertorium der österreichischen Länder I-XII, Wien, 1915–1919 |access-date=10 May 2021 |archive-date=29 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529164005/http://www.omm1910.hu/?%2Fde%2Fdatenbank |url-status=dead }}</ref> For the Austrian [[Kingdom of Dalmatia]], (i.e. [[Dalmatia]]), the 1910 numbers were 96.2% Slavic speakers and 2.8% Italian speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omm1910.hu/?/de/datenbank|title=Spezialortsrepertorium der österreichischen Länder I-XII, Wien, 1915–1919|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529164005/http://www.omm1910.hu/?%2Fde%2Fdatenbank|archive-date=29 May 2013}}</ref> In [[Rijeka]] the Italians were the relative majority in the municipality (48.61% in 1910), and in addition to the large Croatian community (25.95% in the same year), there was also a fair Hungarian minority (13.03%). According to the official Croatian census of 2011, there are {{formatnum:2445}} Italians in Rijeka (equal to 1.9% of the total population).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dzs.hr/default_e.htm|title=Croatian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=27 February 2019}}</ref> |
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[[Istrian Italians]], more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries,<ref name="iemed"/> made up about a third of the population in 1900.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Istria|volume= 14|pages = 886–887|short= 1}}</ref><ref name="Datebank"/> [[Dalmatian Italians]], making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803,{{sfn|Bartoli|1919|p=16}}{{sfn|Seton-Watson|1967|p=107}} were reduced to 20% in 1816,<ref>{{Citation|year=1970|title=Dalmazia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=III|page=729|publisher=[[Treccani]]|language=it}}</ref> 12.5% in 1865,{{sfn|Peričić|2003}} and 2.8% in 1910.<ref name="Datebank">{{cite web |
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|url = http://www.omm1910.hu/?/de/datenbank |
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|language = de |
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|title = Spezialortsrepertorium der österreichischen Länder I-XII, Wien, 1915–1919 |
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|url-status = dead |
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|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130529164005/http://www.omm1910.hu/?/de/datenbank |
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|archive-date = 2013-05-29 |
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}}</ref> |
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The Italian population in Dalmatia was concentrated in the major coastal cities. In the city of [[Split, Croatia|Split]] in 1890 there were {{formatnum:1969}} Dalmatian Italians (12.5% of the population), in [[Zadar]] {{formatnum:7423}} (64.6%), in [[Šibenik]] {{formatnum:1018}} (14.5%), in [[Kotor]] {{formatnum:623}} (18.7%) and in [[Dubrovnik]] {{formatnum:331}} (4.6%).<ref>Guerrino Perselli, ''I censimenti della popolazione dell'Istria, con Fiume e Trieste e di alcune città della Dalmazia tra il 1850 e il 1936'', Centro di Ricerche Storiche – Rovigno, Unione Italiana – Fiume, Università Popolare di Trieste, Trieste-Rovigno, 1993</ref> In other Dalmatian localities, according to Austrian censuses, Dalmatian Italians experienced a sudden decrease: in the twenty years 1890–1910, in [[Rab (island)|Rab]] they went from 225 to 151, in [[Vis (island)|Vis]] from 352 to 92, in [[Pag (island)|Pag]] from 787 to 23, completely disappearing in almost all the inland locations. |
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Zara, the Austrian capital of Dalmatia, was left the only Dalmatian city with an Italian majority,{{sfn|Peričić|2003|p=343}} comparable to Istrian towns like [[Pola (Istria)|Pola/Pula]] (45.8% Italians; 15.2% Croats; {{circa|39%}} German-speaking military){{efn|The 1910 Austrian census recorded a city population of 58,562 (45.8% Italian speaking; 15.2% Croatian; the rest were mostly German-speaking military).<ref>Kocsis, Károly; Az etnikai konfliktusok történeti-földrajzi háttere a volt Jugoszlávia területén; Teleki László Alapítvány, 1993 {{ISBN|963-04-2855-5}}</ref>}} and [[Koper|Capodistria/Koper]] (92,02% Italians; 4,99% Slovenians; 2,13% Croats; 0,86% Germans).{{efn|According to the 1900 census, 7,205 Italian, 391 Slovenian, 167 Croatian, and 67 German inhabitants lived in Koper.}} |
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In 1905, a dispute arose in the [[Imperial Council (Austria)|Austrian Imperial Council]] over whether Austria should pay for Dalmatia. It has been argued that in the conclusion of the [[April Laws]] is written "given by Banus Count [[Keglević family|Keglevich]] of [[Bužim]]", which explained the historical affiliation of Dalmatia to [[Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)|Hungary]].<ref>Stenographische Protokolle über die Sitzungen des Hauses der Abgeordneten des österreichischen Reichsrates, Ausgaben 318-329, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=R2vYT6XNK8vP4QTwtdilAw&hl=de&id=AlAyAQAAMAAJ&dq=Keglevich Seite 29187], Austria, Reichsrat, Abgeordnetenhaus, published 1905.</ref> Two years later Dalmatia elected representatives to the Austrian Imperial Council. In 1909, the [[Italian language]] lost its [[Status (law)|status]] as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only; previously, both languages were recognized. Thus, Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.<ref>{{Citation|year=1970|title=Dalmazia|encyclopedia=Dizionario enciclopedico italiano|volume=III|page=730|publisher=[[Treccani]] | language=it}}</ref> |
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=== World War I === |
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[[File:Incendio dell'Hotel Balkan.jpeg|thumb|The [[Trieste National Hall]], the main center of the Slovene minority in [[Trieste]], after fascists burned it (1920)]] |
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Although a member of the [[Central Powers]], Italy remained neutral at the start of WWI, and soon launched secret negotiations with [[Triple Entente|the Triple Entente]], bargaining to participate in the war on its side, in exchange for significant territorial gains.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cattaruzza|first=Marina|date=2011|title=The Making and Remaking of a Boundary – the Redrafting of the Eastern Border of Italy after the two World Wars|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26265925|journal=Journal of Modern European History / Zeitschrift für moderne europäische Geschichte / Revue d'histoire européenne contemporaine|volume=9|issue=1|pages=66–86|doi=10.17104/1611-8944_2011_1_66|issn=1611-8944|jstor=26265925|s2cid=145685085}}</ref> To get Italy to join the war, in the secret [[Treaty of London (1915)|1915 Treaty of London]] the Entente promised Italy [[South Tyrol]], Istria and parts of Dalmatia, Greece, Albania and Turkey, plus territory for Italy's North Africa colonies. |
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=== World War I and its aftermath=== |
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After [[World War I]], Italy annexed Istria and [[Zadar]], while Dalmatia (except Zadar) was annexed by [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. |
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[[File:Promised Borders of the Tready of London.png|thumb|left|Territories promised to Italy by the [[London Pact]] (1915), i.e. [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], the [[Julian March]] and [[Dalmatia]] (tan), and the [[Snežnik (plateau)|Snežnik Plateau]] area (green). Dalmatia, after the WWI, however, was not assigned to Italy but to [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]]] |
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As a result, 480,000 Slavic-speakers came under Italian rule, while 12,000 Italian speakers remained in Dalmatia. In 1919 [[Gabriele D'Annunzio|D'Annunzio]] and an army of Italian war veterans seized the city of [[Fiume|Fiume (''Rijeka'')]], arresting hundreds of local Slav leaders. With the help of local fascists Italy later annexed the city, with further anti-Slav violence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Patafta|first=Daniel|date=2004-07-02|title=Promjene u nacionalnoj strukturi stanovništva grada Rijeke od 1918. do 1924. godine|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/103303|journal=Časopis za suvremenu povijest|language=hr|volume=36|issue=2|pages=683–700|issn=0590-9597}}</ref> Other armed Italian irregulars tried to grab other cities with large Slav majorities, leading to unrest in Split in 1920, including attacks on local Italians, while fascists burned down the Slovene [[Trieste National Hall|National Hall]] in Trieste,<ref name=":1" /> and the Croatian National Hall in [[Pula]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Radošević|first=Milan|date=2020-12-30|title=Palež pulskoga Narodnog doma 14. VII. 1920. ili kako je otvorena fašistička Pandorina kutija|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/269645|journal=Histria: Godišnjak Istarskog povijesnog društva = rivista della Società Storica Istriana = časopis Istrskega zgodovinskega društva = the Istrian Historical Society review|language=hr|issue=10|pages=103–134|doi=10.32728/h2020.04|s2cid=245619846|issn=1848-1183|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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In 1915, [[Italian Campaign (World War I)|Italy abrogated its alliance and declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/italiandeclaration.htm|title=First World War.com – Primary Documents – Italian Entry into the War, 23 May 1915|website=Firstworldwar.com|access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref> leading to bloody conflict mainly on the [[Battles of the Isonzo|Isonzo]] and [[Battle of the Piave River|Piave]] fronts. Britain, France and Russia had been "keen to bring neutral Italy into World War I on their side. However, Italy drove a hard bargain, demanding extensive territorial concessions once the war had been won".<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/london1915.htm|title=First World War.com – Primary Documents – Treaty of London, 26 April 1915|website=Firstworldwar.com|access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref> |
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Italy launched a policy of forced [[Italianization]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Miklavci|first=Alessandra|title=Diverse minorities in the Italo-Slovene borderland: "historical" and "new" minorities meet at the market.|url=http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/wgmn_papers/alessandra_miklavcic_paper.pdf|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-date=10 June 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610051341/http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/ROHO/wgmn_papers/alessandra_miklavcic_paper.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> forbidding Slavic languages in public institutions and schools, moved 500 Slovene teachers to the interior of Italy, replaced them with Italian ones. All Slavic publications were banned, libraries closed. The government changed people's names to Italian ones. All Slavic cultural, sporting, professional, business and political associations were banned. Slavs were restricted from public sector employment. Fascist [[Blackshirts]] perpetrated anti-Slav violence.<ref name=":1" /> As a result, 100,000 Slavic speakers left Italian-annexed areas in an exodus, moving mostly to Yugoslavia. In a 1920 speech in [[Pola (Istria)]], Mussolini proclaimed an expansionist policy, based on the fascist concept of ''[[spazio vitale]]'', similar to the Nazi's ''[[lebensraum]]'':<ref>{{cite book|last=Verginella|first=Marta|title=Aut aut|year=2011|isbn=9788865761069|language=it|chapter=Antislavismo, razzismo di frontiera?|publisher=Il Saggiatore|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HyVMfMQoSCYC&pg=PT46}}</ref>{{blockquote|Towards expansion in the Mediterranean and in the East, Italy is driven by demographic factors. But to realize the Mediterranean dream, the Adriatic, which is our gulf, must be in our hands. When dealing with such a race as Slavic – inferior and barbaric – we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy. We should not be afraid of new victims. The Italian border should run across the [[Brenner Pass]], [[Snežnik|Monte Nevoso]] and the [[Dinaric Alps]]. I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians.|[[Benito Mussolini]], 1920}} |
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In a deal to bring Italy into the war, under the [[London Pact]], Italy would be allowed to annex not only Italian-speaking [[Trentino]] and Trieste, but also German-speaking [[South Tyrol]], Istria (which included large non-Italian communities), and the northern part of Dalmatia including the areas of [[Zadar]] (Zara) and [[Šibenik]] (Sebenico). Mainly Italian Fiume (present-day Rijeka) was excluded.<ref name=autogenerated2/> |
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Dalmatia was a strategic region during [[World War I]] that both [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] and [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] intended to seize from [[Austria-Hungary]]. Italy joined the [[Triple Entente]] [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] in 1915 upon agreeing to the [[Treaty of London (1915)|Treaty of London]] that guaranteed Italy the right to annex a large portion of Dalmatia in exchange for Italy's participation on the Allied side. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached [[Vis (island)|Vis]], [[Lastovo]], Šibenik, and other localities on the Dalmatian coast.<ref>Giuseppe Praga, Franco Luxardo. ''History of Dalmatia''. Giardini, 1993. Pp. 281.</ref> By the end of hostilities in November 1918, the Italian military had [[Occupation of the eastern Adriatic|seized control of the entire portion of Dalmatia]] that had been guaranteed to Italy by the Treaty of London and by 17 November had seized Rijeka as well creating the first [[Governorate of Dalmatia]].<ref name="Paul O 2005. Pp. 17">Paul O'Brien. ''Mussolini in the First World War: the Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist''. Oxford, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Berg, 2005. Pp. 17.</ref> In 1918, Admiral [[Enrico Millo]] declared himself Italy's Governor of Dalmatia.<ref name="Paul O 2005. Pp. 17"/> Famous [[Italian nationalism|Italian nationalist]] [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]] supported the seizure of Dalmatia, and proceeded to Zadar in an Italian warship in December 1918.<ref>A. Rossi. ''The Rise of Italian Fascism: 1918–1922''. New York, New York, USA: Routledge, 2010. Pp. 47.</ref> However, in spite of the guarantees of the Treaty of London to Italy of a large portion of Dalmatia and Italian military occupation of claimed territories of Dalmatia, during the peace settlement negotiations of 1919 to 1920, the [[Fourteen Points]] of [[Woodrow Wilson]] that advocated self-determination of nations took precedence, with Italy only being permitted to annex Zadar from Dalmatia, while the rest of Dalmatia was to be part of [[Yugoslavia]]. |
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===World War II=== |
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[[File:Enrico Millo circa 1915 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Enrico Millo]], the first governor of the first Italian [[Governatorate of Dalmatia]] (1918–1920)]] |
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{{See also|Italian war crimes#Yugoslavia|l1=Italian war crimes in Yugoslavia}} |
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[[File:Axis occupation of Yugoslavia 1941-43.png|thumb|Map of areas Italy annexed after the invasion of Yugoslavia during the [[World War II]] – [[Province of Ljubljana]], [[Governorate of Dalmatia|Governate of Dalmatia]] and the area merged with the [[province of Fiume]]. Italy further occupied half of the [[Independent State of Croatia]] (below grey line), plus [[Montenegro]] and parts of [[Kosovo]], [[Serbia]] and [[North Macedonia|Macedonia]] (the latter annexed to Italy-occupied [[Albania]])|289x289px]] |
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At the end of World War I, the Austrian Empire disintegrated, and Dalmatia was again split between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]) which controlled most of it, and the Kingdom of Italy which held small portions of northern Dalmatia around Zadar and the islands of [[Cres]], [[Lošinj]], and Lastovo. Italy entered World War I in a territorial gamble, mostly to gain Dalmatia. But Italy got only a small part of its pretensions, so Dalmatia mostly stayed Yugoslav. |
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Seeking to create an [[Imperial Italy (fascist)|Imperial Italy]], Mussolini invaded [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|Ethiopia]], [[Italian invasion of Albania|Albania]], [[Italian occupation of France|France]], [[Battle of Greece|Greece]], [[Italian invasion of Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Siege of Malta (World War II)|Malta]]. In April 1941, Italy and its German ally [[Invasion of Yugoslavia|attacked Yugoslavia]], carving up the country. Italy occupied large portions of [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], plus all of [[Montenegro]], directly annexing to Italy [[Province of Ljubljana|Ljubljana Province]], [[Gorski Kotar]] and Central Dalmatia, along with most Croatian islands. Italy proceeded to Italianize Dalmatia.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=132–133}} Place names were italianized and Italian was made the official language in schools, churches and government.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=132–133}} All Croatian cultural societies were banned, Italians took control of all key mineral, industrial and business establishments.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=132–133}} |
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Despite the fact that there were only a few thousand [[Dalmatian Italians|Italian-speakers in Dalmatia]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hehn |first=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nOALhEZkYDkC&dq=%22signed+a+treaty+on+November+12,+1920,+at+Rapallo&pg=PA45 |title=A Low, Dishonest Decade: The Great Powers, Eastern Europe and the Economic Origins of World War II |date=2005-09-26 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-8264-1761-9 |language=en}}</ref> after the constant decrease that occurred in previous decades, [[Italian irredentism|Italian irredentists]] continued to lay claim to all of Dalmatia. In 1927 Italy signed an agreement with the Croatian fascist, terrorist [[Ustaše]] organization. The [[Ustaše|Ustaše agreed]] that once they gained power, they will cede to Italy additional territory in Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor, while renouncing all Croatian claims to Istria, Rijeka, Zadar and the Adriatic Islands.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=30–31}} |
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Italian fascist policies prompted resistance, with many Yugoslavs joining [[Yugoslav Partisans|the Partisans]].{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=133–134}} In response, the Italians adopted tactics of summary executions, internments, property confiscations, and the burning of villages.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/rmis/2004/00000009/00000003/art00005|title=General Roatta's war against the partisans in Yugoslavia: 1942|first=H James|last=Burgwyn|date=1 September 2004|journal=Journal of Modern Italian Studies|volume=9|issue=3|pages=314–329|via=IngentaConnect|doi=10.1080/1354571042000254746|s2cid=145768235}}</ref> The Italian government sent tens-of-thousands of civilians, including many women and children, to [[List of Italian concentration camps|Italian concentration camps]] - [[Rab concentration camp|Rab]], [[Gonars concentration camp|Gonars]], [[Monigo]], [[Renicci di Anghiari|Renicci]], [[Molat concentration camp|Molat]], etc. 30,000 Slovenes<ref name=":1" /> and 80,000 Dalmatians, 12% of the population,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dizdar|first=Zdravko|date=2005-12-15|title=Italian Policies Toward Croatians In Occupied Territories During The Second World War|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/35407|journal=Review of Croatian History|language=en|volume=I|issue=1|page=207|issn=1845-4380}}</ref> were sent to Italian concentration camps. Thousands died in the camps, including hundreds of children.<ref>{{Citation|title=Oltre il filo (Trailer)|date=20 July 2012|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CPBCsOGVMM|access-date=2020-04-09|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/1CPBCsOGVMM|url-status=live|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-15}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Italian forces executed thousands of additional civilians as hostages and conducted massacres, such as the [[Podhum massacre]] in 1942. On their own, or with Nazi and collaborationist allies, the Italian army undertook brutal [[Seven Enemy Offensives|anti-Partisan offensives]], during which tens-of-thousands of Partisans were killed, along with many civilians, plus thousands more civilians executed or sent to concentration camps after the campaigns. |
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Between 31 December 1910 and 1 December 1921, Istria lost 15.1% of its population. The last survey under the Austrian empire recorded 404,309 inhabitants, which dropped to 343,401 by the first Italian census after the war.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite web|url=http://www.cser.it/sunti_147.htm |title=Dossier: Islam in Europe, European Islam |access-date=11 July 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306072317/http://www.cser.it/sunti_147.htm |archive-date=6 March 2009 }}</ref> While the decrease was certainly related to World War I and the changes in political administration, emigration also was a major factor. In the immediate post-World War I period, Istria saw an intense migration outflow. [[Pula]], for example, was badly affected by the drastic dismantling of its massive Austrian military and bureaucratic apparatus of more than 20,000 soldiers and security forces, as well as the dismissal of the employees from its naval shipyard. A serious economic crisis in the rest of Italy forced thousands of Croat peasants to move to Yugoslavia, which became the main destination of the Istrian exodus.<ref name=autogenerated3/> |
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After Italy's capitulation in 1943, Istria, Rijeka and Zadar were occupied by the Germans. The Nazi-puppet [[Italian Social Republic]] also held nominal control over these areas, with the fascist administration continuing to serve the Germans. The Nazis, aided by Italian and Slav collaborators, launched brutal anti-Partisan campaigns, with mass killings of civilians (e.g. [[Memorial Centre Lipa Remembers|the Lipa massacre]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=Miklenic|first=Sven|date=2015|title=Croatia Reopens WWII Village Massacre Memorial|url=https://balkaninsight.com/2015/04/09/memorial-centre-for-istria-village-ww2-massacre-reopened/|website=Balkan Insight}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Perinčić|first=Tea|date=2013|title=Lipa pamti ili o kolektivnoj memoriji jednog ratnog zločina iz II. svjetskog rata|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/143909|journal=Časopis za povijest Zapadne Hrvatske|language=hr|volume=8|issue=|pages=153–165|issn=1846-3223}}</ref>), yet more were sent to concentration camps. Some Italians joined the Yugoslav Partisans, and the Partisans collaborated with the [[National Liberation Committee|CLN]], the Italian resistance. Toward the end of the war, the local CLN focused its efforts on retaining Istria, the [[Slovene Littoral]], Trieste, Gorizia, Rijeka and Zadar for Italy,<ref name=":1" /> while accepting members of fascist and Nazi-collaborationist forces into its ranks.<ref name=":3" /> The Yugoslav Partisans, who had competing claims, liberated Istria, Rijeka and Zadar. The great majority of Slavs in Istria and Dalmatia, plus some Italians, welcomed the Yugoslav Partisans as liberators, while those in the Italian minority, and a smaller number of Slavs, supported Italian rule.<ref name=":1" /> |
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In 1922, the territory of the former Kingdom of Dalmatia was divided into two provinces, the Oblast of Split and the Oblast of Dubrovnik. In 1929, the [[Littoral Banovina]], a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was formed. Its capital was Split, and it included most of Dalmatia and parts of present-day [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. The southern parts of Dalmatia were in [[Zeta Banovina]], from the Bay of Kotor to [[Pelješac]] peninsula including Dubrovnik. In 1939, Littoral Banovina was joined with [[Sava Banovina]] (and with smaller parts of other banovinas) to form a new province named the [[Banovina of Croatia]]. The same year, the ethnic Croatian areas of the Zeta Banovina from the Bay of Kotor to Pelješac, including Dubrovnik, were merged with a new Banovina of Croatia. |
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== Events == |
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The first claims of people being thrown into {{lang|it|foibe}} date to 1943, after the [[Wehrmacht]] took back the area from the Partisans. Other authors claimed the 70 hostages were killed and burned in the Nazi ''lager'' of the Risiera of San Sabba, on 4 April 1944.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.studioargento.com/sansabba/|title=StudioArgento – Risiera di San Sabba|website=www.studioargento.com}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bibliolab.it/landolfi_shoah/shoahitalia/deportazionecampi5.htm Deportazione Campi], bibliolab.it; accessed 17 March 2016.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.storiain.net/arret/num68/artic2.asp|title=TRIESTE, SAN SABBA: DELLA RISIERA LE SS FECERO UN CAMPO DI MORTE|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726182536/http://www.storiain.net/arret/num68/artic2.asp|archive-date=2011-07-26|access-date=30 August 2022|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ica-net.it/PASCAL/trieste01/files/risiera.htm|title=Risiera|access-date=10 May 2009|archive-date=8 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150608163454/http://www.ica-net.it/pascal/trieste01/files/risiera.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference|conference=Convegno Internazionale Deportazione|last1=Romanelli|first1=Sergio|date=23–24 January 2003|location=Bolzano|title=I luoghi: Il recupero, la conservazione e la valorizzazione dei luoghi in cui sono sorti i Lager nazisti|language=it, de|url=https://www.lageredeportazione.org/iniziative/relazione-referat-sergio-romanelli/|trans-title=Places: The recovery, conservation and enhancement of the places where the Nazi concentration camps arose|publisher=Lager e Deportazione.org; Città di [[Nova Milanese]]; Stadt [[Bozen]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727012235/http://www.lageredeportazione.org/binary/lager_deportazione/materiali_prodotti_iniziative/SERGIO%20ROMANELLI.1149922800.pdf|archive-date=27 July 2011|access-date=17 March 2016}} [https://www.lageredeportazione.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/SERGIO-ROMANELLI.1149922800.pdf Link to PDF]</ref> |
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[[File:Foiba di Terli - Corpi estratti.jpg|thumb|300px|left|4 November 1943: next to the Foiba of Terli are decomposed corpses of Albina Radecchi (A), Catherine Radecchi (B), Fosca Radecchi (C) and Amalia Ardossi (D)]] |
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Due to a lack of reliable statistics, the true magnitude of Istrian emigration during that period cannot be assessed accurately. Estimates provided by varying sources with different research methods show that about 30,000 Istrians migrated between 1918 and 1921.<ref name=autogenerated3/> |
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The massacres occurred in two waves, the first taking places in the interlude between the [[Armistice of Cassibile]] and the German occupation of Istria in September 1943, and the second after the Yugoslav occupation of the region in May 1945. Victims of the first wave numbered in the hundreds, whereas those of the second wave in the thousands. The first wave of killings is widely regarded as a disorganized, spontaneous series of [[revenge killing]]s by Slovenes and Croats after twenty years of Fascist oppression, as well as "''[[jacquerie]]''" against Italian landowners and more broadly the Italian elite in the region; these killings targeted members of the Fascist Party, their relatives (as in the famous case of [[Norma Cossetto]]), Italian landowners, policemen and [[civil servant]]s of all ranks, considered as symbols of Italian oppression. The scope and nature of the second wave is much more disputed; Slovene and Croat historians, as well as Italian historians such as [[Alessandra Kersevan]] and Claudia Cernigoi, characterize it as another wave of revenge killings against Fascist collaborators and members of the armed forces of the [[Italian Social Republic]], whereas Italian historians such as Raoul Pupo, [[Gianni Oliva]] and Roberto Spazzali argue that this was the result of a deliberate [[Titoist]] policy aimed at spreading terror among the Italian population of the region and eliminating anyone who opposed Yugoslav plans of annexing Istria and the Julian March, including anti-Fascists.{{sfn|Pupo|Spazzali|2003}}{{sfn|Oliva|2003}} While the {{lang|it|foibe}} became the symbol of these massacres, only a minority of the victims were killed with this method, largely during the first wave; a far larger part were executed and buried in [[mass grave]]s or died in Yugoslav prisons and [[concentration camp]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Radošević|first=Milan|date=2010-06-10|title=Pregled izvještaja pulskog dnevnika Corriere Istriano (listopad – prosinac 1943.) o stradalima u istarskim fojbama i boksitnim jamama nakon kapitulacije Italije 8. rujna 1943. godine|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=84427|journal=Problemi Sjevernog Jadrana: Problemi sjevernog Jadrana|volume=10|language=hr|issue=10|pages=89–107|issn=0351-8825}}</ref>{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|pp=657–674}}{{sfn|Pupo|Spazzali|2003}}{{sfn|Oliva|2003}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.anvgd.it/PDF/foibe.pdf?phpMyAdmin=REoOqmSvU-87V4soRG9wAktST3b|title=Documento riassuntivo dell'Associazione Nazionale Venezia Giulia e Dalmazia – ANVGD|access-date=28 August 2021|archive-date=13 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313054121/http://www.anvgd.it/PDF/foibe.pdf?phpMyAdmin=REoOqmSvU-87V4soRG9wAktST3b|url-status=dead|language=it}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9FaoAgAAQBAJ&q=Foiba+di+Vescovado&pg=PT148|title=Una grande tragedia dimenticata, di Giuseppina Mellace|isbn=9788854153226|access-date=28 August 2021|language=it|last1=Mellace|first1=Giuseppina|date=6 February 2014|publisher=Newton Compton Editori}}</ref><ref>Katia Pizzi, [https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=LQGJmLtCN64ymyL1cdQ5Q3PKglvVdJ1Y5lv1j4WmYyphvLMhTft8!-573992511?docId=5002299082 '' 'Silentes Loquimur': 'Foibe' and Border Anxiety in Post-War Literature from Trieste''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414152548/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-21274166/silentes-loquimur-foibe-and-border-anxiety-in|date=14 April 2020}}</ref> |
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Most of them were Austrians, Hungarians and Slavic citizens who used to work for the Austro-Hungarian Empire.<ref>"Contro Operazione Foibe" di Giorgio Rustia</ref> |
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=== Slavs under Italian Fascist rule === |
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After the re-occupation of Istria by Axis forces in September 1943, following the first wave of killings, the [[fire brigade]] of [[Pola (Istria)|Pola]], under the command of Arnaldo Harzarich, recovered 204 bodies from the foibe of the region. Between 1945 and 1948, Italian authorities recovered a total 369 corpses from foibe in the Italian-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste (Zone A), and another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area; these included also bodies of German soldiers killed in the closing days of the war and hastily buried in these cavities. Foibe located in the Yugoslav-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste, as well as in the rest of Istria, were never searched as this territory was now under Yugolav control.<ref name="nonluoghi" /> |
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[[File:Treaty of Rapallo.png|thumb|upright=1.6|Outlined in red, the territory inhabited almost exclusively by Slovenes assigned to the Kingdom of Italy on the basis of the Treaty of Rapallo which was the subject of Italianization]] |
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Great controversy has surrounded the {{lang|it|foiba}} of Basovizza, one of the most famous {{lang|it|foibe}} (and unlikely called as such, as it was not a natural {{lang|it|foiba}} but a disused [[mine shaft]]). Newspaper reports from the postwar era claimed anywhere from 18 to 3,000 victims in this {{lang|it|foiba}} alone, but Trieste authorities refused to fully excavate it, citing financial constraints. At the end of the war, local villagers had thrown the bodies of dead German soldiers (killed in a battle fought in the vicinity in the closing days of the war) and horses into the mine shaft, which after the war had also been used as a garbage dump by the authorities of the [[Free Territory of Trieste]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Knittel|first=Susanne C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpOUDwAAQBAJ|title=The Historical Uncanny: Disability, Ethnicity, and the Politics of Holocaust Memory|date=2014-12-15|publisher=Fordham Univ Press|isbn=978-0-8232-6279-3|language=en}}</ref> After the war the Basovizza foibe was used by the Italian authorities as a garbage dump. Thus no Italian victims were ever recovered or determined at Basovizza. In 1959 the pit was sealed and a monument erected, which later became the central site for the annual foibe commemorations.<ref name=":5" /> |
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After World War I, under the [[Treaty of Rapallo, 1920|Treaty of Rapallo]] between the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (later Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and the Kingdom of Italy (12 November 1920), Italy obtained almost all of Istria with Trieste, the exception being the island of [[Krk]] and part of [[Kastav]] commune, which went to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. By the [[Treaty of Rome, 1924|Treaty of Rome]] (27 January 1924) Italy took Rijeka as well, which had been planned to become an independent state. |
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In these areas, there was a forced policy of [[Italianization]] of the population in the 1920s and 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.linkiesta.it/2013/02/trieste-quando-erano-gli-italiani-a-fare-pulizia-etnica/|title=Trieste, quando erano gli italiani a fare pulizia etnica|date=10 February 2013|access-date=10 May 2021|language=it}}</ref> In addition, there were acts of fascist violence not hampered by the authorities, such as the torching of the ''Narodni dom'' (National House) in Pula and [[Trieste National Hall|Trieste]] carried out at night by Fascists with the connivance of the police (13 July 1920). The situation deteriorated further after the annexation of the [[Julian March]], especially after [[Benito Mussolini]] came to power (1922). In March 1923 the prefect of the Julian March prohibited the use of Croatian and Slovene in the administration, whilst their use in law courts was forbidden by Royal decree on 15 October 1925. |
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The activities of Croatian and Slovenian societies and associations (Sokol, reading rooms, etc.) had already been forbidden during the occupation, but specifically so later with the Law on Associations (1925), the Law on Public Demonstrations (1926) and the Law on Public Order (1926). All Slovenian and Croatian societies and sporting and cultural associations had to cease every activity in line with a decision of provincial fascist secretaries dated 12 June 1927. On a specific order from the prefect of Trieste on 19 November 1928 the Edinost political society was also dissolved. Croatian and Slovenian co-operatives in Istria, which at first were absorbed by the Pula or Trieste Savings Banks, were gradually liquidated.<ref>[http://razor.arnes.si/~mkralj/istra-history/e-periodtotal.html A Historical Outline Of Istria] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111164234/http://razor.arnes.si/~mkralj/istra-history/e-periodtotal.html |date=11 January 2008 }}, razor.arnes.si. Retrieved 30 December 2015.</ref> |
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At the same time, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia attempted a policy of forced [[Croatisation]] against the [[Dalmatian Italians|Italian minority in Dalmatia]].<ref>"Italiani di Dalmazia: 1919–1924" di Luciano Monzali</ref> |
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The majority of the Italian Dalmatian minority decided to transfer in the Kingdom of Italy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://secolo-trentino.com/2020/02/11/primo-esodo-dalmati-1870-1880-1920/|title=Il primo esodo dei Dalmati: 1870, 1880 e 1920 – Secolo Trentino|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225193222/https://secolo-trentino.com/2020/02/11/primo-esodo-dalmati-1870-1880-1920/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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=== World War II === |
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[[File:Zadar bombardiran 1944.78577.jpg|thumb|left|[[Bombing of Zadar in World War II]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] (1944): from these events began the exodus of the [[Dalmatian Italians]] from the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://intranet.istoreto.it/esodo/parola.asp?id_parola=12|title=Partenze da Zara|access-date=13 May 2021|language=it}}</ref>]] |
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During [[World War II in Yugoslavia|World War II]], in 1941, [[Nazi Germany]], [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], [[Hungary in World War II|Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria during World War II|Bulgaria]] occupied Yugoslavia, redrawing their borders to include former parts of the Yugoslavian state. A new [[Nazism|Nazi]] [[List of World War II puppet states|puppet state]], the [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH), was created. With the [[Treaties of rome|Treaties of Rome]], the NDH agreed to cede to Italy Dalmatian territory, creating the second [[Governorate of Dalmatia]], from north of Zadar to south of Split, with inland areas, plus nearly all the Adriatic islands and [[Gorski Kotar]]. Italy then annexed these territories, while all the remainder of southern Croatia, including the entire coast, were placed under Italian occupation. Italy also appointed an Italian, [[Prince Aimone, Duke of Aosta]], as king of Croatia.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|p=238}} |
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Italy proceeded to Italianize the annexed areas of Dalmatia.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=132–133}} Place names were Italianized, and Italian was made the official language in all schools, churches and government administration.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=132–133}} All Croatian cultural societies were banned, while Italians took control of all key mineral, industrial and business establishments.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=132–133}} Italian policies prompted resistance by Dalmatians, many joined the Partisans.{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=133–134}} This led to further Italian repressive measures - shooting of civilian hostages, burning of villages, confiscation of properties. Italians took many civilians to concentration camps{{sfn|Tomasevich|2002|pp=133–134}} - altogether, some 80,000 Dalmatians, 12% of the population, passed through Italian concentration camps.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dizdar |first=Zdravko |date=2005-12-15 |title=Italian Policies Toward Croatians In Occupied Territories During The Second World War |url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/clanak/35407 |journal=Review of Croatian History |language=en |volume=I |issue=1 |page=207 |issn=1845-4380}}</ref> |
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[[File:Croatia-41-45.gif|thumb|upright=1.3|Division of Yugoslavia after its invasion by the [[Axis powers]]. |
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{{legend|#339966|Areas annexed by Italy: the area constituting the [[province of Ljubljana]], the area merged with the [[province of Fiume]] and the areas making up the [[Governorate of Dalmatia]]}} |
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{{legend|#ff0000|[[Independent State of Croatia]]}} |
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{{legend|#0000ff|Area occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]}} |
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{{legend|#996666|Areas occupied by [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920-1946)|Kingdom of Hungary]]}}]] |
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Many Croats moved from the Italian-occupied area and took refuge in the satellite state of Croatia, which became the battleground for a guerrilla war between the [[Axis powers|Axis]] and the [[Yugoslav Partisans]]. Following the [[Armistice of Cassibile|surrender of Italy]] in 1943, much of Italian-controlled Dalmatia was liberated by the Partisans, then [[Italian Social Republic|taken over by German forces]] in a brutal campaign, who then returned control to the puppet Independent State of Croatia. [[Vis (island)|Vis Island]] remained in Partisan hands, while Zadar, Rijeka, Istria, Cres, Lošinj, Lastovo and Palagruža became part of the German ''[[Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral|Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland]].'' The Partisans took Dalmatia in 1944, and with that Zadar, Rijeka, Istria, Cres, Lošinj, Lastovo and Palagruža became reunited with Croatia. After 1945, most of the remaining [[Dalmatian Italians]] fled the region (350,000 Italians escaped from [[Istria]] and Dalmatia in the [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]]). Currently there are only 300 Dalmatian Italians in the [[Croatia]]n Dalmatia and 500 Dalmatian Italians in coastal [[Montenegro]]. After World War II, Dalmatia became part of the [[Socialist Republic of Croatia|People's Republic of Croatia]], part of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia]]. |
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The territory of the former Kingdom of Dalmatia was divided between two [[federal republic]]s of Yugoslavia and most of the territory went to Croatia, leaving only the Bay of Kotor to [[Socialist Republic of Montenegro|Montenegro]]. When [[Breakup of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia dissolved]] in 1991, those borders were retained and remain in force. During the [[Croatian War of Independence]], most of Dalmatia was a battleground between the [[Government of Croatia]] and the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA), which aided the [[proto-state]] of [[Republic of Serbian Krajina|Serbian Krajina]], with much of the [[SAO Krajina|northern part of the region around Knin]] and the far south around, but not including, [[Dubrovnik Republic (1991)|Dubrovnik being placed under the control of Serb forces]]. Croatia did regain the southern territories in 1992 but did not regain the north until [[Operation Storm]] in 1995. After the war, a number of towns and municipalities in the region were designated [[Areas of Special State Concern]]. |
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=== After armistice and after the end of the war=== |
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[[File:Foiba di Terli - Corpi estratti.jpg|thumb|300px|left|4 November 1943: next to the Foiba of Terli are decomposed corpses of Albina Radecchi (A), Catherine Radecchi (B), Fosca Radecchi (C) and Amalia Ardossi (D)]] |
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The massacres occurred in two waves, the first taking places in the interlude between the [[Armistice of Cassibile]] and the German occupation of Istria in September 1943, and the second after the Yugoslav occupation of the region in May 1945. Victims of the first wave numbered in the hundreds, whereas those of the second wave in the thousands. The first wave of killings is widely regarded as a disorganized, spontaneous series of [[revenge killing]]s by Slovenes and Croats after twenty years of Fascist oppression, as well as "''[[jacquerie]]''" against Italian landowners and more broadly the Italian elite in the region; these killings targeted members of the Fascist Party, their relatives (as in the famous case of [[Norma Cossetto]]), Italian landowners, policemen and [[civil servant]]s of all ranks, considered as symbols of Italian oppression. The scope and nature of the second wave is much more disputed; Slovene and Croat historians, as well as Italian historians such as [[Alessandra Kersevan]] and Claudia Cernigoi, characterize it as another wave of revenge killings against Fascist collaborators and members of the armed forces of the [[Italian Social Republic]], whereas Italian historians such as Raoul Pupo, [[Gianni Oliva]] and Roberto Spazzali argue that this was the result of a deliberate [[Titoist]] policy aimed at spreading terror among the Italian population of the region and eliminating anyone who opposed Yugoslav plans of annexing Istria and the Julian March, including anti-Fascists.{{sfn|Pupo|Spazzali|2003}}{{sfn|Oliva|2003}} After the re-occupation of Istria by Axis forces in September 1943, following the first wave of killings, the [[fire brigade]] of [[Pola (Istria)|Pola]], under the command of Arnaldo Harzarich, recovered 204 bodies from the foibe of the region. Between 1945 and 1948, Italian authorities recovered a total 369 corpses from foibe in the Italian-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste (Zone A), and another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area; these included also bodies of German soldiers killed in the closing days of the war and hastily buried in these cavities. Foibe located in the Yugoslav-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste, as well as in the rest of Istria, were never searched as this territory was now under Yugolav control.<ref name="nonluoghi" /> |
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Great controversy has surrounded the {{lang|it|foiba}} of Basovizza, one of the most famous {{lang|it|foibe}} (and unlikely called as such, as it was not a natural {{lang|it|foiba}} but a disused [[mine shaft]]). Newspaper reports from the postwar era claimed anywhere from 18 to 3,000 victims in this {{lang|it|foiba}} alone, but Trieste authorities refused to fully excavate it, citing financial constraints. At the end of the war, local villagers had thrown the bodies of dead German soldiers (killed in a battle fought in the vicinity in the closing days of the war) and horses into the mine shaft, which after the war had also been used as a garbage dump by the authorities of the [[Free Territory of Trieste]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Knittel|first=Susanne C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpOUDwAAQBAJ|title=The Historical Uncanny: Disability, Ethnicity, and the Politics of Holocaust Memory|date=15 December 2014|publisher=Fordham Univ Press|isbn=978-0-8232-6279-3|language=en}}</ref> After the war the Basovizza foibe was used by the Italian authorities as a garbage dump. Thus no Italian victims were ever recovered or determined at Basovizza. In 1959 the pit was sealed and a monument erected, which later became the central site for the annual foibe commemorations.<ref name=":5" /> |
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[[File:Ustanak u Jugoslaviji 1943.png|thumb|300px|Area controlled by the [[Yugoslav Partisans]] (in red dots) immediately after the [[Badoglio Proclamation]] (8 September 1943)]] |
[[File:Ustanak u Jugoslaviji 1943.png|thumb|300px|Area controlled by the [[Yugoslav Partisans]] (in red dots) immediately after the [[Badoglio Proclamation]] (8 September 1943)]] |
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In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: {{blockquote|there is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'.}} Alongside a large number of Fascists, however, among those killed were also anti-Fascists who opposed the Yugoslav annexation of the region, such as [[Socialist]] Licurgo Olivi and [[Action Party (Italy)|Action Party]] leader Augusto Sverzutti, members of the [[Italian Committee of National Liberation|Committee of National Liberation]] of Gorizia; in Trieste, the same fate befell Resistance leaders Romano Meneghello (posthumously awarded a [[Silver Medal of Military Valor]] for his Resistance activities) and Carlo Dell'Antonio. In [[Fiume]] (where at least 652 Italians were killed or disappeared between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947, according to a joint Italian-Croat study), [[Autonomist Party]] leaders [[Mario Blasich]], Joseph Sincich and [[Nevio Skull]] were among those executed by the Yugoslavs soon after the occupation, as was anti-Fascist and [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] survivor Angelo Adam. Priests were also targeted by the new Yugoslav Communist authorities, as in the case of [[Francesco Bonifacio]]. Out of 1,048 people who were arrested and executed by the Yugoslavs in the [[province of Gorizia]] in May 1945, according to a list drafted by a joint Italian-Slovene commission in 2006, 470 were members of the military or police forces of the [[Italian Social Republic]], 110 were Slovene civilians accused of [[collaborationism]], and 320 were Italian civilians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alessandromaran.it/fuori_aula/giornali/15-06-03.pdf|title=Il Piccolo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209211623/http://www.alessandromaran.it/fuori_aula/giornali/15-06-03.pdf|archive-date=9 February 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Pupo|Spazzali|2003}}{{sfn|Oliva|2003}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)]</ref> |
In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: {{blockquote|there is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'.}} Alongside a large number of Fascists, however, among those killed were also anti-Fascists who opposed the Yugoslav annexation of the region, such as [[Socialist]] Licurgo Olivi and [[Action Party (Italy)|Action Party]] leader Augusto Sverzutti, members of the [[Italian Committee of National Liberation|Committee of National Liberation]] of Gorizia; in Trieste, the same fate befell Resistance leaders Romano Meneghello (posthumously awarded a [[Silver Medal of Military Valor]] for his Resistance activities) and Carlo Dell'Antonio. In [[Fiume]] (where at least 652 Italians were killed or disappeared between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947, according to a joint Italian-Croat study), [[Autonomist Party]] leaders [[Mario Blasich]], Joseph Sincich and [[Nevio Skull]] were among those executed by the Yugoslavs soon after the occupation, as was anti-Fascist and [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] survivor Angelo Adam. Priests were also targeted by the new Yugoslav Communist authorities, as in the case of [[Francesco Bonifacio]]. Out of 1,048 people who were arrested and executed by the Yugoslavs in the [[province of Gorizia]] in May 1945, according to a list drafted by a joint Italian-Slovene commission in 2006, 470 were members of the military or police forces of the [[Italian Social Republic]], 110 were Slovene civilians accused of [[collaborationism]], and 320 were Italian civilians.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alessandromaran.it/fuori_aula/giornali/15-06-03.pdf|title=Il Piccolo|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209211623/http://www.alessandromaran.it/fuori_aula/giornali/15-06-03.pdf|archive-date=9 February 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Pupo|Spazzali|2003}}{{sfn|Oliva|2003}}<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)]</ref> |
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[[File:Italians leave Pola.jpg|thumb|[[Istrian Italians]] leave [[Pula|Pola]] in 1947 during the [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]]]] |
[[File:Italians leave Pola.jpg|thumb|[[Istrian Italians]] leave [[Pula|Pola]] in 1947 during the [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]]]] |
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The foibe massacres were [[state terrorism]],{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}<ref name="Rai">''Il tempo e la storia: Le Foibe'', Rai tv, Raoul Pupo</ref> [[Reprisal|reprisal killings]],{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Lowe|2012}} and [[ethnic cleansing]] against [[Italians]].{{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} The foibe massacres were mainly committed by [[Yugoslav Partisans]] and [[OZNA]] against the local ethnic Italian population ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]), as well against [[anti-communism|anti-communists]] in general (even [[Croats]] and [[Slovenes]]), usually associated with [[Fascism]], [[Nazism]] and collaboration with [[Axis powers|Axis]],{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002|p=350}} and against real, potential or presumed opponents of [[Titoism|Tito communism]].{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} The events were also part of larger reprisals in which tens-of-thousands of Slavic collaborators of Axis forces were killed in the aftermath of WWII, following [[World War II in Yugoslavia|a brutal war]] in which some 800,000 Yugoslavs, the vast majority civilians, were killed by Axis occupation forces and collaborators. |
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The foibe massacres [[ethnic cleansing]], mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after [[World War II]], mainly committed by [[Yugoslav Partisans]] and [[OZNA]] in the [[Italian Empire|then-Italian territories]]{{efn|Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|Treaty of Peace (1947)]].}} of [[Julian March]] ([[Karst Region]] and [[Istria]]), [[Kvarner]] and [[Dalmatia]], against local Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]){{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities,{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc=p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings"}}{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|loc="In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste: "There is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'"}}<ref name=":3" /> and [[Italians|Italian]], [[Germans|German]], [[Croats|Croat]] and [[Slovenes|Slovene]] [[Anti-communism|anti-communists]] against the regime of [[Josip Broz Tito]], presumed to be associated with [[fascism]], [[Nazism]], collaboration with [[Axis powers|Axis]]{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}}{{sfn|Rumici|2002|p=350}} and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of [[Titoism]]{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
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The foibe massacres were followed by the [[Istrian–Dalmatian exodus]], which was the post-[[World War II]] expulsion and departure of local ethnic Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]) from the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] territory of [[Istria]], [[Kvarner]], the [[Julian March]], lost by Italy after the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] (1947), as well as [[Dalmatia]],<ref name="Iggers"/> towards [[Italy]], and in smaller numbers, towards the [[Americas]], [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]].<ref name="rainews"/><ref name="ilgiornale"/> According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict.<ref name="query.nytimes.com">{{cite news|author=James M. Markham|date=6 June 1987|title=Election Opens Old Wounds in Trieste|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html|access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref> From 1947, after the war, Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,<ref name="books.google.fr">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHnEI2m5tFIC&pg=PA309|title=Genocide: Truth, Memory, and Representation|page=295|author=Pamela Ballinger|date=7 April 2009|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0822392361|access-date=30 December 2015}}</ref> which gave them little option other than emigration.<ref name="Tesser 2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia-qdCeUaXIC&pg=PA136|title=Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union|page=136|isbn=9781137308771|last1=Tesser|first1=Lynn|date=2013|publisher=Springer}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=da6acnbbEpAC&pg=PA103|title=History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans|page=103|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691086974|last1=Ballinger|first1=Pamela|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykMVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133|title=Refugees in the Age of Total War|pages=139, 143|author=Anna C. Bramwell|publisher=University of Oxford Press|location=Oxford|date=1988|isbn=9780044451945}}</ref> According to the census organized in [[Croatia]] in 2001 and that organized in [[Slovenia]] in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former [[Yugoslavia]] amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 [[Italian language in Slovenia|in Slovenia]] and 19,636 [[Italians of Croatia|in Croatia]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/Popis/E01_02_02/E01_02_02.html|title=Državni Zavod za Statistiku|language=hr|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.si/Popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7|title=Popis 2002|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref> |
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The foibe massacres were followed by the [[Istrian–Dalmatian exodus]], which was the post-[[World War II]] expulsion and departure of local ethnic Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]) from the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] territory of [[Istria]], [[Kvarner]], the [[Julian March]], lost by Italy after the [[Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] (1947), as well as [[Dalmatia]],<ref name="Iggers"/> towards [[Italy]], and in smaller numbers, towards the [[Americas]], [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]].<ref name="rainews"/><ref name="ilgiornale"/> According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict.<ref name="query.nytimes.com">{{cite news|author=James M. Markham|date=6 June 1987|title=Election Opens Old Wounds in Trieste|newspaper=[[The New York Times]] | url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html|access-date=9 June 2016}}</ref> From 1947, after the war, Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,<ref name="books.google.fr">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHnEI2m5tFIC&pg=PA309|title=Genocide: Truth, Memory, and Representation|page=295|author=Pamela Ballinger|date=7 April 2009|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0822392361|access-date=30 December 2015}}</ref> which gave them little option other than emigration.<ref name="Tesser 2013">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ia-qdCeUaXIC&pg=PA136|title=Ethnic Cleansing and the European Union|page=136|isbn=9781137308771|last1=Tesser|first1=Lynn|date=2013|publisher=Springer}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=da6acnbbEpAC&pg=PA103|title=History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans|page=103|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691086974|last1=Ballinger|first1=Pamela|year=2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykMVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA133|title=Refugees in the Age of Total War|pages=139, 143|author=Anna C. Bramwell|publisher=University of Oxford Press|location=Oxford|date=1988|isbn=9780044451945}}</ref> According to the census organized in [[Croatia]] in 2001 and that organized in [[Slovenia]] in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former [[Yugoslavia]] amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 [[Italian language in Slovenia|in Slovenia]] and 19,636 [[Italians of Croatia|in Croatia]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/Popis/E01_02_02/E01_02_02.html|title=Državni Zavod za Statistiku|language=hr|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.si/Popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7|title=Popis 2002|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref> |
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==The remaining Italians== |
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{{Further|Italians of Croatia|Italian language in Croatia|Italian language in Slovenia}} |
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[[Image:Groznjan Perspective.jpg|thumb|The village of [[Grožnjan]]/Grisignana is the only municipality in Croatia with a majority Italian speaking population.]] |
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According to the census organized in [[Croatia]] in 2001 and that organized in [[Slovenia]] in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former [[Yugoslavia]] amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 [[Italian language in Slovenia|in Slovenia]] and 19,636 [[Italians of Croatia|in Croatia]]).<ref name="dzs">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/Census2001/Popis/E01_02_02/E01_02_02.html|title=Državni Zavod za Statistiku|language=hr|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="stat">{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.si/Popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7|title=Popis 2002|access-date=10 June 2017}}</ref> The number of speakers of Italian is larger if taking into account non-Italians who speak it as a second language. |
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[[File:Italian minorities.jpg|thumb|Settlement areas of the Italian national communities in Slovenia and Croatia: |
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{{legend|#057638|Settlement areas of the Italian national community in Slovenia}} |
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{{legend|#6F7334|Municipalities in Croatia where the Italian community exceeds 30% of the residents}} |
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{{legend|#A5A966|Municipalities in Croatia where the Italian community represents between 5% and 30% of the residents}}]] |
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In addition, since the dissolution of Yugoslavia, a significant portion of the population of Istria opted for a regional declaration in the census instead of a national one. As such, more people have Italian as a first language than those having declared Italian. |
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In 2001, about 500 Dalmatian Italians were counted in Dalmatia. In particular, according to the official Croatian census of 2011, there are 83 Dalmatian Italians in [[Split, Croatia|Split]] (equal to 0.05% of the total population), 16 in [[Šibenik]] (0.03%) and 27 in [[Dubrovnik]] (0.06%).<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/census2011/results/htm/e01_01_04/E01_01_04_zup17.html|title = Central Bureau of Statistics|access-date=27 August 2018}}</ref> According to the official Croatian census of 2021, there are 63 Dalmatian Italians in [[Zadar]] (equal to 0.09% of the total population).<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/censuses/census2011/results/htm/e01_01_04/E01_01_04_zup13.html|title = Central Bureau of Statistics|access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref> According to the official Montenegrin census of 2011, there are 31 Dalmatian Italians in [[Kotor]] (equal to 0.14% of the total population).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf|title=STANOVNIŠTVO PREMA NACIONALNOJ, ODNOSNO ETNIČKOJ PRIPADNOSTI PO OPŠTINAMA |access-date=10 November 2018}}</ref> |
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The number of people resident in Croatia declaring themselves Italian almost doubled between 1981 and 1991 censuses (i.e. before and after the dissolution of Yugoslavia).<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://ifa.amu.edu.pl/psicl/files/35/05Jahn.pdf |journal=Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics| volume=35 | pages= 73–81 | date=1999 | last= Jahn |title= The political, ethnic and linguistic borders of the upper Adriatic after the dissolution of Yugoslavia | first=Jens-Eberhard |access-date=9 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927161519/http://ifa.amu.edu.pl/psicl/files/35/05Jahn.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2013 }}</ref> The daily newspaper ''[[La Voce del Popolo]]'', the main newspaper for [[Italians of Croatia]], is published in Rijeka/Fiume. |
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=== Official bilingualism === |
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[[File:Marija na Krasu (HR) bilingual.jpg|thumb|A bilingual road sign in Italian and in Croatian in Istria]] |
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Italian is co-official with [[Slovene language|Slovene]] in four municipalities in the Slovenian portion of [[Istria]]: [[Piran]] ({{langx|it|Pirano}}), [[Koper]] ({{langx|it|Capodistria}}), [[Izola]] ({{langx|it|Isola d'Istria}}) and [[Ankaran]] ({{langx|it|Ancarano}}). In many municipalities in the Croatian portion of [[Istria]] there are bilingual statutes, and the Italian language is considered to be a co-official language. The proposal to raise Italian to a co-official language, as in the Croatian portion of Istria, has been under discussion for years. |
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{{Blockquote|text=By recognizing and respecting its cultural and historical legacy, the City of Rijeka ensures the use of its language and writing to the Italian indigenous national minority in public affairs relating to the sphere of self-government of the City of Rijeka. The City of Fiume, within the scope of its possibilities, ensures and supports the educational and cultural activity of the members of the indigenous Italian minority and its institutions.<ref>[https://groups.google.com/group/free.it.discussioni.istria.fiume.dalmazia/browse_thread/thread/b4942420981e6c9b?hl=it Government use of the Italian language in Rijeka]</ref>|author=|title=|source=}} |
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In various municipalities of Croatian Istria, census data shows that significant numbers of Italians still live in Istria, such as 51% of the population of [[Grožnjan]]/Grisignana, 37% at [[Brtonigla]]/Verteneglio, and nearly 30% in [[Buje]]/Buie.<ref name="dzs2">{{cite web|url=http://www.dzs.hr/hrv/censuses/census2001/Popis/H01_02_02/H01_02_02_zup18.html|title=SAS Output|publisher=dzs.hr|accessdate=November 30, 2014}}</ref> In the village there, it is an important section of the "Comunità degli Italiani" in Croatia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unione-italiana.hr|title=Comunità Nazionale Italiana, Unione Italiana|website=www.unione-italiana.hr|access-date=July 20, 2018}}</ref> Italian is co-official with [[Croatian language|Croatian]] in nineteen municipalities in the Croatian portion of Istria: [[Buje]] ({{langx|it|Buie}}), [[Novigrad, Istria County|Novigrad]] ({{langx|it|Cittanova}}), [[Izola]] ({{langx|it|Isola d'Istria}}), [[Vodnjan]] ({{langx|it|Dignano}}), [[Poreč]] ({{langx|it|Parenzo}}), [[Pula]] ({{langx|it|Pola}}), [[Rovinj]] ({{langx|it|Rovigno}}), [[Umag]] ({{langx|it|Umago}}), [[Bale, Croatia|Bale]] ({{langx|it|Valle d'Istria}}), [[Brtonigla]] ({{langx|it|Verteneglio}}), [[Fažana]] ({{langx|it|Fasana}}), [[Grožnjan]] ({{langx|it|Grisignana}}), [[Kaštelir-Labinci]] ({{langx|it|Castellier-Santa Domenica}}), [[Ližnjan]] ({{langx|it|Lisignano}}), [[Motovun]] ({{langx|it|Montona}}), [[Oprtalj]] ({{langx|it|Portole}}), [[Višnjan]] ({{langx|it|Visignano}}), [[Vižinada]] ({{langx|it|Visinada}}) and [[Vrsar]] ({{langx|it|Orsera}}).<ref>{{cite web|url= https://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/promoitals/article/view/828/1069|title=LA LINGUA ITALIANA E LE SCUOLE ITALIANE NEL TERRITORIO ISTRIANO|page=161|access-date=2 January 2023|language=it}}</ref> |
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===Education and Italian language=== |
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==== Slovenia ==== |
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Beside Slovene language schools, there are also kindergartens, primary schools, [[scuola media|lower secondary schools]] and [[scuola superiore|upper secondary schools]] with Italian as the language of instruction in [[Koper]]/Capodistria, [[Izola]]/Isola and [[Piran]]/Pirano. At the state-owned [[University of Primorska]], however, which is also established in the bilingual area, Slovene is the only language of instruction (although the official name of the university includes the Italian version, too). |
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====Croatia==== |
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[[File:ItalSchoolRijeka.jpg|thumb|[[Italian Secondary School, Rijeka|Italian Secondary School in Rijeka/Fiume]]]] |
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Beside Croat language schools, in [[Istria]] there are also kindergartens in [[Buje]]/Buie, [[Brtonigla]]/Verteneglio, [[Novigrad, Istria County|Novigrad]]/Cittanova, [[Umag]]/Umago, [[Poreč]]/Parenzo, [[Vrsar]]/Orsera, [[Rovinj]]/Rovigno, [[Bale, Croatia|Bale]]/Valle, [[Vodnjan]]/Dignano, [[Pula]]/Pola and [[Labin]]/Albona, as well as primary schools in Buje/Buie, Brtonigla/Verteneglio, Novigrad/Cittanova, Umag/Umago, Poreč/Parenzo, Vodnjan/Dignano, Rovinj/Rovigno, Bale/Valle and Pula/Pola, as well as [[scuola media|lower secondary schools]] and [[scuola superiore|upper secondary schools]] in Buje/Buie, Rovinj/Rovigno and Pula/Pola, all with Italian as the language of instruction. |
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The city of [[Rijeka]]/Fiume in the [[Kvarner]]/Carnaro region has Italian kindergartens and elementary schools, and there is an [[Italian Secondary School in Rijeka]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.byronlang.net/En-site/index-en.html|title=Byron: the first language school in Istria|website=www.byronlang.net|language=en|access-date=July 20, 2018}}</ref> The town of [[Mali Lošinj]]/Lussinpiccolo in the Kvarner/Carnaro region has an Italian kindergarten. |
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In Zadar, in [[Dalmatia]]/Dalmazia region, the local Community of Italians has requested the creation of an Italian asylum since 2009. After considerable government opposition,<ref>[https://groups.google.com/group/free.it.discussioni.istria.fiume.dalmazia/msg/d51366dd1c197047 Reazioni scandalizzate per il rifiuto governativo croato ad autorizzare un asilo italiano a Zara]</ref><ref>[http://www.anvgd.it/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=4451&Itemid=111 Zara: ok all'apertura dell'asilo italiano]</ref> with the imposition of a national filter that imposed the obligation to possess Italian citizenship for registration, in the end in 2013, it was opened hosting the first 25 children.<ref>[http://ilpiccolo.gelocal.it/trieste/cronaca/2013/10/13/news/aperto-pinocchio-primo-asilo-italiano-nella-citta-di-zara-1.7911897 Aperto “Pinocchio”, primo asilo italiano nella città di Zara]</ref> This kindergarten is the first Italian educational institution opened in Dalmatia after the closure of the last Italian school, which operated there until 1953. |
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Since 2017, a Croatian primary school has been offering the study of the Italian language as a foreign language. Italian courses have also been activated in a secondary school and at the faculty of literature and philosophy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.editfiume.info/lavoce/politica/23240-l-italiano-con-modello-c-a-breve-in-una-scuola-a-zara|title=L'italiano con modello C a breve in una scuola di Zara|access-date=9 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180410073213/http://www.editfiume.info/lavoce/politica/23240-l-italiano-con-modello-c-a-breve-in-una-scuola-a-zara|archive-date=10 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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== Number of victims == |
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==Number of victims== |
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[[File:Litorale 1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Changes to the Italian eastern border from 1920 to 1975. |
[[File:Litorale 1.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Changes to the Italian eastern border from 1920 to 1975. |
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{{legend|#ffff00|The [[Austrian Littoral]], later renamed [[Julian March]], which was assigned to Italy in 1920 with the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]] (with adjustments of its border in 1924 after the [[Treaty of Rome (1924)|Treaty of Rome]]) and which was then ceded to Yugoslavia in 1947 with the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]]}} |
{{legend|#ffff00|The [[Austrian Littoral]], later renamed [[Julian March]], which was assigned to Italy in 1920 with the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]] (with adjustments of its border in 1924 after the [[Treaty of Rome (1924)|Treaty of Rome]]) and which was then ceded to Yugoslavia in 1947 with the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]]}} |
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It was not possible to extract all the corpses from the {{lang|it|foibe}}, some of which are deeper than several hundred meters; some sources are attempting to compile lists of locations and possible victim numbers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/elenco%20foibe.htm|title=Elenco delle foibe note|publisher=Digilander.libero.it|language=it|access-date=5 August 2009}}</ref> Between October and December 1943, the [[fire brigade]] of Pola, helped by mine workers, recovered a total of 159 victims of the first wave of mass killings from the {{lang|it|foibe}} of Vines (84 bodies), Terli (26 bodies), Treghelizza (2 bodies), Pucicchi (11 bodies), Villa Surani (26 bodies), Cregli (8 bodies) and Carnizza d'Arsia (2 bodies); another 44 corpses were recovered in the same period from two bauxite mines in Lindaro and Villa Bassotti.<ref name="foibeconvegno">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GH3jqFCWZEAC&dq=foibe+%22159%22+%221943%22&pg=PA14|title=Foibe: revisionismo di Stato e amnesie della Repubblica: atti del Convegno "Foibe, la verità, contro il revisionismo storico" : Sesto San Giovanni (Mi), 9 febbraio 2008|first=Vincenzo De|last=Tommaso|date=11 May 2008|publisher=Associazione Culturale CdP|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="nonluoghi">[http://www.nonluoghi.info/2015/02/foibe-bilancio-e-reinterpretazione/ Foibe, bilancio e rilettura], nonluoghi.info, February 2015; accessed 17 March 2016.</ref> More bodies were sighted, but not recovered.<ref name="foibeconvegno"/><ref name="nonluoghi"/> |
It was not possible to extract all the corpses from the {{lang|it|foibe}}, some of which are deeper than several hundred meters; some sources are attempting to compile lists of locations and possible victim numbers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/elenco%20foibe.htm|title=Elenco delle foibe note|publisher=Digilander.libero.it|language=it|access-date=5 August 2009}}</ref> Between October and December 1943, the [[fire brigade]] of Pola, helped by mine workers, recovered a total of 159 victims of the first wave of mass killings from the {{lang|it|foibe}} of Vines (84 bodies), Terli (26 bodies), Treghelizza (2 bodies), Pucicchi (11 bodies), Villa Surani (26 bodies), Cregli (8 bodies) and Carnizza d'Arsia (2 bodies); another 44 corpses were recovered in the same period from two bauxite mines in Lindaro and Villa Bassotti.<ref name="foibeconvegno">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GH3jqFCWZEAC&dq=foibe+%22159%22+%221943%22&pg=PA14|title=Foibe: revisionismo di Stato e amnesie della Repubblica: atti del Convegno "Foibe, la verità, contro il revisionismo storico" : Sesto San Giovanni (Mi), 9 febbraio 2008|first=Vincenzo De|last=Tommaso|date=11 May 2008|publisher=Associazione Culturale CdP|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="nonluoghi">[http://www.nonluoghi.info/2015/02/foibe-bilancio-e-reinterpretazione/ Foibe, bilancio e rilettura], nonluoghi.info, February 2015; accessed 17 March 2016.</ref> More bodies were sighted, but not recovered.<ref name="foibeconvegno"/><ref name="nonluoghi"/> |
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The most famous Basovizza foiba, was investigated by English and American forces, starting immediately on 12 June 1945. After 5 months of investigation and digging, all they found in the foiba were the remains of 150 German soldiers and one civilian killed in the final battles for Basovizza on 29–30 April 1945.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnevnik.si/1042342714|title=Jože Pirjevec: Dobri divjaki so postali nevarni barbari|website=Dnevnik|access-date=2020 |
The most famous Basovizza foiba, was investigated by English and American forces, starting immediately on 12 June 1945. After 5 months of investigation and digging, all they found in the foiba were the remains of 150 German soldiers and one civilian killed in the final battles for Basovizza on 29–30 April 1945.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dnevnik.si/1042342714|title=Jože Pirjevec: Dobri divjaki so postali nevarni barbari|website=Dnevnik|access-date=8 April 2020}}</ref> The Italian mayor, Gianni Bartoli continued with investigations and digging until 1954, with speleologists entering the cave multiple time, yet they found nothing.<ref name=":0" /> Between November 1945 and April 1948, firefighters, speleologists and policemen inspected {{lang|it|foibe}} and mine shafts in the "Zone A" of the [[Free Territory of Trieste]] (mainly consisting in the surroundings of Trieste), where they recovered 369 corpses; another 95 were recovered from [[mass grave]]s in the same area. At the time, no inspections were carried out either in the Yugoslav-controlled "Zone B", or in the rest of Istria.<ref name="nonluoghi" /> |
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Other foibe and mass graves were investigated in more recently in Istria and elsewhere in Slovenia and Croatia; for instance, human remains were discovered in the Idrijski Log {{lang|it|foiba}} near [[Idrija]], Slovenia, in 1998; four skeletons were found in the foiba of Plahuti near Opatija in 2002; in the same year, a mass grave containing the remains of 52 Italians and 15 Germans, most likely all military, was discovered in Slovenia, not far from Gorizia; in 2005, the remains of about 130 people killed between the 1940s and the 1950s were recovered from four {{lang|it|foibe}} located in northeastern Istria.<ref>[http://ricerca.gelocal.it/ilpiccolo/archivio/ilpiccolo/2005/02/19/IS_09_FINI.html?refresh_ce Sono 130 i corpi riemersi da quattro foibe istriane], gelocal.it; accessed 17 March 2016.{{in lang|it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digilander.libero.it/nvg/IlPiccolo_infoibatiMonteMaggiore.html|title=Il Piccolo 27|website=digilander.libero.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/varie.htm|title=Foibe: notizie varie.|website=digilander.libero.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archivio.corriere.it/Archivio/interface/landing.html|title=Archivio Corriere della Sera|website=archivio.corriere.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ilpiccolo.gelocal.it/trieste/cronaca/2011/06/03/news/alla-foiba-di-montenero-d-idria-1.309920|title=Alla foiba di Montenero d'Idria|date=3 June 2011|website=Il Piccolo}}</ref> |
Other foibe and mass graves were investigated in more recently in Istria and elsewhere in Slovenia and Croatia; for instance, human remains were discovered in the Idrijski Log {{lang|it|foiba}} near [[Idrija]], Slovenia, in 1998; four skeletons were found in the foiba of Plahuti near Opatija in 2002; in the same year, a mass grave containing the remains of 52 Italians and 15 Germans, most likely all military, was discovered in Slovenia, not far from Gorizia; in 2005, the remains of about 130 people killed between the 1940s and the 1950s were recovered from four {{lang|it|foibe}} located in northeastern Istria.<ref>[http://ricerca.gelocal.it/ilpiccolo/archivio/ilpiccolo/2005/02/19/IS_09_FINI.html?refresh_ce Sono 130 i corpi riemersi da quattro foibe istriane], gelocal.it; accessed 17 March 2016.{{in lang|it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digilander.libero.it/nvg/IlPiccolo_infoibatiMonteMaggiore.html|title=Il Piccolo 27|website=digilander.libero.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/varie.htm|title=Foibe: notizie varie.|website=digilander.libero.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archivio.corriere.it/Archivio/interface/landing.html|title=Archivio Corriere della Sera|website=archivio.corriere.it}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ilpiccolo.gelocal.it/trieste/cronaca/2011/06/03/news/alla-foiba-di-montenero-d-idria-1.309920|title=Alla foiba di Montenero d'Idria|date=3 June 2011|website=Il Piccolo}}</ref> |
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== Investigations == |
== Investigations == |
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[[File:1943 foibe recupero salme.jpg|thumb|left|Recovery of a body from a foiba in Istria]] |
[[File:1943 foibe recupero salme.jpg|thumb|left|Recovery of a body from a foiba in Istria]] |
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After the war, inspector Umberto de Giorgi, who was State Police marshal under fascist and Nazi rule, led the Foibe Exploration Team. Between 1945 and 1948 they investigated 71 foibe locations on the Italian side of the border. 23 of these were empty, in the rest they discovered some 464 corpses. These included soldiers killed during the last battles of the war. Among the 246 identified corpses, more than 200 were military (German, Italian, other), and some 40 were civilians, of the latter, 30 killed after the war.<ref>{{Cite web|last= |
After the war, inspector Umberto de Giorgi, who was State Police marshal under fascist and Nazi rule, led the Foibe Exploration Team. Between 1945 and 1948 they investigated 71 foibe locations on the Italian side of the border. 23 of these were empty, in the rest they discovered some 464 corpses. These included soldiers killed during the last battles of the war. Among the 246 identified corpses, more than 200 were military (German, Italian, other), and some 40 were civilians, of the latter, 30 killed after the war.<ref>{{Cite web|first=Claudia |last=Cernigoi| date= June 2014|title=Il rapporto dell'ispettore de Giorgi sulle "foibe", 10 febbraio 1947 |website =dieci febbraio|url=http://www.diecifebbraio.info/2014/06/il-rapporto-dellispettore-de-giorgi-sulle-foibe/|access-date=22 November 2021|language=it-IT}}</ref> |
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Due to claims of hundreds having been killed and tossed into the Basovizza mineshaft, in August–October 1945 British military authorities investigated the shaft, ultimately recovering 9 German soldiers, 1 civilian and a few horse cadavers.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Pirjevec|first1=Jože|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sozAQAAIAAJ|title=Foibe: una storia d'Italia|last2=Bajc|first2=Gorazd|date=2009|publisher=G. Einaudi|isbn=978-88-06-19804-6|pages=125|language=it}}</ref> Based on these results the British suspended excavations. Afterwards the city of Trieste used the mineshaft as a garbage dump. Despite repeat demands from various right-wing groups to further excavate the shaft,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Dato|first=Gaetano|date=2013|title=Foiba of Basovizza: the Pit, the Monument, the Memory, and the Unknown Victim. 1945–1965.|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/143902|journal=Časopis za povijest Zapadne Hrvatske|language=en|volume=8|issue=|pages=45–49|issn=1846-3223}}</ref> the government of Trieste, led by the Christian Democratic mayor Gianni Bartoli, declined to do so, claiming among other reasons, lack of financial resources.<ref name=":7" /> In 1959 the shaft was sealed and a monument erected, thus becoming the center of the annual foibe commemorations. |
Due to claims of hundreds having been killed and tossed into the Basovizza mineshaft, in August–October 1945 British military authorities investigated the shaft, ultimately recovering 9 German soldiers, 1 civilian and a few horse cadavers.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Pirjevec|first1=Jože|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5sozAQAAIAAJ|title=Foibe: una storia d'Italia|last2=Bajc|first2=Gorazd|date=2009|publisher=G. Einaudi|isbn=978-88-06-19804-6|pages=125|language=it}}</ref> Based on these results the British suspended excavations. Afterwards the city of Trieste used the mineshaft as a garbage dump. Despite repeat demands from various right-wing groups to further excavate the shaft,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Dato|first=Gaetano|date=2013|title=Foiba of Basovizza: the Pit, the Monument, the Memory, and the Unknown Victim. 1945–1965.|url=https://hrcak.srce.hr/143902|journal=Časopis za povijest Zapadne Hrvatske|language=en|volume=8|issue=|pages=45–49|issn=1846-3223}}</ref> the government of Trieste, led by the Christian Democratic mayor Gianni Bartoli, declined to do so, claiming among other reasons, lack of financial resources.<ref name=":7" /> In 1959 the shaft was sealed and a monument erected, thus becoming the center of the annual foibe commemorations. |
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[[File:Tempio nazionale dell'internato ignoto 022.jpg|thumb|Memorial stone in memory of the Italian victims of Foibe and Yugoslav deportations, [[Padua]].]] |
[[File:Tempio nazionale dell'internato ignoto 022.jpg|thumb|Memorial stone in memory of the Italian victims of Foibe and Yugoslav deportations, [[Padua]].]] |
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In 1949 a trial was held in Trieste for those accused of killing Mario Fabian, a torturer in the "Collotti gang", a fascist squad that during the war killed and tortured Slovene and Italian antifascists, and Jews.{{sfn|Pirjevec|Bajc|2009|p=147}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=La regina di "Villa Triste" L'ebrea sopravvissuta alle torture|url=http://inchieste.repubblica.it/it/repubblica/rep-it/2011/08/21/news/la_regina_di_villa_triste_lebrea_triestina_che_super_le_torture-20710886/|access-date= |
In 1949 a trial was held in Trieste for those accused of killing Mario Fabian, a torturer in the "Collotti gang", a fascist squad that during the war killed and tortured Slovene and Italian antifascists, and Jews.{{sfn|Pirjevec|Bajc|2009|p=147}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=La regina di "Villa Triste" L'ebrea sopravvissuta alle torture|url=http://inchieste.repubblica.it/it/repubblica/rep-it/2011/08/21/news/la_regina_di_villa_triste_lebrea_triestina_che_super_le_torture-20710886/|access-date=25 November 2021|website=Inchieste – la Repubblica}}</ref> Fabian was taken from his home on 4 May 1945, then shot and tossed into the Basovizza shaft. He is the only known Italian victim of Basovizza. His executioners were at first condemned, but later acquitted. The historian Pirjevec notes that the head of the gang, Gaetano Collotti, was awarded a medal by the Italian government in 1954, for fighting Slovene partisans in 1943, despite the fact that Collotti and his gang had committed many crimes while working for the Gestapo, and was killed by Italian partisans near Treviso in 1945.{{sfn|Pirjevec|Bajc|2009|p=147}} |
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In 1993 a study titled ''Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945''<ref>Gaetano La Perna, ''Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945'', Mursia, 1993</ref> by Gaetano La Perna provided a detailed list of the victims of Yugoslav occupation (in September–October 1943 and from 1944 to the very end of the Italian presence in its former provinces) in the area. La Perna gave a list of 6,335 names (2,493 military, 3,842 civilians). The author considered this list "not complete".<ref>Gaetano La Perna, ''Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945'', Mursia, 1993, p. 452</ref> |
In 1993 a study titled ''Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945''<ref>Gaetano La Perna, ''Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945'', Mursia, 1993</ref> by Gaetano La Perna provided a detailed list of the victims of Yugoslav occupation (in September–October 1943 and from 1944 to the very end of the Italian presence in its former provinces) in the area. La Perna gave a list of 6,335 names (2,493 military, 3,842 civilians). The author considered this list "not complete".<ref>Gaetano La Perna, ''Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945'', Mursia, 1993, p. 452</ref> |
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A 2002 joint report by [[Rome]]'s ''Society of Fiuman studies'' (''Società di Studi Fiumani'') and [[Zagreb]]'s ''Croatian Institute of History'' (''Hrvatski institut za povijest'') concluded that from [[Fiume]] and the surrounding area "no less than 500 persons of Italian nationality lost their lives between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947. To these we should add an unknown number of 'missing' (not less than a hundred) relegated into anonymity due to missing inventory in the Municipal Registries together with the relevant number of victims having ... Croatian nationality (who were often, at least between 1940 and 1943, Italian citizens) determined after the end of war by the Yugoslav communist regime."<ref>p. 95: ''"Si può comunque affermare con assoluta certezza che a Fiume, per mano di militari e della polizia segreta (OZNA prima e UDBA poi), ... non meno di 500 persone di nazionalità italiana persero la vita fra il 3 maggio (1945) e il 31 dicembre 1947. A questi dovremmo aggiungere un numero imprecisato di di "scomparsi" (non meno di un centinaio) che il mancato controllo nominativo nell'anagrafe storica comunale ci costringe a relegare nell'anonimato insieme al consistente numero, ... , di vittime di nazionalità croata (che spesso ebbero, almeno tra il 1940 e il 1943, anche la cittadinanza italiana) determinate a guerra finita dal regime comunista jugoslavo.".'' [http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Pubblicazioni Degli Archivi Di Stat O Sussidi 12] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf|date= |
A 2002 joint report by [[Rome]]'s ''Society of Fiuman studies'' (''Società di Studi Fiumani'') and [[Zagreb]]'s ''Croatian Institute of History'' (''Hrvatski institut za povijest'') concluded that from [[Fiume]] and the surrounding area "no less than 500 persons of Italian nationality lost their lives between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947. To these we should add an unknown number of 'missing' (not less than a hundred) relegated into anonymity due to missing inventory in the Municipal Registries together with the relevant number of victims having ... Croatian nationality (who were often, at least between 1940 and 1943, Italian citizens) determined after the end of war by the Yugoslav communist regime."<ref>p. 95: ''"Si può comunque affermare con assoluta certezza che a Fiume, per mano di militari e della polizia segreta (OZNA prima e UDBA poi), ... non meno di 500 persone di nazionalità italiana persero la vita fra il 3 maggio (1945) e il 31 dicembre 1947. A questi dovremmo aggiungere un numero imprecisato di di "scomparsi" (non meno di un centinaio) che il mancato controllo nominativo nell'anagrafe storica comunale ci costringe a relegare nell'anonimato insieme al consistente numero, ... , di vittime di nazionalità croata (che spesso ebbero, almeno tra il 1940 e il 1943, anche la cittadinanza italiana) determinate a guerra finita dal regime comunista jugoslavo.".'' [http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf Pubblicazioni Degli Archivi Di Stat O Sussidi 12] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf|date=31 October 2008}} Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)- Žrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici (1939–1947)</ref> |
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In March 2006, the border municipality of [[Nova Gorica]] in [[Slovenia]] released a list of names of 1,048 citizens of the Italian city of [[Gorizia]] (the two cities belonged until the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] of 1947 to the same administrative body) who disappeared in May 1945 after being arrested by the Partisan [[9th Corps (Yugoslav Partisans)|9th Corps]].<ref>[http://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/deportati_gorizia.pdf L’Elenco Dei Mille Deportati In Slovenia Nel 1945 – marzo 2006], libero.it, March 2006.</ref> According to the Slovene government, "the list contains the names of persons arrested in May 1945 and whose destiny cannot be determined with certainty or whose death cannot be confirmed".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mzz.gov.si/nc/en/newsroom/news/article/3247/7782/|title=Clarification of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia relating to the names of deportees in 1945|date=8 March 2006|work=mzz.gov.si|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Slovenia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Slovenia]] | access-date=15 February 2015|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212755/http://www.mzz.gov.si/nc/en/newsroom/news/article/3247/7782/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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== Alleged motives == |
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In March 2006, the border municipality of [[Nova Gorica]] in [[Slovenia]] released a list of names of 1,048 citizens of the Italian city of [[Gorizia]] (the two cities belonged until the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] of 1947 to the same administrative body) who disappeared in May 1945 after being arrested by the Partisan [[9th Corps (Yugoslav Partisans)|9th Corps]].<ref>[http://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/deportati_gorizia.pdf L’Elenco Dei Mille Deportati In Slovenia Nel 1945 – marzo 2006], libero.it, March 2006.</ref> According to the Slovene government, "the list contains the names of persons arrested in May 1945 and whose destiny cannot be determined with certainty or whose death cannot be confirmed".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mzz.gov.si/nc/en/newsroom/news/article/3247/7782/|title=Clarification of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia relating to the names of deportees in 1945|date=8 March 2006|work=mzz.gov.si|publisher=[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Slovenia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Slovenia]]|access-date=15 February 2015|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212755/http://www.mzz.gov.si/nc/en/newsroom/news/article/3247/7782/|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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==Alleged motives== |
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[[File:Foibe massacres - Discovery of a mass grave in postwar.jpg|thumb|The discovery of the entrance to a mass grave in [[Friuli]] after World War II]] |
[[File:Foibe massacres - Discovery of a mass grave in postwar.jpg|thumb|The discovery of the entrance to a mass grave in [[Friuli]] after World War II]] |
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[[File:Foiba di Basovizza.JPG|thumb|The foiba of Basovizza, near [[Trieste]]]] |
[[File:Foiba di Basovizza.JPG|thumb|The foiba of Basovizza, near [[Trieste]]]] |
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It has been alleged that the killings were part of a [[purge]] aimed at eliminating potential enemies of communist Yugoslav rule, which would have included members of German and Italian fascist units, Italian officers and [[civil servants]], parts of the Italian [[elite]] who opposed both communism and fascism (including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, including [[Mario Blasich]] and [[Nevio Skull]]), Slovenian and Croatian [[anti-communists]], collaborators, and [[radical nationalists]].<ref name=FECO/> |
It has been alleged that the killings were part of a [[purge]] aimed at eliminating potential enemies of communist Yugoslav rule, which would have included members of German and Italian fascist units, Italian officers and [[civil servants]], parts of the Italian [[elite]] who opposed both communism and fascism (including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, including [[Mario Blasich]] and [[Nevio Skull]]), Slovenian and Croatian [[anti-communists]], collaborators, and [[radical nationalists]].<ref name=FECO/> |
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Pupo claims that the primary targets of the purges were repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime, including Slavic collaborators, thus:<blockquote>''With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.{{efn|{{langx|en|With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.|italic=yes}}{{sfn|Pupo|1996}}}}''</blockquote>Since Yugoslav troops did not behave like an occupying army,{{efn|{{langx|en|With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.|italic=yes}}{{sfn|Pupo|1996}}}} this partly contradicts the numerous academic authors and institutional figures — both in Italy and abroad — who recognized an [[ethnic cleansing]] against [[Italians]].{{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} |
Pupo claims that the primary targets of the purges were repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime, including Slavic collaborators, thus:<blockquote>''With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.{{efn|{{langx|en|With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.|italic=yes}}{{sfn|Pupo|1996}}}}''</blockquote>Since Yugoslav troops did not behave like an occupying army,{{efn|{{langx|en|With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.|italic=yes}}{{sfn|Pupo|1996}}}} this partly contradicts the numerous academic authors and institutional figures — both in Italy and abroad — who recognized an [[ethnic cleansing]] against local Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]).{{sfn|Bloxham|Dirk Moses|2011}}{{sfn|Konrád|Barth|Mrňka|2021}} |
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Another reason for the killings was retribution for the years of Italian repression, forced [[Italianization]], suppression of Slavic sentiments and killings performed by Italian authorities during the war, not just in the concentration camps (such as [[Rab concentration camp|Rab]] and [[Gonars concentration camp|Gonars]]), but also in [[reprisal]]s often undertaken by the fascists.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gian Luigi Falabrino|title=Il punto sulle foibe e sulle deportazioni nelle regioni orientali (1943–45)|url=http://www.ilponte.it/foibedep.html|access-date=7 June 2006|language=it}}</ref> |
Another reason for the killings was retribution for the years of Italian repression, forced [[Italianization]], suppression of Slavic sentiments and killings performed by Italian authorities during the war, not just in the concentration camps (such as [[Rab concentration camp|Rab]] and [[Gonars concentration camp|Gonars]]), but also in [[reprisal]]s often undertaken by the fascists.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gian Luigi Falabrino|title=Il punto sulle foibe e sulle deportazioni nelle regioni orientali (1943–45)|url=http://www.ilponte.it/foibedep.html|access-date=7 June 2006|language=it}}</ref> |
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According to Fogar and Miccoli there is <blockquote>the need to put the episodes in 1943 and 1945 within [the context of] a longer history of abuse and violence, which began with Fascism and with its policy of oppression of the minority Slovenes and Croats and continued with the Italian aggression on Yugoslavia, which culminated with the horrors of the Nazi-Fascist repression against the Partisan movement.{{efn|{{langx|it|... la necessità di inserire gli episodi del 1943 e del 1945 all'interno di una più lunga storia di sopraffazioni e di violenze, iniziata con il fascismo e con la sua politica di oppressione della minoranza slovena e croata proseguita con l'aggressione italiana alla Jugoslavia e culminata con gli orrori della repressione nazifascista contro il movimento partigiano.}}{{sfn|Pupo|1996}}}}</blockquote> |
According to Fogar and Miccoli there is <blockquote>the need to put the episodes in 1943 and 1945 within [the context of] a longer history of abuse and violence, which began with Fascism and with its policy of oppression of the minority Slovenes and Croats and continued with the Italian aggression on Yugoslavia, which culminated with the horrors of the Nazi-Fascist repression against the Partisan movement.{{efn|{{langx|it|... la necessità di inserire gli episodi del 1943 e del 1945 all'interno di una più lunga storia di sopraffazioni e di violenze, iniziata con il fascismo e con la sua politica di oppressione della minoranza slovena e croata proseguita con l'aggressione italiana alla Jugoslavia e culminata con gli orrori della repressione nazifascista contro il movimento partigiano.}}{{sfn|Pupo|1996}}}}</blockquote> |
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Gaia Baracetti notes that some representations of {{lang|it|foibe}}, such as a miniseries on Italian television, are replete with historical inaccuracies and stereotypes, portraying Slavs as "merciless assassins", similar to fascist propaganda, while "largely ignoring the issue of [[Italian war crimes]]".{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|pp=657–674}} Others, including members of Italy's Jewish community, have objected to Italian right-wing efforts to equate the {{lang|it|foibe}} with the Holocaust, via historical distortions which include exaggerated {{lang|it|foibe}} victim claims, in an attempt to turn Italy from a perpetrator in the Holocaust, to a victim.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ghiglione|first=Giorgio|title=Mussolini's Heirs Equate World War II Killings of Italians With the Holocaust|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/19/italy-mussolini-fascism-ww2-holocaust-foibe/|access-date= |
Gaia Baracetti notes that some representations of {{lang|it|foibe}}, such as a miniseries on Italian television, are replete with historical inaccuracies and stereotypes, portraying Slavs as "merciless assassins", similar to fascist propaganda, while "largely ignoring the issue of [[Italian war crimes]]".{{sfn|Baracetti|2009|pp=657–674}} Others, including members of Italy's Jewish community, have objected to Italian right-wing efforts to equate the {{lang|it|foibe}} with the Holocaust, via historical distortions which include exaggerated {{lang|it|foibe}} victim claims, in an attempt to turn Italy from a perpetrator in the Holocaust, to a victim.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Ghiglione|first=Giorgio|title=Mussolini's Heirs Equate World War II Killings of Italians With the Holocaust|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/10/19/italy-mussolini-fascism-ww2-holocaust-foibe/|access-date=12 November 2021|website=Foreign Policy|date=19 October 2021|language=en-US}}</ref> |
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Other authors assert that the post-war pursuit of the 'truth' of the ''foibe,'' as a means of transcending Fascist/Anti-Fascist oppositions and promoting popular patriotism, has not been the preserve of right-wing or [[Neo-fascism|neo-Fascist]] groups. Evocations of the 'Slav other' and of the terrors of the {{lang|it|foibe}} made by state institutions, academics, amateur historians, journalists, and the memorial landscape of everyday life were the backdrop to the post-war renegotiation of Italian national identity.<ref>{{cite book|title=Italian fascism: history, memory, and representation|last=Bosworth|first=R.J.B.|author2=Patrizia Dogliani|year=1999|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-312-21717-X|pages=185–86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0nViXVXfWdAC&pg=PA186}}</ref> |
Other authors assert that the post-war pursuit of the 'truth' of the ''foibe,'' as a means of transcending Fascist/Anti-Fascist oppositions and promoting popular patriotism, has not been the preserve of right-wing or [[Neo-fascism|neo-Fascist]] groups. Evocations of the 'Slav other' and of the terrors of the {{lang|it|foibe}} made by state institutions, academics, amateur historians, journalists, and the memorial landscape of everyday life were the backdrop to the post-war renegotiation of Italian national identity.<ref>{{cite book|title=Italian fascism: history, memory, and representation|last=Bosworth|first=R.J.B.|author2=Patrizia Dogliani|year=1999|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=0-312-21717-X|pages=185–86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0nViXVXfWdAC&pg=PA186}}</ref> |
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Following the war the Yugoslav government pursued a policy of "Slav-Italian brotherhood" and Italian workers came to Yugoslavia to help with rebuilding. Relations worsened in 1948 when [[Informbiro period|Yugoslavia broke with Stalin]], while the Italian Communist Party supported the Soviet Union. Border disputes, postwar economic deprivations and the initial totalitarian nature of the Yugoslav government, made life difficult for all. All this led to what was until then a limited exodus, to much broader exodus following 1950.{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
Following the war the Yugoslav government pursued a policy of "Slav-Italian brotherhood" and Italian workers came to Yugoslavia to help with rebuilding. Relations worsened in 1948 when [[Informbiro period|Yugoslavia broke with Stalin]], while the Italian Communist Party supported the Soviet Union. Border disputes, postwar economic deprivations and the initial totalitarian nature of the Yugoslav government, made life difficult for all. All this led to what was until then a limited exodus, to much broader exodus following 1950.{{sfn|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
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The commission was re-established in 2007 with the official name of ''Mixed Italian-Slovene Commission for the Maintenance of the State Border''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2007|title=Poročilo slovensko – italijanske zgodovinsko – kulturne komisije [The Report of the Slovene-Italian Historical-Cultural Commission|url=https://www.gov.si/assets/drzave/italija/Porocilo-SI-ITA-zgodovinsko-kulturne-komisije.pdf|access-date= |
The commission was re-established in 2007 with the official name of ''Mixed Italian-Slovene Commission for the Maintenance of the State Border''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|date=2007|title=Poročilo slovensko – italijanske zgodovinsko – kulturne komisije [The Report of the Slovene-Italian Historical-Cultural Commission|url=https://www.gov.si/assets/drzave/italija/Porocilo-SI-ITA-zgodovinsko-kulturne-komisije.pdf|access-date=10 April 2023|website=Portal GOV.SI|language=sl}}</ref> |
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== Post-War == |
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==Post-War== |
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The {{lang|it|foibe}} have been a neglected subject in mainstream political debate in Italy, Yugoslavia and former-Yugoslav nations, only recently garnering attention with the publication of several books and historical studies. It is thought that after World War II, while Yugoslav politicians rejected any alleged crime, Italian politicians wanted to direct the country's attention toward the future and away from the idea that Italy was, in fact, a defeated nation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.romacivica.net/anpiroma/DOSSIER/Dossier1a8b.htm|title=Articolo su un sito dell'A.N.P.I.|access-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084018/http://www.romacivica.net/anpiroma/DOSSIER/Dossier1a8b.htm|archive-date=29 September 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
The {{lang|it|foibe}} have been a neglected subject in mainstream political debate in Italy, Yugoslavia and former-Yugoslav nations, only recently garnering attention with the publication of several books and historical studies. It is thought that after World War II, while Yugoslav politicians rejected any alleged crime, Italian politicians wanted to direct the country's attention toward the future and away from the idea that Italy was, in fact, a defeated nation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.romacivica.net/anpiroma/DOSSIER/Dossier1a8b.htm|title=Articolo su un sito dell'A.N.P.I.|access-date=12 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084018/http://www.romacivica.net/anpiroma/DOSSIER/Dossier1a8b.htm|archive-date=29 September 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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So, the Italian government tactically "exchanged" the impunity of the Italians accused by Yugoslavia for the renunciation to investigate the {{lang|it|foibe}} massacres.<ref name="ottanelli">{{cite web|author=Marco Ottanelli|title=La verità sulle foibe|url=http://www.democrazialegalita.it/foibe07febb05.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217143006/http://www.democrazialegalita.it/foibe07febb05.htm|archive-date=17 December 2007|access-date=3 June 2006|language=it}}</ref> Italy never extradited or prosecuted some 1,200 Italian Army officers, government officials or former Fascist Party members accused of war crimes by Yugoslavia, [[Ethiopia]], [[Greece]] and other occupied countries and remitted to the [[United Nations War Crimes Commission]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Crimini di Guerra|title=La mancata estradizione e l'impunità dei presunti criminali di guerra italiani accusati per stragi in Africa e in Europa|url=http://www.criminidiguerra.it/EstradizBBC.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902010020/http://www.criminidiguerra.it/EstradizBBC.htm|archive-date=2 September 2006|access-date=26 September 2015|language=it}}</ref> On the other hand, Belgrade didn't insist overmuch on requesting the prosecution of alleged Italian war criminals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.viqueria.com/la-questione-dei-crimini-di-guerra-italiani-nei-balcani/|title=La questione dei crimini di guerra italiani nei Balcani|date=10 January 2014|access-date=12 May 2021|language=it}}</ref> |
So, the Italian government tactically "exchanged" the impunity of the Italians accused by Yugoslavia for the renunciation to investigate the {{lang|it|foibe}} massacres.<ref name="ottanelli">{{cite web|author=Marco Ottanelli|title=La verità sulle foibe|url=http://www.democrazialegalita.it/foibe07febb05.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217143006/http://www.democrazialegalita.it/foibe07febb05.htm|archive-date=17 December 2007|access-date=3 June 2006|language=it}}</ref> Italy never extradited or prosecuted some 1,200 Italian Army officers, government officials or former Fascist Party members accused of war crimes by Yugoslavia, [[Ethiopia]], [[Greece]] and other occupied countries and remitted to the [[United Nations War Crimes Commission]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Crimini di Guerra|title=La mancata estradizione e l'impunità dei presunti criminali di guerra italiani accusati per stragi in Africa e in Europa|url=http://www.criminidiguerra.it/EstradizBBC.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902010020/http://www.criminidiguerra.it/EstradizBBC.htm|archive-date=2 September 2006|access-date=26 September 2015|language=it}}</ref> On the other hand, Belgrade didn't insist overmuch on requesting the prosecution of alleged Italian war criminals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.viqueria.com/la-questione-dei-crimini-di-guerra-italiani-nei-balcani/|title=La questione dei crimini di guerra italiani nei Balcani|date=10 January 2014|access-date=12 May 2021|language=it}}</ref> |
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==Re-emergence of the issue== |
== Re-emergence of the issue == |
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{{further|National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe}} |
{{further|National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe}} |
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[[File:Roma, Giuliano-Dalmata - monumento vittime delle foibe.JPG|thumb|Rome, [[Giuliano-Dalmata|Giuliano-Dalmata district]]: monument to the victims of foibe]] |
[[File:Roma, Giuliano-Dalmata - monumento vittime delle foibe.JPG|thumb|Rome, [[Giuliano-Dalmata|Giuliano-Dalmata district]]: monument to the victims of foibe]] |
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[[File:Giorno del ricordo 2007.jpg|thumb|The [[President of the Italian Republic]] [[Giorgio Napolitano]] during his speech for the [[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]] in 2007]] |
[[File:Giorno del ricordo 2007.jpg|thumb|The [[President of the Italian Republic]] [[Giorgio Napolitano]] during his speech for the [[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]] in 2007]] |
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[[File:Giorno del ricordo 2015.jpg|thumb|Concert at the [[Quirinal Palace]] in the presence of the President of the Italian Republic [[Sergio Mattarella]] on the occasion of the National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe in 2015]] |
[[File:Giorno del ricordo 2015.jpg|thumb|Concert at the [[Quirinal Palace]] in the presence of the President of the Italian Republic [[Sergio Mattarella]] on the occasion of the National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe in 2015]] |
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These killings were the beginning of organized against local Italians ([[Istrian Italians]] and [[Dalmatian Italians]]). [[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s coalition government brought the issue back into open discussion. The [[Italian Parliament]] (with the support of the vast majority of the represented parties) made 10 February [[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]], first celebrated in 2005 with exhibitions and observances throughout Italy (especially in [[Trieste]]). The occasion is held in memory of innocents killed and forced to leave their homes, with little support from their home country. In [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]'s words: "Time has come for thoughtful remembrance to take the place of bitter resentment." Moreover, for the first time, leaders from the Italian left, such as [[Walter Veltroni]], visited the Basovizza foiba and admitted the culpability of the Left in covering up the subject for decades. |
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For several Italian historians these killings were the beginning of organized [[ethnic cleansing]]. |
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[[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s coalition government brought the issue back into open discussion. The [[Italian Parliament]] (with the support of the vast majority of the represented parties) made February 10 [[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]], first celebrated in 2005 with exhibitions and observances throughout Italy (especially in [[Trieste]]). The occasion is held in memory of innocents killed and forced to leave their homes, with little support from their home country. In [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]'s words: "Time has come for thoughtful remembrance to take the place of bitter resentment." Moreover, for the first time, leaders from the Italian left, such as [[Walter Veltroni]], visited the Basovizza foiba and admitted the culpability of the Left in covering up the subject for decades. |
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Nowadays, a large part of the Italian left acknowledges the nature of the foibe massacres, as attested by some declarations of Luigi Malabarba, senator for the [[Communist Refoundation Party]], during the parliamentary debate on the institution of the National Memorial Day:<ref>{{cite web|author=Luigi Malabarba|date=11 March 2004|title=Declaration of Vote|work=Transcript of the 561st Session of the [[Italian Senate]]|url=http://www.senato.it/service/PDF/PDFServer?tipo=BGT&id=98109|page=15|format=PDF|access-date=5 June 2006|language=it|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010050418/http://www.senato.it/service/PDF/PDFServer?tipo=BGT&id=98109|archive-date=10 October 2007|url-status=dead |
Nowadays, a large part of the Italian left acknowledges the nature of the foibe massacres, as attested by some declarations of Luigi Malabarba, senator for the [[Communist Refoundation Party]], during the parliamentary debate on the institution of the National Memorial Day:<ref>{{cite web|author=Luigi Malabarba|date=11 March 2004|title=Declaration of Vote|work=Transcript of the 561st Session of the [[Italian Senate]] | url=http://www.senato.it/service/PDF/PDFServer?tipo=BGT&id=98109|page=15|format=PDF|access-date=5 June 2006|language=it|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010050418/http://www.senato.it/service/PDF/PDFServer?tipo=BGT&id=98109|archive-date=10 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{blockquote|In 1945 there was a ruthless policy of exterminating opponents. Here, one must again recall [[Stalinism]] to understand what Tito's well-organized troops did. ... Yugoslav Communism had deeply assimilated a return to [[nationalism]] that was inherent to the idea of '[[Socialism in One Country]]'. ... The war, which had begun as anti-fascist, became anti-German and anti-Italian.}} |
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Italian president [[Giorgio Napolitano]] took an official speech during celebration of the "Memorial Day of Foibe Massacres and [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]]" in which he stated:<ref>Presidenza della Repubblica, Giorgio Napolitano, official speech for the celebration of "Giorno del Ricordo" Quirinal on 10 February 2007 [http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/Continua.aspx?tipo=Discorso&key=930 integral text from official website of the Italian President Bureau]</ref> |
Italian president [[Giorgio Napolitano]] took an official speech during celebration of the "Memorial Day of Foibe Massacres and [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]]" in which he stated:<ref>Presidenza della Repubblica, Giorgio Napolitano, official speech for the celebration of "Giorno del Ricordo" Quirinal on 10 February 2007 [http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/Continua.aspx?tipo=Discorso&key=930 integral text from official website of the Italian President Bureau]</ref> |
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{{Blockquote|... already in the unleashing of the first wave of blind and extreme violence in those lands, in the autumn of 1943, summary and tumultuous justicialism, nationalist paroxysm, social retaliation and a plan to eradicate Italian presence intertwined in what was, and ceased to be, the Julian March. There was therefore a movement of hate and bloodthirsty fury, and a Slavic annexationist design, which prevailed above all in the peace treaty of 1947, and assumed the sinister shape of "ethnic cleansing". What we can say for sure is that what was achieved – in the most evident way through the inhuman ferocity of the {{lang|it|foibe}} – was one of the barbarities of the past century.|<small>Italian president [[Giorgio Napolitano]], Rome, 10 February 2007</small><ref name="Napolitano">{{cite web|quote={{lang|it|... già nello scatenarsi della prima ondata di cieca violenza in quelle terre, nell'autunno del 1943, si intrecciarono giustizialismo sommario e tumultuoso, parossismo nazionalista, rivalse sociali e un disegno di sradicamento della presenza italiana da quella che era, e cessò di essere, la Venezia Giulia. Vi fu dunque un moto di odio e di furia sanguinaria, e un disegno annessionistico slavo, che prevalse innanzitutto nel Trattato di pace del 1947, e che assunse i sinistri contorni di una "pulizia etnica". Quel che si può dire di certo è che si consumò – nel modo più evidente con la disumana ferocia delle foibe – una delle barbarie del secolo scorso.}}|lang=it|publisher=Presidency of the Italian Republic|first=Giorgio|last=Napolitano|authorlink=Giorgio Napolitano|url=http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/Continua.aspx?tipo=Discorso&key=930|title=Official speech for the celebration of "Giorno del Ricordo"|website=Quirinale|location=Rome|date= |
{{Blockquote|... already in the unleashing of the first wave of blind and extreme violence in those lands, in the autumn of 1943, summary and tumultuous justicialism, nationalist paroxysm, social retaliation and a plan to eradicate Italian presence intertwined in what was, and ceased to be, the Julian March. There was therefore a movement of hate and bloodthirsty fury, and a Slavic annexationist design, which prevailed above all in the peace treaty of 1947, and assumed the sinister shape of "ethnic cleansing". What we can say for sure is that what was achieved – in the most evident way through the inhuman ferocity of the {{lang|it|foibe}} – was one of the barbarities of the past century.|<small>Italian president [[Giorgio Napolitano]], Rome, 10 February 2007</small><ref name="Napolitano">{{cite web|quote={{lang|it|... già nello scatenarsi della prima ondata di cieca violenza in quelle terre, nell'autunno del 1943, si intrecciarono giustizialismo sommario e tumultuoso, parossismo nazionalista, rivalse sociali e un disegno di sradicamento della presenza italiana da quella che era, e cessò di essere, la Venezia Giulia. Vi fu dunque un moto di odio e di furia sanguinaria, e un disegno annessionistico slavo, che prevalse innanzitutto nel Trattato di pace del 1947, e che assunse i sinistri contorni di una "pulizia etnica". Quel che si può dire di certo è che si consumò – nel modo più evidente con la disumana ferocia delle foibe – una delle barbarie del secolo scorso.}}|lang=it|publisher=Presidency of the Italian Republic|first=Giorgio|last=Napolitano|authorlink=Giorgio Napolitano|url=http://www.quirinale.it/elementi/Continua.aspx?tipo=Discorso&key=930|title=Official speech for the celebration of "Giorno del Ricordo"|website=Quirinale|location=Rome|date=10 February 2007}}</ref>}} |
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The Croatian President [[Stipe Mesić]] immediately responded in writing, stating that: |
The Croatian President [[Stipe Mesić]] immediately responded in writing, stating that: |
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{{Blockquote|It was impossible not to see overt elements of [[racism]], [[historical revisionism]] and a desire for political revenge in Napolitano's words. ... Modern Europe was built on foundations ... of which anti-fascism was one of the most important.|<small>Croatian president [[Stjepan Mesić]], Zagreb, 11 February 2007.</small><ref>{{cite news|last=Fraser|first=Christian|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6360429.stm|title=Italy-Croatia WWII massacre spat|work=BBC News|date=14 February 2007|access-date=5 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/02/13/europe/EU-GEN-Italy-Croatia.php|title=Article|publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=13 February 2007|access-date=5 August 2009}}</ref>}} |
{{Blockquote|It was impossible not to see overt elements of [[racism]], [[historical revisionism]] and a desire for political revenge in Napolitano's words. ... Modern Europe was built on foundations ... of which anti-fascism was one of the most important.|<small>Croatian president [[Stjepan Mesić]], Zagreb, 11 February 2007.</small><ref>{{cite news|last=Fraser|first=Christian|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6360429.stm|title=Italy-Croatia WWII massacre spat|work=BBC News|date=14 February 2007|access-date=5 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/02/13/europe/EU-GEN-Italy-Croatia.php|title=Article|publisher=International Herald Tribune|date=13 February 2007|access-date=5 August 2009}}</ref>}} |
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The incident was resolved in a few days after diplomatic contacts between the two presidents at the Italian foreign ministry. On |
The incident was resolved in a few days after diplomatic contacts between the two presidents at the Italian foreign ministry. On 14 February, the [[Office of the President of Croatia]] issued a press statement: |
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{{Blockquote|The Croatian representative was assured that president Napolitano's speech on the occasion of the remembrance day for Italian WWII victims was in no way intended to cause a controversy regarding Croatia, nor to question the 1947 peace treaties or the Osimo and Rome Accords, nor was it inspired by revanchism or historical revisionism. ... The explanations were accepted with understanding and they have contributed to overcoming misunderstandings caused by the speech.|<small>Press statement by the [[Office of the President of Croatia]], Zagreb, 14 February 2007.</small><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.repubblica.it/2007/02/sezioni/cronaca/foibe-memoria/incidente-chiuso/incidente-chiuso.html|title=Article|publisher=la Repubblica|date=17 February 2007|access-date=22 August 2009}}</ref>}} |
{{Blockquote|The Croatian representative was assured that president Napolitano's speech on the occasion of the remembrance day for Italian WWII victims was in no way intended to cause a controversy regarding Croatia, nor to question the 1947 peace treaties or the Osimo and Rome Accords, nor was it inspired by revanchism or historical revisionism. ... The explanations were accepted with understanding and they have contributed to overcoming misunderstandings caused by the speech.|<small>Press statement by the [[Office of the President of Croatia]], Zagreb, 14 February 2007.</small><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.repubblica.it/2007/02/sezioni/cronaca/foibe-memoria/incidente-chiuso/incidente-chiuso.html|title=Article|publisher=la Repubblica|date=17 February 2007|access-date=22 August 2009}}</ref>}} |
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In Italy, Law 92 of 30 March 2004<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2004/04/13/004G0110/sg#:~:text=1.-,1.,complessa%20vicenda%20del%20confine%20orientale.|title=LEGGE 30 marzo 2004, n. 92|access-date=30 August 2022|language=it}}</ref> declared |
In Italy, Law 92 of 30 March 2004<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/eli/id/2004/04/13/004G0110/sg#:~:text=1.-,1.,complessa%20vicenda%20del%20confine%20orientale.|title=LEGGE 30 marzo 2004, n. 92|access-date=30 August 2022|language=it}}</ref> declared 10 February as a ''[[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe|Day of Remembrance]]'' dedicated to the memory of the victims of Foibe and the [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]]. The same law created a special medal to be awarded to relatives of the victims: |
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:[[File:366px Ribbon bar medal to the relatives of the victims of foibe killings.svg|100px]] Medal of ''Day of Remembrance'' <small> to relatives of victims of foibe killings</small> |
:[[File:366px Ribbon bar medal to the relatives of the victims of foibe killings.svg|100px]] Medal of ''Day of Remembrance'' <small> to relatives of victims of foibe killings</small> |
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In February 2012, a photo of Italian troops killing Slovene civilians was shown on public Italian TV as if being the other way round. When historian [[Alessandra Kersevan]], who was a guest, pointed out to the television host [[Bruno Vespa]] that the photo depicted the killings of some Slovenes rather than Italians, the host did not apologize. A diplomatic protest followed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rtvslo.si/svet/mzz-obsoja-potvarjanje-zgodovine-italijanske-televizije/276909|title=Article|publisher=[[RTV Slovenia]]|date=15 February 2012|access-date=9 March 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rai.tv/dl/RaiTV/programmi/media/ContentItem-1784a3df-aa07-4bcd-a5ab-1be49cfa2899.html?refresh_ce#p=0 Il giorno del ricordo – Porta a Porta, from Rai website]; accessed 26 September 2015.</ref> |
In February 2012, a photo of Italian troops killing Slovene civilians was shown on public Italian TV as if being the other way round. When historian [[Alessandra Kersevan]], who was a guest, pointed out to the television host [[Bruno Vespa]] that the photo depicted the killings of some Slovenes rather than Italians, the host did not apologize. A diplomatic protest followed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rtvslo.si/svet/mzz-obsoja-potvarjanje-zgodovine-italijanske-televizije/276909|title=Article|publisher=[[RTV Slovenia]] | date=15 February 2012|access-date=9 March 2012}}</ref><ref>[http://www.rai.tv/dl/RaiTV/programmi/media/ContentItem-1784a3df-aa07-4bcd-a5ab-1be49cfa2899.html?refresh_ce#p=0 Il giorno del ricordo – Porta a Porta, from Rai website]; accessed 26 September 2015.</ref> |
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== In the media == |
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==In the media== |
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* ''[[Il Cuore nel Pozzo]]'', a 2005 TV movie focusing on the escape of a group of children from Tito's partisans. |
* ''[[Il Cuore nel Pozzo]]'', a 2005 TV movie focusing on the escape of a group of children from Tito's partisans. |
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* ''{{ill|Red Land (Rosso Istria)|it}}'', a 2018 film directed by Maximiliano Hernando Bruno and starring [[Geraldine Chaplin]], [[Sandra Ceccarelli]], and [[Franco Nero]]. |
* ''{{ill|Red Land (Rosso Istria)|it}}'', a 2018 film directed by Maximiliano Hernando Bruno and starring [[Geraldine Chaplin]], [[Sandra Ceccarelli]], and [[Franco Nero]]. |
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== See also == |
== See also == |
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* [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]] |
* [[Istrian-Dalmatian exodus]] |
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* [[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]] |
* [[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]] |
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== Notes and references == |
== Notes and references == |
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=== Notes === |
=== Notes === |
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{{Notelist}} |
{{Notelist}} |
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=== References === |
=== References === |
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{{Reflist}} |
{{Reflist}} |
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=== Bibliography === |
=== Bibliography === |
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* {{Cite journal|last=Baracetti|first=Gaia|date=2009|title=Foibe: Nationalism, Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria, I943-5|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40542981|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=44|issue=4|pages=657–674|doi=10.1177/0022009409339344|jstor=40542981|s2cid=159919208|issn=0022-0094}} |
* {{Cite journal|last=Baracetti|first=Gaia|date=2009|title=Foibe: Nationalism, Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria, I943-5|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40542981|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=44|issue=4|pages=657–674|doi=10.1177/0022009409339344|jstor=40542981|s2cid=159919208|issn=0022-0094}} |
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* {{cite book|last= Bartoli|first= Matteo|author-link=Matteo Bartoli|title= Le parlate italiane della Venezia Giulia e della Dalmazia|publisher= Tipografia italo-orientale|page=16|year= 1919|language=it}}{{No ISBN}} |
* {{cite book|last= Bartoli|first= Matteo|author-link=Matteo Bartoli|title= Le parlate italiane della Venezia Giulia e della Dalmazia|publisher= Tipografia italo-orientale|page=16|year= 1919|language=it}}{{No ISBN}} |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
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|first1 = Donald |
| first1 = Donald |
||
|last1 = Bloxham |
| last1 = Bloxham |
||
|author-link1 = Donald Bloxham |
| author-link1 = Donald Bloxham |
||
|first2 = Anthony |
| first2 = Anthony |
||
|last2 = Dirk Moses |
| last2 = Dirk Moses |
||
|author-link2 = A. Dirk Moses |
| author-link2 = A. Dirk Moses |
||
|editor-first1 = Donald |
| editor-first1 = Donald |
||
|editor-last1 = Bloxham |
| editor-last1 = Bloxham |
||
|editor-first2 = Robert |
| editor-first2 = Robert |
||
|editor-last2 = Gerwarth |
| editor-last2 = Gerwarth |
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|title = Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe |
| title = Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe |
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|chapter = Genocide and ethnic cleansing |
| chapter = Genocide and ethnic cleansing |
||
|page = 125 |
| page = 125 |
||
|year = 2011 |
| year = 2011 |
||
|publisher = Cambridge University Press |
| publisher = Cambridge University Press |
||
|doi = 10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004 |
| doi = 10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004 |
||
|isbn = 9781107005037 |
| isbn = 9781107005037 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
||
|first = Silvia |
| first = Silvia |
||
|last = Ferreto Clementi |
| last = Ferreto Clementi |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = Foibe ed esodo: una storia negata a tre generazioni di italiani |
| title = Foibe ed esodo: una storia negata a tre generazioni di italiani |
||
|url = https://www.ferretto.it/wp/contenuti/argomenti/sicurezza/dossier_web1.pdf |
| url = https://www.ferretto.it/wp/contenuti/argomenti/sicurezza/dossier_web1.pdf |
||
|chapter = La pulizia etnica e il manuale Cubrilovic |
| chapter = La pulizia etnica e il manuale Cubrilovic |
||
|chapter-url = http://www.lefoibe.it/approfondimenti/dossier/02-puliziaetnica.htm |
| chapter-url = http://www.lefoibe.it/approfondimenti/dossier/02-puliziaetnica.htm |
||
|access-date = 2022 |
| access-date = 5 November 2022 |
||
}} |
}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Ivetic |first1=Egidio |title=Povijest Jadrana: More i njegove civilizacije |trans-title=History of the Adriatic: A Sea and Its Civilization |date=2022 |publisher=Srednja Europa, Polity Press |isbn=9789538281747 |language=hr, en}} |
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|editor-last1 = Konrád |
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|editor-first2 = Boris |
| editor-first2 = Boris |
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|editor-last2 = Barth |
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|editor-first3 = Jaromír |
| editor-first3 = Jaromír |
||
|editor-last3 = Mrňka |
| editor-last3 = Mrňka |
||
|title = Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48 |
| title = Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48 |
||
|year = 2021 |
| year = 2021 |
||
|publisher = Springer International Publishing |
| publisher = Springer International Publishing |
||
|page = 20 |
| page = 20 |
||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xXRREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xXRREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |
||
|isbn = 9783030783860 |
| isbn = 9783030783860 |
||
|access-date = 2022 |
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}} |
}} |
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* {{Cite book |
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||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5sKNeVcOH3wC&q=Belgium |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5sKNeVcOH3wC&q=Belgium |
||
|title = Savage continent |
| title = Savage continent |
||
|location = London |
| location = London |
||
|year = 2012 |
| year = 2012 |
||
|isbn = 9780241962220 |
| isbn = 9780241962220 |
||
}} |
}} |
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* {{Cite book |
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|first = Gianni |
| first = Gianni |
||
|last = Oliva |
| last = Oliva |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = Foibe. Le stragi negate degli italiani della Venezia Giulia e dell'Istria |
| title = Foibe. Le stragi negate degli italiani della Venezia Giulia e dell'Istria |
||
|trans-title = Foibe. The denied massacres of the Italians of Venezia Giulia and Istria |
| trans-title = Foibe. The denied massacres of the Italians of Venezia Giulia and Istria |
||
|pages = 4–25–36–71–72–148 |
| pages = 4–25–36–71–72–148 |
||
|date = 2003 |
| date = 2003 |
||
|publisher = Oscar Mondadori |
| publisher = Oscar Mondadori |
||
|isbn = 88-04-51584-8 |
| isbn = 88-04-51584-8 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{Cite journal |
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|last = Peričić |
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||
|first = Šime |
| first = Šime |
||
|language = hr |
| language = hr |
||
|title = O broju Talijana/talijanaša u Dalmaciji XIX. stoljeća |
| title = O broju Talijana/talijanaša u Dalmaciji XIX. stoljeća |
||
|trans-title = About the number of Italians in Dalmatia, XIX century |
| trans-title = About the number of Italians in Dalmatia, XIX century |
||
|url = https://hrcak.srce.hr/12136 |
| url = https://hrcak.srce.hr/12136 |
||
|date = |
| date = 19 September 2003 |
||
|journal = Radovi Zavoda za povijesne znanosti HAZU u Zadru |
| journal = Radovi Zavoda za povijesne znanosti HAZU u Zadru |
||
|issue = 45 |
| issue = 45 |
||
|pages = 327–355 |
| pages = 327–355 |
||
|issn = 1330-0474 |
| issn = 1330-0474 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{Cite book |
* {{Cite book |
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|first = Arrigo |
| first = Arrigo |
||
|last = Petacco |
| last = Petacco |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = L'esodo: la tragedia negata degli italiani d'Istria, Dalmazia e Venezia Giulia |
| title = L'esodo: la tragedia negata degli italiani d'Istria, Dalmazia e Venezia Giulia |
||
|publisher = Mondadori |
| publisher = Mondadori |
||
|location = Milano |
| location = Milano |
||
|date = 1999 |
| date = 1999 |
||
|isbn = 88-04-45897-6 |
| isbn = 88-04-45897-6 |
||
|url = https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:51Ty3sAoNPcC |
| url = https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:51Ty3sAoNPcC |
||
}} |
}} |
||
** '''English edition:''' {{cite book |
** '''English edition:''' {{cite book |
||
|first = Arrigo |
| first = Arrigo |
||
|last = Petacco |
| last = Petacco |
||
|translator-first = Konrad |
| translator-first = Konrad |
||
|translator-last = Eisenbichler |
| translator-last = Eisenbichler |
||
|language = en |
| language = en |
||
|title = A tragedy revealed: the story of Italians of Istria, Dalmatia, and Venezia Giulia, 1943–1956 |
| title = A tragedy revealed: the story of Italians of Istria, Dalmatia, and Venezia Giulia, 1943–1956 |
||
|publisher = University of Toronto Press |
| publisher = University of Toronto Press |
||
|date = 2005 |
| date = 2005 |
||
|isbn = 0-8020-3921-9 |
| isbn = 0-8020-3921-9 |
||
|url = https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:VmzgF-sLamMC |
| url = https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=editions:VmzgF-sLamMC |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{Cite book |
* {{Cite book |
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|first = Katia |
| first = Katia |
||
|last = Pizzi |
| last = Pizzi |
||
|title = A City in Search of an Author |
| title = A City in Search of an Author |
||
|page = 91 |
| page = 91 |
||
|date = 2002 |
| date = 1 February 2002 |
||
|publisher = A&C Black |
| publisher = A&C Black |
||
|isbn = 9780567244970 |
| isbn = 9780567244970 |
||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-bGYecgxhusC&pg=PA91 |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-bGYecgxhusC&pg=PA91 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
||
|first1 = Raoul |
| first1 = Raoul |
||
|last1 = Pupo |
| last1 = Pupo |
||
|first2 = Roberto |
| first2 = Roberto |
||
|last2 = Spazzali |
| last2 = Spazzali |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = Foibe |
| title = Foibe |
||
|publisher = Bruno Mondadori |
| publisher = Bruno Mondadori |
||
|year = 2003 |
| year = 2003 |
||
|pages = 4–5–29–30–35–39–110–126–127–162–219–366 |
| pages = 4–5–29–30–35–39–110–126–127–162–219–366 |
||
|isbn = 88-424-9015-6 |
| isbn = 88-424-9015-6 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
||
|first = Raoul |
| first = Raoul |
||
|last = Pupo |
| last = Pupo |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = Il lungo esodo. Istria: le persecuzioni, le foibe, l'esilio |
| title = Il lungo esodo. Istria: le persecuzioni, le foibe, l'esilio |
||
|publisher = Rizzoli |
| publisher = Rizzoli |
||
|year = 2005 |
| year = 2005 |
||
|isbn = 88-17-00562-2 |
| isbn = 88-17-00562-2 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite journal |
* {{cite journal |
||
|first = Raoul |
| first = Raoul |
||
|last = Pupo |
| last = Pupo |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = Le foibe giuliane 1943-45 |
| title = Le foibe giuliane 1943-45 |
||
|journal = L'Impegno, A. XVI, N. 1 |
| journal = L'Impegno, A. XVI, N. 1 |
||
|date = April 1996 |
| date = April 1996 |
||
|publisher = Istituto per la storia della Resistenza e della società contemporanea nel Biellese, nel Vercellese e in Valsesia |
| publisher = Istituto per la storia della Resistenza e della società contemporanea nel Biellese, nel Vercellese e in Valsesia |
||
|url = http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html |
| url = http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html |
||
|url-status = dead |
| url-status = dead |
||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210515173059/http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html |
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210515173059/http://www.storia900bivc.it/pagine/editoria/pupo196.html |
||
|archive-date = |
| archive-date = 15 May 2021 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
||
|first = Guido |
| first = Guido |
||
|last = Rumici |
| last = Rumici |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = Infoibati (1943–1945). I Nomi, I Luoghi, I Testimoni, I Documenti |
| title = Infoibati (1943–1945). I Nomi, I Luoghi, I Testimoni, I Documenti |
||
|year = 2002 |
| year = 2002 |
||
|publisher = Ugo Mursia |
| publisher = Ugo Mursia |
||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x0ZnAAAAMAAJ&q=massacri+foibe+sloveni+croati+anticomunisti |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=x0ZnAAAAMAAJ&q=massacri+foibe+sloveni+croati+anticomunisti |
||
|isbn = 978-88-425-2999-6 |
| isbn = 978-88-425-2999-6 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book|last= Seton-Watson|first= Christopher|title= Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870–1925|publisher= Methuen|page=107|year= 1967|isbn=9780416189407}} |
* {{cite book|last= Seton-Watson|first= Christopher|title= Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870–1925|publisher= Methuen|page=107|year= 1967|isbn=9780416189407}} |
||
* {{cite journal |
* {{cite journal |
||
|first = Benedetta |
| first = Benedetta |
||
|last = Tobagi |
| last = Tobagi |
||
|language = it |
| language = it |
||
|title = La Repubblica italiana |
| title = La Repubblica italiana |
||
|date = 2014 |
| date = 2014 |
||
|publisher = Treccani |
| publisher = Treccani |
||
|website = Treccani, il portale del sapere |
| website = Treccani, il portale del sapere |
||
|url = http://www.treccani.it/scuola/lezioni/storia/la_repubblica_italiana.html |
| url = http://www.treccani.it/scuola/lezioni/storia/la_repubblica_italiana.html |
||
|url-status = dead |
| url-status = dead |
||
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170614123152/http://www.treccani.it/scuola/lezioni/storia/la_repubblica_italiana.html |
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170614123152/http://www.treccani.it/scuola/lezioni/storia/la_repubblica_italiana.html |
||
|archive-date = |
| archive-date = 14 June 2017 |
||
|access-date = 2022 |
| access-date = 5 November 2022 |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book |
* {{cite book |
||
|last = Tomasevich |
| last = Tomasevich |
||
|first = Jozo |
| first = Jozo |
||
|language = en |
| language = en |
||
|title = War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration |
| title = War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration |
||
|date = October 2002 |
| date = October 2002 |
||
|publisher = Stanford University Press |
| publisher = Stanford University Press |
||
|isbn = 978-0-8047-7924-1 |
| isbn = 978-0-8047-7924-1 |
||
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC |
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC |
||
}} |
}} |
||
<!--- UNFORMATTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOLLOWS ---> |
<!--- UNFORMATTED BIBLIOGRAPHY FOLLOWS ---> |
||
* {{in lang|en}} Pamela Ballinger, ''History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans'', Princeton University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-691-08697-4}}. |
* {{in lang|en}} Pamela Ballinger, ''History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans'', Princeton University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-691-08697-4}}. |
||
* {{in lang|en}} Benjamin David Lieberman, ''Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe'', Ivan R. Dee, 2006 – Original from the University of Michigan 9 |
* {{in lang|en}} Benjamin David Lieberman, ''Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe'', Ivan R. Dee, 2006 – Original from the University of Michigan 9 June 2008, {{ISBN|1-56663-646-9}}. |
||
* {{in lang|en}} [[Glenda Sluga]], ''The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and Sovereignty in Twentieth-century Europe'', SUNY Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-7914-4823-1}}. |
* {{in lang|en}} [[Glenda Sluga]], ''The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and Sovereignty in Twentieth-century Europe'', SUNY Press, 2001 {{ISBN|0-7914-4823-1}}. |
||
* {{in lang|it}} [[Joze Pirjevec]], ''Foibe: una storia d'Italia'', Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore, 2009, {{ISBN|978-88-06-19804-6}}. |
* {{in lang|it}} [[Joze Pirjevec]], ''Foibe: una storia d'Italia'', Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore, 2009, {{ISBN|978-88-06-19804-6}}. |
||
Line 452: | Line 549: | ||
== Further reading == |
== Further reading == |
||
* Pamela Ballinger, [http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7366.html ''History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612033559/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7366.html|date=12 June 2016}}, princeton.edu; accessed 14 December 2015. |
* Pamela Ballinger, [http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7366.html ''History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612033559/http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7366.html|date=12 June 2016}}, princeton.edu; accessed 14 December 2015. |
||
* [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/20/world/in-trieste-investigation-of-brutal-era-is-blocked.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all "In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked"], nytimes.com, 20 April 1997. |
* [https://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/20/world/in-trieste-investigation-of-brutal-era-is-blocked.html?sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all "In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked"], nytimes.com, 20 April 1997. |
||
Line 457: | Line 555: | ||
Report of the Italian-Slovene historical-cultural commission (in three languages): |
Report of the Italian-Slovene historical-cultural commission (in three languages): |
||
* {{Cite book|language = en |
* {{Cite book|language = en |
||
|location = Koper-Capodistria|date = |
| location = Koper-Capodistria|date = 25 July 2000 |
||
|title = Slovene-Italian Relations 1880–1956 |
| title = Slovene-Italian Relations 1880–1956 |
||
|url = https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm |
| url = https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm |
||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200223115751/https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm |
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200223115751/https://www.kozina.com/premik/indexeng_porocilo.htm |
||
|archive-date = |
| archive-date = 23 February 2020 |
||
|chapter = Period 1941–1945 |
| chapter = Period 1941–1945 |
||
|chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201105021740/http://www.kozina.com/premik/poreng4.htm |
| chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201105021740/http://www.kozina.com/premik/poreng4.htm |
||
|ref={{harvid|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
| ref={{harvid|Italian-Slovene commission}} |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{cite book|language = it |
* {{cite book|language = it |
||
|title = Relazioni italo-slovene 1880–1956 |
| title = Relazioni italo-slovene 1880–1956 |
||
|url = http://www.kozina.com/premik/indexita_porocilo.htm |
| url = http://www.kozina.com/premik/indexita_porocilo.htm |
||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201112020214/http://www.kozina.com/premik/indexita_porocilo.htm |
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201112020214/http://www.kozina.com/premik/indexita_porocilo.htm |
||
|archive-date = |
| archive-date = 12 November 2020 |
||
|chapter = Periodo 1941–1945 |
| chapter = Periodo 1941–1945 |
||
|chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201104020603/http://www.kozina.com/premik/porita4.htm |
| chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201104020603/http://www.kozina.com/premik/porita4.htm |
||
}} |
}} |
||
* {{Cite book|language = sl |
* {{Cite book|language = sl |
||
|title = Slovensko-italijanski odnosi 1880–1956 |
| title = Slovensko-italijanski odnosi 1880–1956 |
||
|url = https://www.kozina.com/premik/index_porocilo.htm |
| url = https://www.kozina.com/premik/index_porocilo.htm |
||
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201107224629/https://www.kozina.com/premik/index_porocilo.htm |
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201107224629/https://www.kozina.com/premik/index_porocilo.htm |
||
|archive-date = 2020 |
| archive-date = 7 November 2020 |
||
|chapter = Obdobje 1941–1945 |
| chapter = Obdobje 1941–1945 |
||
|chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200217024351/http://www.kozina.com/premik/porslo4.htm |
| chapter-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200217024351/http://www.kozina.com/premik/porslo4.htm |
||
}} |
}} |
||
== External links == |
== External links == |
||
* Claudia Cernigoi, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080618143500/http://www.cnj.it/foibeatrieste/ Operazione foibe a Trieste by Claudia Cernigoi] {{in lang|it}} |
* Claudia Cernigoi, [https://web.archive.org/web/20080618143500/http://www.cnj.it/foibeatrieste/ Operazione foibe a Trieste by Claudia Cernigoi] {{in lang|it}} |
||
* [http://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/ Le foibe] {{in lang|it}} |
* [http://digilander.libero.it/lefoibe/ Le foibe] {{in lang|it}} |
Latest revision as of 19:50, 24 December 2024
Foibe massacres | |
---|---|
Native name | Massacri delle foibe (Italian) Poboji v fojbah (Slovene) Masakri fojbe (Croatian) |
Location | Julian March, Kvarner, Dalmatia (Italy and Yugoslavia) |
Date | 1943–1945 |
Target |
|
Attack type |
|
Deaths | Estimates range from 3,000 to 5,000 killed,[14][15] according to other sources 11,000[16][17] or 20,000;[2][16] 4,000 deported |
Perpetrators |
Part of a series on |
Aftermath of World War II in Yugoslavia |
---|
Main events |
Massacres |
Camps |
The foibe massacres (Italian: massacri delle foibe; Slovene: poboji v fojbah; Croatian: masakri fojbe), or simply the foibe, refers to ethnic cleansing, mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after World War II, mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA in the then-Italian territories[a] of Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, against local Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians)[1][2] and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities,[10][3][5] and Italian, German, Croat and Slovene anti-communists against the regime of Josip Broz Tito, presumed to be associated with fascism, Nazism, collaboration with Axis[2][11] and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of Titoism.[12]
The term refers to some victims who were thrown alive into the foibe[18][19][20] (from Italian: pronounced ['fɔibe]), deep natural sinkholes characteristic of the Karst Region. In a wider or symbolic sense, some authors used the term to apply to all disappearances or killings of Italian and Slavic people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces. Others included deaths resulting from the forced deportation of Italians, or those who died while trying to flee from these contested lands.
There is academic consensus that these attacks were state terrorism[2][21] and ethnic cleansing against local Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians),[1][2] including Italian anti-fascist militias and civilians.[5][22][23] Italian and German reports mention members of local fascist militias as the primary victims in 1943.[24] Among documented victims from Trieste in 1945, 80% were members of fascist and collaborationist forces, 97% were males, while of the 3% female victims at least half were Slovene.[25] Victims also included unarmed and uninvolved civilians, killed in a preventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of Titoism,[12] killed along with native anti-fascist autonomists — including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations, opposed to Yugoslav annexation, and leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull, who supported local independence from both Italy and Yugoslavia – resulting in the purge in the city of Fiume, where at least 650 were killed during and after the war by Yugoslav units, tried for war crimes before military courts.[26][27]
The estimated number of foibe victims is disputed, varying from hundreds to thousands,[28] according to some sources 11,000[16][17] or 20,000.[2] Many foibe victim lists are deficient, with repeated names, victims of fascist or German forces, victims killed in combat, or who were still alive or died in completely different circumstances.[29] Italians and Germans also used foibe to dispose of victims. Italian historian Raoul Pupo estimates 3,000 to 4,000 total victims, across all areas of former Yugoslavia and Italy from 1943 to 1945,[15] noting that estimates of 10,000 to 12,000 must also include those killed or missing in combat, and states victim numbers of 20,000 to 30,000 are "pure propaganda".[30] Historians note that it is difficult to determine the ethnicity of victims, since fascist authorities forcibly Italianized people's names,[29] however of documented victims from Italian-majority Trieste, at least 23% were either Slavs or had at least one Slavic parent.[25]
The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which was the post-World War II exodus and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March, lost by Italy after the Treaty of Paris (1947), as well as Dalmatia,[31] towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa.[32][33] According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians. A joint Italian-Slovene commission noted that the majority of the exodus happened in the early 1950s, more than five years after the massacres, when it was clear these parts would become permanently Yugoslav, and that the exodus had multiple causes, including war-caused economic hardship and general repressive policies in the immediate postwar years.[9]
The events were part of larger reprisals in which tens-of-thousands of Slavic collaborators of Axis forces were killed in the aftermath of WWII, following a brutal war in which some 800,000 Yugoslavs, the vast majority civilians, were killed by Axis occupation forces and collaborators, with Italian forces committing war crimes. Historians put the events in the context of broader postwar violence in Europe,[34] including in Italy, where the Italian resistance and others killed an estimated 12,000 to 26,000 Italians, usually in extrajudicial executions, the great majority in Northern Italy, just in April and May 1945,[13] while some 12 to 14.5 million ethnic Germans were expelled from Central and Eastern Europe, with a death toll of 500,000[35][36] to 2.5 million.[37][38][39]
Origin and meaning of the term
[edit]The name was derived from a local geological feature, a type of deep karst sinkhole called foiba.[41] The term includes by extension killings and "burials" in other subterranean formations, such as the Basovizza "foiba", which is a mine shaft.
In Italy the term foibe has, for some authors and scholars,[b] taken on a symbolic meaning; for them it refers in a broader sense to all the disappearances or killings of Italian people in the territories occupied by Yugoslav forces. According to author Raoul Pupo :[30]
It is well known that the majority of the victims didn't end their lives in a Karst cave, but met their deaths on the road to deportation, as well as in jails or in Yugoslav concentration camps.[c]
The terror spread by these disappearances and killings eventually caused the majority of the Italians of Istria, Fiume, and Zara to flee to other parts of Italy or the Free Territory of Trieste. Raoul Pupo wrote:
[...] the horrible death in a cave [...] became the very representation of a barbaric and obscure violence hanging over as a potential doom of an entire community. This is the image that settles in the memory of contemporaries, and become an obsession in moments of political and national uncertainty. This has the power to condition appreciably the choices of the people, such as the one by Istrians that decide to leave their lands assigned to Yugoslav sovereignty [...]
Background
[edit]From Roman era to early history
[edit]Roman Dalmatia was fully Latinized by 476 AD when the Western Roman Empire disappeared.[45] In the Early Middle Ages, the territory of the Byzantine province of Dalmatia reached in the North up to the river Sava, and was part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. In the middle of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th century began the Slavic migration, which caused the Romance-speaking population, descendants of Romans and Illyrians (speaking Dalmatian), to flee to the coast and islands.[46] The hinterland, semi-depopulated by the Barbarian Invasions, Slavic tribes settled. The Dalmatian cities retained their Romanic culture and language in cities such as Zadar, Split and Dubrovnik. Their own Vulgar Latin, developed into Dalmatian, a now extinct Romance language. These coastal cities (politically part of the Byzantine Empire) maintained political, cultural and economic links with Italy, through the Adriatic Sea. On the other side communications with the mainland were difficult because of the Dinaric Alps. Due to the sharp orography of Dalmatia, even communications between the different Dalmatian cities, occurred mainly through the sea. This helped Dalmatian cities to develop a unique Romance culture, despite the mostly Slavicized mainland.
Historian Theodor Mommsen wrote that Istria (included in the Regio X Venetia et Histria of Roman Italy since Augustus) was fully romanized in the 5th century AD.[47] Between 500 and 700 AD, Slavs settled in Southeastern Europe (Eastern Adriatic), and their number ever increased, and with the Ottoman invasion Slavs were pushed from the south and east.[48] This led to Italic people becoming ever more confined to urban areas, while some areas of the countryside were populated by Slavs, with exceptions in western and southern Istria which remained fully Romance-speaking.[49]
By the 11th century, most of the interior mountainous areas of northern and eastern Istria (Liburnia) were inhabited by South Slavs, while the Romance population continued to prevail in the south and west of the peninsula. Linguistically, the Romance inhabitants of Istria were most probably divided into two main linguistic groups: in the north-west, the speakers of a Rhaeto-Romance language similar to Ladin and Friulian prevailed, while in the south, the natives most probably spoke a variant of the Dalmatian language. One modern claim suggests the original language of the romanized Istrians survived the invasions, this being the Istriot language which was spoken by some near Pula.[50]
Via conquests, the Republic of Venice, between the 9th century and 1797, extended its dominion to coastal parts of Istria and Dalmatia.[51] Thus Venice invaded and attacked Zadar multiple times, especially devastating the city in 1202 when Venice used the crusaders, on their Fourth Crusade, to lay siege, then ransack, demolish and rob the city,[52] the population fleeing into countryside. Pope Innocent III excommunicated the Venetians and crusaders for attacking a Catholic city.[52] The Venetians used the same Crusade to attack the Dubrovnik Republic, and force it to pay tribute, then continued to sack Christian Orthodox Constantinople where they looted, terrorized, and vandalized the city, killing 2.000 civilians, raping nuns and destroying Christian Churches, with Venice receiving a big portion of the plundered treasures.
The coastal areas and cities of Istria came under Venetian Influence in the 9th century. In 1145, the cities of Pula, Koper and Izola rose against the Republic of Venice but were defeated, and were since further controlled by Venice.[53] On 15 February 1267, Poreč was formally incorporated with the Venetian state.[54] Other coastal towns followed shortly thereafter. The Republic of Venice gradually dominated the whole coastal area of western Istria and the area to Plomin on the eastern part of the peninsula.[53] Dalmatia was first and finally sold to the Republic of Venice in 1409 but Venetian Dalmatia was not fully consolidated from 1420.[55]
From the Middle Ages onwards, numbers of Slavic people near and on the Adriatic coast were ever increasing, due to their expanding population and due to pressure from the Ottomans pushing them from the south and east.[56][57] This led to Italic people becoming ever more confined to urban areas, while the countryside was populated by Slavs, with certain isolated exceptions.[58] In particular, the population was divided into urban-coastal communities (mainly Romance-speakers) and rural communities (mainly Slavic-speakers), with small minorities of Morlachs and Istro-Romanians.[59]
Republic of Venice influenced the neolatins of Istria and Dalmatia until 1797, when it was conquered by Napoleon: Capodistria and Pola were important centers of art and culture during the Italian Renaissance.[60] Istria and Dalmatia were then aggregated to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy in 1805, and annexed to the Illyrian Provinces in 1809 (for some years also the Republic of Ragusa was included, since 1808). From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in Istria and Dalmatia had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as "Istrians" and "Dalmatians", of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture.[61]
Austrian Empire
[edit]After the fall of Napoleon (1814), Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia were annexed to the Austrian Empire.[62] Many Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy.[63] However, after the Third Italian War of Independence (1866), when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy, Istria and Dalmatia remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the Julian March, Kvarner and Dalmatia with Italy. The Italians in Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, Kvarner and Dalmatia.[64]
During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:[65]
His Majesty expressed the precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in South Tyrol, Dalmatia and Littoral for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls the central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established.
In 1909 the Italian language lost its status as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian: thus Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.[67]
Istrian Italians were more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries,[68]while making up about a third of the population in 1900.[69] Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population (Dalmatian Italians), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803,[70][71] but this was reduced to 20% in 1816.[72] Bartoli's evaluation was followed by other claims that Auguste de Marmont, the French Governor General of the Napoleonic Illyrian Provinces commissioned a census in 1809 which found that Dalmatian Italians comprised 29% of the total population of Dalmatia. In Dalmatia, there was a constant decline in the Italian population, in a context of repression that also took on violent connotations.[73] During this period, Austrians carried out an aggressive anti-Italian policy through a forced Slavization of Dalmatia.[74] According to Austrian census, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865.[75] In the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria had a population of 57.8% Slavic-speakers (Croat and Slovene), and 38.1% Italian speakers.[76] For the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia, (i.e. Dalmatia), the 1910 numbers were 96.2% Slavic speakers and 2.8% Italian speakers.[77] In Rijeka the Italians were the relative majority in the municipality (48.61% in 1910), and in addition to the large Croatian community (25.95% in the same year), there was also a fair Hungarian minority (13.03%). According to the official Croatian census of 2011, there are 2,445 Italians in Rijeka (equal to 1.9% of the total population).[78]
The Italian population in Dalmatia was concentrated in the major coastal cities. In the city of Split in 1890 there were 1,969 Dalmatian Italians (12.5% of the population), in Zadar 7,423 (64.6%), in Šibenik 1,018 (14.5%), in Kotor 623 (18.7%) and in Dubrovnik 331 (4.6%).[79] In other Dalmatian localities, according to Austrian censuses, Dalmatian Italians experienced a sudden decrease: in the twenty years 1890–1910, in Rab they went from 225 to 151, in Vis from 352 to 92, in Pag from 787 to 23, completely disappearing in almost all the inland locations.
In 1905, a dispute arose in the Austrian Imperial Council over whether Austria should pay for Dalmatia. It has been argued that in the conclusion of the April Laws is written "given by Banus Count Keglevich of Bužim", which explained the historical affiliation of Dalmatia to Hungary.[80] Two years later Dalmatia elected representatives to the Austrian Imperial Council. In 1909, the Italian language lost its status as the official language of Dalmatia in favor of Croatian only; previously, both languages were recognized. Thus, Italian could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.[81]
World War I and its aftermath
[edit]In 1915, Italy abrogated its alliance and declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire,[82] leading to bloody conflict mainly on the Isonzo and Piave fronts. Britain, France and Russia had been "keen to bring neutral Italy into World War I on their side. However, Italy drove a hard bargain, demanding extensive territorial concessions once the war had been won".[83] In a deal to bring Italy into the war, under the London Pact, Italy would be allowed to annex not only Italian-speaking Trentino and Trieste, but also German-speaking South Tyrol, Istria (which included large non-Italian communities), and the northern part of Dalmatia including the areas of Zadar (Zara) and Šibenik (Sebenico). Mainly Italian Fiume (present-day Rijeka) was excluded.[83]
Dalmatia was a strategic region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria-Hungary. Italy joined the Triple Entente Allies in 1915 upon agreeing to the Treaty of London that guaranteed Italy the right to annex a large portion of Dalmatia in exchange for Italy's participation on the Allied side. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached Vis, Lastovo, Šibenik, and other localities on the Dalmatian coast.[84] By the end of hostilities in November 1918, the Italian military had seized control of the entire portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the Treaty of London and by 17 November had seized Rijeka as well creating the first Governorate of Dalmatia.[85] In 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy's Governor of Dalmatia.[85] Famous Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio supported the seizure of Dalmatia, and proceeded to Zadar in an Italian warship in December 1918.[86] However, in spite of the guarantees of the Treaty of London to Italy of a large portion of Dalmatia and Italian military occupation of claimed territories of Dalmatia, during the peace settlement negotiations of 1919 to 1920, the Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson that advocated self-determination of nations took precedence, with Italy only being permitted to annex Zadar from Dalmatia, while the rest of Dalmatia was to be part of Yugoslavia.
At the end of World War I, the Austrian Empire disintegrated, and Dalmatia was again split between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) which controlled most of it, and the Kingdom of Italy which held small portions of northern Dalmatia around Zadar and the islands of Cres, Lošinj, and Lastovo. Italy entered World War I in a territorial gamble, mostly to gain Dalmatia. But Italy got only a small part of its pretensions, so Dalmatia mostly stayed Yugoslav.
Despite the fact that there were only a few thousand Italian-speakers in Dalmatia[87] after the constant decrease that occurred in previous decades, Italian irredentists continued to lay claim to all of Dalmatia. In 1927 Italy signed an agreement with the Croatian fascist, terrorist Ustaše organization. The Ustaše agreed that once they gained power, they will cede to Italy additional territory in Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor, while renouncing all Croatian claims to Istria, Rijeka, Zadar and the Adriatic Islands.[88]
Between 31 December 1910 and 1 December 1921, Istria lost 15.1% of its population. The last survey under the Austrian empire recorded 404,309 inhabitants, which dropped to 343,401 by the first Italian census after the war.[89] While the decrease was certainly related to World War I and the changes in political administration, emigration also was a major factor. In the immediate post-World War I period, Istria saw an intense migration outflow. Pula, for example, was badly affected by the drastic dismantling of its massive Austrian military and bureaucratic apparatus of more than 20,000 soldiers and security forces, as well as the dismissal of the employees from its naval shipyard. A serious economic crisis in the rest of Italy forced thousands of Croat peasants to move to Yugoslavia, which became the main destination of the Istrian exodus.[89]
In 1922, the territory of the former Kingdom of Dalmatia was divided into two provinces, the Oblast of Split and the Oblast of Dubrovnik. In 1929, the Littoral Banovina, a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was formed. Its capital was Split, and it included most of Dalmatia and parts of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. The southern parts of Dalmatia were in Zeta Banovina, from the Bay of Kotor to Pelješac peninsula including Dubrovnik. In 1939, Littoral Banovina was joined with Sava Banovina (and with smaller parts of other banovinas) to form a new province named the Banovina of Croatia. The same year, the ethnic Croatian areas of the Zeta Banovina from the Bay of Kotor to Pelješac, including Dubrovnik, were merged with a new Banovina of Croatia.
Due to a lack of reliable statistics, the true magnitude of Istrian emigration during that period cannot be assessed accurately. Estimates provided by varying sources with different research methods show that about 30,000 Istrians migrated between 1918 and 1921.[89] Most of them were Austrians, Hungarians and Slavic citizens who used to work for the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[90]
Slavs under Italian Fascist rule
[edit]After World War I, under the Treaty of Rapallo between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and the Kingdom of Italy (12 November 1920), Italy obtained almost all of Istria with Trieste, the exception being the island of Krk and part of Kastav commune, which went to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. By the Treaty of Rome (27 January 1924) Italy took Rijeka as well, which had been planned to become an independent state.
In these areas, there was a forced policy of Italianization of the population in the 1920s and 1930s.[91] In addition, there were acts of fascist violence not hampered by the authorities, such as the torching of the Narodni dom (National House) in Pula and Trieste carried out at night by Fascists with the connivance of the police (13 July 1920). The situation deteriorated further after the annexation of the Julian March, especially after Benito Mussolini came to power (1922). In March 1923 the prefect of the Julian March prohibited the use of Croatian and Slovene in the administration, whilst their use in law courts was forbidden by Royal decree on 15 October 1925.
The activities of Croatian and Slovenian societies and associations (Sokol, reading rooms, etc.) had already been forbidden during the occupation, but specifically so later with the Law on Associations (1925), the Law on Public Demonstrations (1926) and the Law on Public Order (1926). All Slovenian and Croatian societies and sporting and cultural associations had to cease every activity in line with a decision of provincial fascist secretaries dated 12 June 1927. On a specific order from the prefect of Trieste on 19 November 1928 the Edinost political society was also dissolved. Croatian and Slovenian co-operatives in Istria, which at first were absorbed by the Pula or Trieste Savings Banks, were gradually liquidated.[92]
At the same time, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia attempted a policy of forced Croatisation against the Italian minority in Dalmatia.[93] The majority of the Italian Dalmatian minority decided to transfer in the Kingdom of Italy.[94]
World War II
[edit]During World War II, in 1941, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria occupied Yugoslavia, redrawing their borders to include former parts of the Yugoslavian state. A new Nazi puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), was created. With the Treaties of Rome, the NDH agreed to cede to Italy Dalmatian territory, creating the second Governorate of Dalmatia, from north of Zadar to south of Split, with inland areas, plus nearly all the Adriatic islands and Gorski Kotar. Italy then annexed these territories, while all the remainder of southern Croatia, including the entire coast, were placed under Italian occupation. Italy also appointed an Italian, Prince Aimone, Duke of Aosta, as king of Croatia.[96]
Italy proceeded to Italianize the annexed areas of Dalmatia.[97] Place names were Italianized, and Italian was made the official language in all schools, churches and government administration.[97] All Croatian cultural societies were banned, while Italians took control of all key mineral, industrial and business establishments.[97] Italian policies prompted resistance by Dalmatians, many joined the Partisans.[98] This led to further Italian repressive measures - shooting of civilian hostages, burning of villages, confiscation of properties. Italians took many civilians to concentration camps[98] - altogether, some 80,000 Dalmatians, 12% of the population, passed through Italian concentration camps.[99]
Many Croats moved from the Italian-occupied area and took refuge in the satellite state of Croatia, which became the battleground for a guerrilla war between the Axis and the Yugoslav Partisans. Following the surrender of Italy in 1943, much of Italian-controlled Dalmatia was liberated by the Partisans, then taken over by German forces in a brutal campaign, who then returned control to the puppet Independent State of Croatia. Vis Island remained in Partisan hands, while Zadar, Rijeka, Istria, Cres, Lošinj, Lastovo and Palagruža became part of the German Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland. The Partisans took Dalmatia in 1944, and with that Zadar, Rijeka, Istria, Cres, Lošinj, Lastovo and Palagruža became reunited with Croatia. After 1945, most of the remaining Dalmatian Italians fled the region (350,000 Italians escaped from Istria and Dalmatia in the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus). Currently there are only 300 Dalmatian Italians in the Croatian Dalmatia and 500 Dalmatian Italians in coastal Montenegro. After World War II, Dalmatia became part of the People's Republic of Croatia, part of the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia.
The territory of the former Kingdom of Dalmatia was divided between two federal republics of Yugoslavia and most of the territory went to Croatia, leaving only the Bay of Kotor to Montenegro. When Yugoslavia dissolved in 1991, those borders were retained and remain in force. During the Croatian War of Independence, most of Dalmatia was a battleground between the Government of Croatia and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), which aided the proto-state of Serbian Krajina, with much of the northern part of the region around Knin and the far south around, but not including, Dubrovnik being placed under the control of Serb forces. Croatia did regain the southern territories in 1992 but did not regain the north until Operation Storm in 1995. After the war, a number of towns and municipalities in the region were designated Areas of Special State Concern.
After armistice and after the end of the war
[edit]The massacres occurred in two waves, the first taking places in the interlude between the Armistice of Cassibile and the German occupation of Istria in September 1943, and the second after the Yugoslav occupation of the region in May 1945. Victims of the first wave numbered in the hundreds, whereas those of the second wave in the thousands. The first wave of killings is widely regarded as a disorganized, spontaneous series of revenge killings by Slovenes and Croats after twenty years of Fascist oppression, as well as "jacquerie" against Italian landowners and more broadly the Italian elite in the region; these killings targeted members of the Fascist Party, their relatives (as in the famous case of Norma Cossetto), Italian landowners, policemen and civil servants of all ranks, considered as symbols of Italian oppression. The scope and nature of the second wave is much more disputed; Slovene and Croat historians, as well as Italian historians such as Alessandra Kersevan and Claudia Cernigoi, characterize it as another wave of revenge killings against Fascist collaborators and members of the armed forces of the Italian Social Republic, whereas Italian historians such as Raoul Pupo, Gianni Oliva and Roberto Spazzali argue that this was the result of a deliberate Titoist policy aimed at spreading terror among the Italian population of the region and eliminating anyone who opposed Yugoslav plans of annexing Istria and the Julian March, including anti-Fascists.[14][43] After the re-occupation of Istria by Axis forces in September 1943, following the first wave of killings, the fire brigade of Pola, under the command of Arnaldo Harzarich, recovered 204 bodies from the foibe of the region. Between 1945 and 1948, Italian authorities recovered a total 369 corpses from foibe in the Italian-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste (Zone A), and another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area; these included also bodies of German soldiers killed in the closing days of the war and hastily buried in these cavities. Foibe located in the Yugoslav-controlled part of the Free Territory of Trieste, as well as in the rest of Istria, were never searched as this territory was now under Yugolav control.[100]
Great controversy has surrounded the foiba of Basovizza, one of the most famous foibe (and unlikely called as such, as it was not a natural foiba but a disused mine shaft). Newspaper reports from the postwar era claimed anywhere from 18 to 3,000 victims in this foiba alone, but Trieste authorities refused to fully excavate it, citing financial constraints. At the end of the war, local villagers had thrown the bodies of dead German soldiers (killed in a battle fought in the vicinity in the closing days of the war) and horses into the mine shaft, which after the war had also been used as a garbage dump by the authorities of the Free Territory of Trieste.[101] After the war the Basovizza foibe was used by the Italian authorities as a garbage dump. Thus no Italian victims were ever recovered or determined at Basovizza. In 1959 the pit was sealed and a monument erected, which later became the central site for the annual foibe commemorations.[101]
At the Plutone foibe near Bazovizza, members of the Trieste Steffe criminal gang killed 18 people. For this the leader of the gang, Giovanni Steffe, and three others were arrested by the Yugoslav forces. Steffe and Carlo Mazzoni were killed by the Yugoslav forces while trying to escape. Three members of the gang, all from Trieste, were later convicted by Italian courts to 2 to 5 years in jail for the killings.[102] Altogether some 70 trials were held in Italy from 1946 to 1949 for the killings, some ending in acquittals or amnesties, others with heavy sentences.
In 1947, British envoy W. J. Sullivan wrote of Italians arrested and deported by Yugoslav forces from around Trieste:
there is little doubt, while some of the persons deported may have been innocent, others were undoubtedly active fascists with more than mere party memberships on their conscience. Some of these have returned to Trieste but have kept well out of the Allied authorities, not participating in enquiries about the deportations for fear of arrest and trial 'for their former fascist activities'.
Alongside a large number of Fascists, however, among those killed were also anti-Fascists who opposed the Yugoslav annexation of the region, such as Socialist Licurgo Olivi and Action Party leader Augusto Sverzutti, members of the Committee of National Liberation of Gorizia; in Trieste, the same fate befell Resistance leaders Romano Meneghello (posthumously awarded a Silver Medal of Military Valor for his Resistance activities) and Carlo Dell'Antonio. In Fiume (where at least 652 Italians were killed or disappeared between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947, according to a joint Italian-Croat study), Autonomist Party leaders Mario Blasich, Joseph Sincich and Nevio Skull were among those executed by the Yugoslavs soon after the occupation, as was anti-Fascist and Dachau survivor Angelo Adam. Priests were also targeted by the new Yugoslav Communist authorities, as in the case of Francesco Bonifacio. Out of 1,048 people who were arrested and executed by the Yugoslavs in the province of Gorizia in May 1945, according to a list drafted by a joint Italian-Slovene commission in 2006, 470 were members of the military or police forces of the Italian Social Republic, 110 were Slovene civilians accused of collaborationism, and 320 were Italian civilians.[103][14][43][104]
The foibe massacres ethnic cleansing, mass killings and deportations both during and immediately after World War II, mainly committed by Yugoslav Partisans and OZNA in the then-Italian territories[d] of Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner and Dalmatia, against local Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians)[1][2] and Slavs, primarily members of fascist and collaborationist forces, and civilians opposed to the new Yugoslav authorities,[10][3][5] and Italian, German, Croat and Slovene anti-communists against the regime of Josip Broz Tito, presumed to be associated with fascism, Nazism, collaboration with Axis[2][11] and reventive purge of real, potential or presumed opponents of Titoism[12]
The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which was the post-World War II expulsion and departure of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) from the Yugoslav territory of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March, lost by Italy after the Treaty of Paris (1947), as well as Dalmatia,[31] towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa.[32][33] According to various sources, the exodus is estimated to have amounted to between 230,000 and 350,000 Italians leaving the areas in the aftermath of the conflict.[105] From 1947, after the war, Italians were subject by Yugoslav authorities to less violent forms of intimidation, such as nationalization, expropriation, and discriminatory taxation,[106] which gave them little option other than emigration.[107][108][109] According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).[110][111]
The remaining Italians
[edit]According to the census organized in Croatia in 2001 and that organized in Slovenia in 2002, the Italians who remained in the former Yugoslavia amounted to 21,894 people (2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia).[112][113] The number of speakers of Italian is larger if taking into account non-Italians who speak it as a second language.
In addition, since the dissolution of Yugoslavia, a significant portion of the population of Istria opted for a regional declaration in the census instead of a national one. As such, more people have Italian as a first language than those having declared Italian.
In 2001, about 500 Dalmatian Italians were counted in Dalmatia. In particular, according to the official Croatian census of 2011, there are 83 Dalmatian Italians in Split (equal to 0.05% of the total population), 16 in Šibenik (0.03%) and 27 in Dubrovnik (0.06%).[114] According to the official Croatian census of 2021, there are 63 Dalmatian Italians in Zadar (equal to 0.09% of the total population).[115] According to the official Montenegrin census of 2011, there are 31 Dalmatian Italians in Kotor (equal to 0.14% of the total population).[116]
The number of people resident in Croatia declaring themselves Italian almost doubled between 1981 and 1991 censuses (i.e. before and after the dissolution of Yugoslavia).[117] The daily newspaper La Voce del Popolo, the main newspaper for Italians of Croatia, is published in Rijeka/Fiume.
Official bilingualism
[edit]Italian is co-official with Slovene in four municipalities in the Slovenian portion of Istria: Piran (Italian: Pirano), Koper (Italian: Capodistria), Izola (Italian: Isola d'Istria) and Ankaran (Italian: Ancarano). In many municipalities in the Croatian portion of Istria there are bilingual statutes, and the Italian language is considered to be a co-official language. The proposal to raise Italian to a co-official language, as in the Croatian portion of Istria, has been under discussion for years.
By recognizing and respecting its cultural and historical legacy, the City of Rijeka ensures the use of its language and writing to the Italian indigenous national minority in public affairs relating to the sphere of self-government of the City of Rijeka. The City of Fiume, within the scope of its possibilities, ensures and supports the educational and cultural activity of the members of the indigenous Italian minority and its institutions.[118]
In various municipalities of Croatian Istria, census data shows that significant numbers of Italians still live in Istria, such as 51% of the population of Grožnjan/Grisignana, 37% at Brtonigla/Verteneglio, and nearly 30% in Buje/Buie.[119] In the village there, it is an important section of the "Comunità degli Italiani" in Croatia.[120] Italian is co-official with Croatian in nineteen municipalities in the Croatian portion of Istria: Buje (Italian: Buie), Novigrad (Italian: Cittanova), Izola (Italian: Isola d'Istria), Vodnjan (Italian: Dignano), Poreč (Italian: Parenzo), Pula (Italian: Pola), Rovinj (Italian: Rovigno), Umag (Italian: Umago), Bale (Italian: Valle d'Istria), Brtonigla (Italian: Verteneglio), Fažana (Italian: Fasana), Grožnjan (Italian: Grisignana), Kaštelir-Labinci (Italian: Castellier-Santa Domenica), Ližnjan (Italian: Lisignano), Motovun (Italian: Montona), Oprtalj (Italian: Portole), Višnjan (Italian: Visignano), Vižinada (Italian: Visinada) and Vrsar (Italian: Orsera).[121]
Education and Italian language
[edit]Slovenia
[edit]Beside Slovene language schools, there are also kindergartens, primary schools, lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools with Italian as the language of instruction in Koper/Capodistria, Izola/Isola and Piran/Pirano. At the state-owned University of Primorska, however, which is also established in the bilingual area, Slovene is the only language of instruction (although the official name of the university includes the Italian version, too).
Croatia
[edit]Beside Croat language schools, in Istria there are also kindergartens in Buje/Buie, Brtonigla/Verteneglio, Novigrad/Cittanova, Umag/Umago, Poreč/Parenzo, Vrsar/Orsera, Rovinj/Rovigno, Bale/Valle, Vodnjan/Dignano, Pula/Pola and Labin/Albona, as well as primary schools in Buje/Buie, Brtonigla/Verteneglio, Novigrad/Cittanova, Umag/Umago, Poreč/Parenzo, Vodnjan/Dignano, Rovinj/Rovigno, Bale/Valle and Pula/Pola, as well as lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools in Buje/Buie, Rovinj/Rovigno and Pula/Pola, all with Italian as the language of instruction.
The city of Rijeka/Fiume in the Kvarner/Carnaro region has Italian kindergartens and elementary schools, and there is an Italian Secondary School in Rijeka.[122] The town of Mali Lošinj/Lussinpiccolo in the Kvarner/Carnaro region has an Italian kindergarten.
In Zadar, in Dalmatia/Dalmazia region, the local Community of Italians has requested the creation of an Italian asylum since 2009. After considerable government opposition,[123][124] with the imposition of a national filter that imposed the obligation to possess Italian citizenship for registration, in the end in 2013, it was opened hosting the first 25 children.[125] This kindergarten is the first Italian educational institution opened in Dalmatia after the closure of the last Italian school, which operated there until 1953.
Since 2017, a Croatian primary school has been offering the study of the Italian language as a foreign language. Italian courses have also been activated in a secondary school and at the faculty of literature and philosophy.[126]
Number of victims
[edit]The number of those killed or left in foibe during and after the war is still unknown; it is difficult to establish and a matter of controversy. Estimates range from hundreds to twenty thousand. According to data gathered by a joint Slovene–Italian historical commission established in 1993, "the violence was further manifested in hundreds of summary executions—victims were mostly thrown into the Karst chasms (foibe)—and in the deportation of a great number of soldiers and civilians, who either wasted away or were killed during the deportation".[12]
Historians Raoul Pupo and Roberto Spazzali have estimated the total number of victims at about 5,000, and note that the targets were not "Italians", but military and repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime.[30] More recently, Pupo has revised the total victims estimates to 3,000 to 4,000.[15] Italian historian Guido Rumici estimated the number of Italians executed, or died in Yugoslav concentration camps, as between 6,000 and 11,000,[16] while Mario Pacor estimated that after the armistice about 400 to 500 people were killed in the foibe and about 4,000 were deported, many of whom were later executed. Other sources claim 20,000 victims.[2]
It was not possible to extract all the corpses from the foibe, some of which are deeper than several hundred meters; some sources are attempting to compile lists of locations and possible victim numbers.[127] Between October and December 1943, the fire brigade of Pola, helped by mine workers, recovered a total of 159 victims of the first wave of mass killings from the foibe of Vines (84 bodies), Terli (26 bodies), Treghelizza (2 bodies), Pucicchi (11 bodies), Villa Surani (26 bodies), Cregli (8 bodies) and Carnizza d'Arsia (2 bodies); another 44 corpses were recovered in the same period from two bauxite mines in Lindaro and Villa Bassotti.[128][100] More bodies were sighted, but not recovered.[128][100]
The most famous Basovizza foiba, was investigated by English and American forces, starting immediately on 12 June 1945. After 5 months of investigation and digging, all they found in the foiba were the remains of 150 German soldiers and one civilian killed in the final battles for Basovizza on 29–30 April 1945.[129] The Italian mayor, Gianni Bartoli continued with investigations and digging until 1954, with speleologists entering the cave multiple time, yet they found nothing.[129] Between November 1945 and April 1948, firefighters, speleologists and policemen inspected foibe and mine shafts in the "Zone A" of the Free Territory of Trieste (mainly consisting in the surroundings of Trieste), where they recovered 369 corpses; another 95 were recovered from mass graves in the same area. At the time, no inspections were carried out either in the Yugoslav-controlled "Zone B", or in the rest of Istria.[100]
Other foibe and mass graves were investigated in more recently in Istria and elsewhere in Slovenia and Croatia; for instance, human remains were discovered in the Idrijski Log foiba near Idrija, Slovenia, in 1998; four skeletons were found in the foiba of Plahuti near Opatija in 2002; in the same year, a mass grave containing the remains of 52 Italians and 15 Germans, most likely all military, was discovered in Slovenia, not far from Gorizia; in 2005, the remains of about 130 people killed between the 1940s and the 1950s were recovered from four foibe located in northeastern Istria.[130][131][132][133][134]
Investigations
[edit]After the war, inspector Umberto de Giorgi, who was State Police marshal under fascist and Nazi rule, led the Foibe Exploration Team. Between 1945 and 1948 they investigated 71 foibe locations on the Italian side of the border. 23 of these were empty, in the rest they discovered some 464 corpses. These included soldiers killed during the last battles of the war. Among the 246 identified corpses, more than 200 were military (German, Italian, other), and some 40 were civilians, of the latter, 30 killed after the war.[135]
Due to claims of hundreds having been killed and tossed into the Basovizza mineshaft, in August–October 1945 British military authorities investigated the shaft, ultimately recovering 9 German soldiers, 1 civilian and a few horse cadavers.[136] Based on these results the British suspended excavations. Afterwards the city of Trieste used the mineshaft as a garbage dump. Despite repeat demands from various right-wing groups to further excavate the shaft,[137] the government of Trieste, led by the Christian Democratic mayor Gianni Bartoli, declined to do so, claiming among other reasons, lack of financial resources.[137] In 1959 the shaft was sealed and a monument erected, thus becoming the center of the annual foibe commemorations.
Only a few trials were held, including that of the Trieste Zoll-Steffe criminal gang, for the killing of 18 people in the Plutone foibe in May 1945. Afterwards, Yugoslav authorities arrested the gang members and took them to Ljubljana, with two killed along the way while trying to escape, and the others convicted before a military tribunal.[138][139] Additional members of the gang were brought before an Italian court in Trieste 1947, and were convicted and sentenced to prison for 2–3 years for their role in the Plutone killings.[139]
In 1949 a trial was held in Trieste for those accused of killing Mario Fabian, a torturer in the "Collotti gang", a fascist squad that during the war killed and tortured Slovene and Italian antifascists, and Jews.[140][141] Fabian was taken from his home on 4 May 1945, then shot and tossed into the Basovizza shaft. He is the only known Italian victim of Basovizza. His executioners were at first condemned, but later acquitted. The historian Pirjevec notes that the head of the gang, Gaetano Collotti, was awarded a medal by the Italian government in 1954, for fighting Slovene partisans in 1943, despite the fact that Collotti and his gang had committed many crimes while working for the Gestapo, and was killed by Italian partisans near Treviso in 1945.[140]
In 1993 a study titled Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945[142] by Gaetano La Perna provided a detailed list of the victims of Yugoslav occupation (in September–October 1943 and from 1944 to the very end of the Italian presence in its former provinces) in the area. La Perna gave a list of 6,335 names (2,493 military, 3,842 civilians). The author considered this list "not complete".[143]
A 2002 joint report by Rome's Society of Fiuman studies (Società di Studi Fiumani) and Zagreb's Croatian Institute of History (Hrvatski institut za povijest) concluded that from Fiume and the surrounding area "no less than 500 persons of Italian nationality lost their lives between 3 May 1945 and 31 December 1947. To these we should add an unknown number of 'missing' (not less than a hundred) relegated into anonymity due to missing inventory in the Municipal Registries together with the relevant number of victims having ... Croatian nationality (who were often, at least between 1940 and 1943, Italian citizens) determined after the end of war by the Yugoslav communist regime."[144]
In March 2006, the border municipality of Nova Gorica in Slovenia released a list of names of 1,048 citizens of the Italian city of Gorizia (the two cities belonged until the Treaty of Paris of 1947 to the same administrative body) who disappeared in May 1945 after being arrested by the Partisan 9th Corps.[145] According to the Slovene government, "the list contains the names of persons arrested in May 1945 and whose destiny cannot be determined with certainty or whose death cannot be confirmed".[146]
Alleged motives
[edit]It has been alleged that the killings were part of a purge aimed at eliminating potential enemies of communist Yugoslav rule, which would have included members of German and Italian fascist units, Italian officers and civil servants, parts of the Italian elite who opposed both communism and fascism (including the leadership of Italian anti-fascist partisan organizations and the leaders of Fiume's Autonomist Party, including Mario Blasich and Nevio Skull), Slovenian and Croatian anti-communists, collaborators, and radical nationalists.[23]
Pupo claims that the primary targets of the purges were repressive forces of the Fascist regime, and civilians associated with the regime, including Slavic collaborators, thus:
With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.[e]
Since Yugoslav troops did not behave like an occupying army,[f] this partly contradicts the numerous academic authors and institutional figures — both in Italy and abroad — who recognized an ethnic cleansing against local Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians).[1][2]
Another reason for the killings was retribution for the years of Italian repression, forced Italianization, suppression of Slavic sentiments and killings performed by Italian authorities during the war, not just in the concentration camps (such as Rab and Gonars), but also in reprisals often undertaken by the fascists.[147]
According to Fogar and Miccoli there is
the need to put the episodes in 1943 and 1945 within [the context of] a longer history of abuse and violence, which began with Fascism and with its policy of oppression of the minority Slovenes and Croats and continued with the Italian aggression on Yugoslavia, which culminated with the horrors of the Nazi-Fascist repression against the Partisan movement.[g]
Gaia Baracetti notes that some representations of foibe, such as a miniseries on Italian television, are replete with historical inaccuracies and stereotypes, portraying Slavs as "merciless assassins", similar to fascist propaganda, while "largely ignoring the issue of Italian war crimes".[148] Others, including members of Italy's Jewish community, have objected to Italian right-wing efforts to equate the foibe with the Holocaust, via historical distortions which include exaggerated foibe victim claims, in an attempt to turn Italy from a perpetrator in the Holocaust, to a victim.[149] Other authors assert that the post-war pursuit of the 'truth' of the foibe, as a means of transcending Fascist/Anti-Fascist oppositions and promoting popular patriotism, has not been the preserve of right-wing or neo-Fascist groups. Evocations of the 'Slav other' and of the terrors of the foibe made by state institutions, academics, amateur historians, journalists, and the memorial landscape of everyday life were the backdrop to the post-war renegotiation of Italian national identity.[150]
Pamela Ballinger in her book, History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans, wrote:[151]
I heard exiles' accounts of "Slavic barbarity" and "ethnic cleansing," suffered in Istria between 1943 and 1954, as well as Slovene and Croat narratives of the persecution experienced under the fascist state and at the hands of neofascists in the postwar period. Admittedly, I could not forget—as many exiles seemed to do—that the exodus from Istria followed on twenty years of the fascistization and Italianization of Istria, as well as a bloody Italian military campaign in Yugoslavia between 1941 and 1943. Nor could I countenance some exiles' frequent expressions of anti-Slav chauvinism. At the same time, however, I could not accept at face value the claim by some that the violence the Slavs suffered under fascism justified subsequent events in Istria or that all those who left Istria were compromised by fascism. Similarly, I came to reject the argument that ethno-national antagonism had not entered into the equation, as well as the counterview that the exodus represented simply an act of "ethnic cleansing".
An Italian-Slovene commission, namely the Slovenian-Italian historical-cultural commission (Slovene: Slovensko-italijanske zgodovinsko-kulturne komisije), wrote in its 2000 report that the Italian exodus had multiple causes.[12]
The report by the mixed Italian-Slovenian commission describes the circumstances of the 1945 killings as follows:[12]
14. These events were triggered by the atmosphere of settling accounts with the fascist violence; but, as it seems, they mostly proceeded from a preliminary plan which included several tendencies: endeavours to remove persons and structures who were in one way or another (regardless of their personal responsibility) linked with Fascism, with Nazi supremacy, with collaboration and with the Italian state, and endeavours to carry out preventive cleansing of real, potential or only alleged opponents of the communist regime, and the annexation of the Julian March to the new Yugoslavia. The initial impulse was instigated by the revolutionary movement which was changed into a political regime, and transformed the charge of national and ideological intolerance between the partisans into violence at national level.
Following the war the Yugoslav government pursued a policy of "Slav-Italian brotherhood" and Italian workers came to Yugoslavia to help with rebuilding. Relations worsened in 1948 when Yugoslavia broke with Stalin, while the Italian Communist Party supported the Soviet Union. Border disputes, postwar economic deprivations and the initial totalitarian nature of the Yugoslav government, made life difficult for all. All this led to what was until then a limited exodus, to much broader exodus following 1950.[12] The commission was re-established in 2007 with the official name of Mixed Italian-Slovene Commission for the Maintenance of the State Border.[9]
Post-War
[edit]The foibe have been a neglected subject in mainstream political debate in Italy, Yugoslavia and former-Yugoslav nations, only recently garnering attention with the publication of several books and historical studies. It is thought that after World War II, while Yugoslav politicians rejected any alleged crime, Italian politicians wanted to direct the country's attention toward the future and away from the idea that Italy was, in fact, a defeated nation.[152]
So, the Italian government tactically "exchanged" the impunity of the Italians accused by Yugoslavia for the renunciation to investigate the foibe massacres.[153] Italy never extradited or prosecuted some 1,200 Italian Army officers, government officials or former Fascist Party members accused of war crimes by Yugoslavia, Ethiopia, Greece and other occupied countries and remitted to the United Nations War Crimes Commission.[154] On the other hand, Belgrade didn't insist overmuch on requesting the prosecution of alleged Italian war criminals.[155]
Re-emergence of the issue
[edit]These killings were the beginning of organized against local Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians). Silvio Berlusconi's coalition government brought the issue back into open discussion. The Italian Parliament (with the support of the vast majority of the represented parties) made 10 February National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe, first celebrated in 2005 with exhibitions and observances throughout Italy (especially in Trieste). The occasion is held in memory of innocents killed and forced to leave their homes, with little support from their home country. In Carlo Azeglio Ciampi's words: "Time has come for thoughtful remembrance to take the place of bitter resentment." Moreover, for the first time, leaders from the Italian left, such as Walter Veltroni, visited the Basovizza foiba and admitted the culpability of the Left in covering up the subject for decades.
Nowadays, a large part of the Italian left acknowledges the nature of the foibe massacres, as attested by some declarations of Luigi Malabarba, senator for the Communist Refoundation Party, during the parliamentary debate on the institution of the National Memorial Day:[156]
In 1945 there was a ruthless policy of exterminating opponents. Here, one must again recall Stalinism to understand what Tito's well-organized troops did. ... Yugoslav Communism had deeply assimilated a return to nationalism that was inherent to the idea of 'Socialism in One Country'. ... The war, which had begun as anti-fascist, became anti-German and anti-Italian.
Italian president Giorgio Napolitano took an official speech during celebration of the "Memorial Day of Foibe Massacres and Istrian-Dalmatian exodus" in which he stated:[157]
... already in the unleashing of the first wave of blind and extreme violence in those lands, in the autumn of 1943, summary and tumultuous justicialism, nationalist paroxysm, social retaliation and a plan to eradicate Italian presence intertwined in what was, and ceased to be, the Julian March. There was therefore a movement of hate and bloodthirsty fury, and a Slavic annexationist design, which prevailed above all in the peace treaty of 1947, and assumed the sinister shape of "ethnic cleansing". What we can say for sure is that what was achieved – in the most evident way through the inhuman ferocity of the foibe – was one of the barbarities of the past century.
— Italian president Giorgio Napolitano, Rome, 10 February 2007[158]
The Croatian President Stipe Mesić immediately responded in writing, stating that:
It was impossible not to see overt elements of racism, historical revisionism and a desire for political revenge in Napolitano's words. ... Modern Europe was built on foundations ... of which anti-fascism was one of the most important.
The incident was resolved in a few days after diplomatic contacts between the two presidents at the Italian foreign ministry. On 14 February, the Office of the President of Croatia issued a press statement:
The Croatian representative was assured that president Napolitano's speech on the occasion of the remembrance day for Italian WWII victims was in no way intended to cause a controversy regarding Croatia, nor to question the 1947 peace treaties or the Osimo and Rome Accords, nor was it inspired by revanchism or historical revisionism. ... The explanations were accepted with understanding and they have contributed to overcoming misunderstandings caused by the speech.
— Press statement by the Office of the President of Croatia, Zagreb, 14 February 2007.[161]
In Italy, Law 92 of 30 March 2004[162] declared 10 February as a Day of Remembrance dedicated to the memory of the victims of Foibe and the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus. The same law created a special medal to be awarded to relatives of the victims:
In February 2012, a photo of Italian troops killing Slovene civilians was shown on public Italian TV as if being the other way round. When historian Alessandra Kersevan, who was a guest, pointed out to the television host Bruno Vespa that the photo depicted the killings of some Slovenes rather than Italians, the host did not apologize. A diplomatic protest followed.[163][164]
In the media
[edit]- Il Cuore nel Pozzo, a 2005 TV movie focusing on the escape of a group of children from Tito's partisans.
- Red Land (Rosso Istria) , a 2018 film directed by Maximiliano Hernando Bruno and starring Geraldine Chaplin, Sandra Ceccarelli, and Franco Nero.
Note: Many books have been written about the foibe, and results, interpretations and estimates of victims can in some cases vary largely according to the point of view of the author. Since most of the foibe currently lie outside Italian territory, no formal and complete investigation could be carried out during the years of the Cold War, and books could be of a speculative or anecdotal nature. For a complete list, see § Bibliography and § Further reading.
See also
[edit]- Istrian-Dalmatian exodus
- National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe
- World War II in Yugoslavia
- Carso
- Norma Cossetto
- Francesco Bonifacio
- Mass killings under communist regimes
Notes and references
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the Treaty of Peace (1947).
- ^ See Raoul Pupo,[14][42][30] Gianni Oliva,[43] Arrigo Petacco[44] et alia.
- ^ Italian: È noto infatti che la maggior parte delle vittime non finì i suoi giorni sul fondo delle cavità carsiche, ma incontrò la morte lungo la strada verso la deportazione, ovvero nelle carceri o nei campi di concentramento jugoslavi.[30]
- ^ Successively lost by Italy to Yugoslavia after the Treaty of Peace (1947).
- ^ English: With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.[30]
- ^ English: With regard to the civilian population of Venezia Giulia the Yugoslav troops did not behave at all like an army occupying enemy territory: nothing in their actions recalls the indiscriminate violence of Red Army soldiers in Germany, on the contrary, their discipline seems in some ways superior even to that of the Anglo-American units.[30]
- ^ Italian: ... la necessità di inserire gli episodi del 1943 e del 1945 all'interno di una più lunga storia di sopraffazioni e di violenze, iniziata con il fascismo e con la sua politica di oppressione della minoranza slovena e croata proseguita con l'aggressione italiana alla Jugoslavia e culminata con gli orrori della repressione nazifascista contro il movimento partigiano.[30]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f Bloxham & Dirk Moses 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Konrád, Barth & Mrňka 2021.
- ^ Siviero, Tommi (27 December 2022). "Italian Right Stirs Up Grievances About Yugoslavs' WWII 'Foibe Massacres'". Balkan Insight. Retrieved 25 April 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Troha, Nevenka (2014). "Nasilje vojnih in povojnih dni". www.sistory.si (in Slovenian). Inštitut za novejšo zgodovino. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
By this definition, among the 601 victims [documented from the Trieste region], 475 were members of armed formations and 126 were civilians.
- ^ Baracetti 2009.
- ^ Zamparutti, Louise (1 April 2015). "Foibe literature: documentation or victimhood narrative?". Human Remains and Violence. 1 (1): 75–91. doi:10.7227/HRV.1.1.6.
- ^ Pupo, Raoul (15 May 2021). "Le foibe giuliane". Archived from the original on 15 May 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
- ^ a b c "Poročilo slovensko – italijanske zgodovinsko – kulturne komisije [The Report of the Slovene-Italian Historical-Cultural Commission" (PDF). Portal GOV.SI (in Slovenian). 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
- ^ a b c Baracetti 2009, p. 664, "That fascists were specifically targeted by the repression is also confirmed by various Italian sources. A letter attached to the Hazarich report on the excavations carried out in the foibe in 1943 mentions corpses of fascists thrown there; another the extractions of the bodies of "our unfortunate squadristi (members of the fascist militia). An Italian report on "the grim fate of Pisino" (a city in istria) mentions only the killings of squadristi, which contrasts markedly with the subsequent report on the German offensive: random shootings of civilians, burning of houses and bombings".
- ^ a b c Rumici 2002, p. 350.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Italian-Slovene commission.
- ^ a b Lowe 2012.
- ^ a b c d Pupo & Spazzali 2003.
- ^ a b c Boscarol, Francesco (10 February 2019). "'Foibe, fascisti e comunisti: vi spiego il Giorno del ricordo': parla lo storico Raoul Pupo [Interviste]". TPI The Post Internazionale (in Italian). Retrieved 19 October 2021.
- ^ a b c d Rumici 2002.
- ^ a b Micol Sarfatti (11 February 2013). "Perché quasi nessuno ricorda le foibe?". huffingtonpost.it (in Italian).
- ^ "Foibe, oggi è il Giorno del Ricordo: cos'è e perché si chiama così". La Repubblica (in Italian). GEDI Gruppo Editoriale. 10 February 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
La ricorrenza istituita nel 2004 nell'anniversario dei trattati di Parigi, che assegnavano l'Istria alla Jugoslavia. Si ricordano gli italiani vittime dei massacri messi in atto dai partigiani e dai Servizi jugoslavi.
[The anniversary [was] established in 2004 on the anniversary of the Paris treaties, which assigned Istria to Yugoslavia. We remember the Italians victims of the massacres carried out by the partisans and the Yugoslav services.] - ^ "In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked". The New York Times. 20 May 1997. Retrieved 3 April 2023.
- ^ "Italy film recalls pain of forgotten WWII massacres". France 24. 22 November 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
- ^ Il tempo e la storia: Le Foibe, Rai tv, Raoul Pupo
- ^ Società di Studi Fiumani-Roma, Hrvatski Institut za Povijest-Zagreb Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947) Archived 31 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali – Direzione Generale per gli Archivi, Roma 2002. ISBN 88-7125-239-X, p. 190. "Therefore, the largest number of Italians from Rijeka and the former Kvarner province died immediately after the end of the Second World War, were tried before military courts and accused of war crimes"
- ^ a b "Le foibe e il confine orientale" (PDF) (in Italian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
- ^ Baracetti 2009, p. 667.
- ^ a b Troha 2014.
- ^ Società di Studi Fiumani-Roma, Hrvatski Institut za Povijest-Zagreb Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947) Archived 31 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali – Direzione Generale per gli Archivi, Roma 2002. ISBN 88-7125-239-X, p. 190. "Therefore, the largest number of Italians from Rijeka and the former Kvarner province died immediately after the end of the Second World War, were tried before military courts and accused of war crimes"
- ^ "Le foibe e il confine orientale" (PDF) (in Italian). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
- ^ Hedges, Chris (20 April 1997). "In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked". The New York Times. Section 1, Page 6. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
- ^ a b Baracetti 2009, p. 660.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Pupo 1996.
- ^ a b Georg G. Iggers (2007). Franz L. Fillafer; Georg G. Iggers; Q. Edward Wang (eds.). The Many Faces of Clio: cross-cultural Approaches to Historiography, Essays in Honor of Georg G. Iggers. Berghahn Books. p. 430. ISBN 9781845452704.
- ^ a b "Il Giorno del Ricordo" (in Italian). 10 February 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ^ a b "L'esodo giuliano-dalmata e quegli italiani in fuga che nacquero due volte" (in Italian). 5 February 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2023.
- ^ Konrád, Barth & Mrňka 2021, p. 20.
- ^ Ingo Haar, "Herausforderung Bevölkerung: zu Entwicklungen des modernen Denkens über die Bevölkerung vor, im und nach dem Dritten Reich". "Bevölkerungsbilanzen" und "Vertreibungsverluste". Zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte der deutschen Opferangaben aus Flucht und Vertreibung, Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften 2007; ISBN 978-3-531-15556-2, p. 278 (in German)
- ^ The German Historical Museum puts the figure at 600,000, maintaining that the figure of 2 million deaths in the previous government studies cannot be supported.Die Flucht der deutschen Bevölkerung 1944/45, dhm.de; accessed 6 December 2014.(in German)
- ^ Kammerer, Willi. "Narben bleiben die Arbeit der Suchdienste — 60 Jahre nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg" (PDF). Berlin Dienststelle 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 June 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017.the foreword to the book was written by German President Horst Köhler and the German interior minister Otto Schily
- ^ Christoph Bergner, Secretary of State in Germany's Bureau for Inner Affairs, outlines the stance of the respective governmental institutions in Deutschlandfunk on 29 November 2006, [1]
- ^ "Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, Die Vertreibung der Deutschen aus den Gebieten jenseits von Oder und Neiße", bpb.de; accessed 6 December 2014.(in German)
- ^ Other photos from the footage can be seen in Giorgio Pisanò, Storia della Guerra Civile in Italia 1943–1945, Milan, FPE, 1965
- ^ Pizzi 2002.
- ^ Pupo 2005.
- ^ a b c Oliva 2003.
- ^ Petacco 1999.
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- ^ p. 95: "Si può comunque affermare con assoluta certezza che a Fiume, per mano di militari e della polizia segreta (OZNA prima e UDBA poi), ... non meno di 500 persone di nazionalità italiana persero la vita fra il 3 maggio (1945) e il 31 dicembre 1947. A questi dovremmo aggiungere un numero imprecisato di di "scomparsi" (non meno di un centinaio) che il mancato controllo nominativo nell'anagrafe storica comunale ci costringe a relegare nell'anonimato insieme al consistente numero, ... , di vittime di nazionalità croata (che spesso ebbero, almeno tra il 1940 e il 1943, anche la cittadinanza italiana) determinate a guerra finita dal regime comunista jugoslavo.". Pubblicazioni Degli Archivi Di Stat O Sussidi 12 Archived 31 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947)- Žrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici (1939–1947)
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... già nello scatenarsi della prima ondata di cieca violenza in quelle terre, nell'autunno del 1943, si intrecciarono giustizialismo sommario e tumultuoso, parossismo nazionalista, rivalse sociali e un disegno di sradicamento della presenza italiana da quella che era, e cessò di essere, la Venezia Giulia. Vi fu dunque un moto di odio e di furia sanguinaria, e un disegno annessionistico slavo, che prevalse innanzitutto nel Trattato di pace del 1947, e che assunse i sinistri contorni di una "pulizia etnica". Quel che si può dire di certo è che si consumò – nel modo più evidente con la disumana ferocia delle foibe – una delle barbarie del secolo scorso.
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Bibliography
[edit]- Baracetti, Gaia (2009). "Foibe: Nationalism, Revenge and Ideology in Venezia Giulia and Istria, I943-5". Journal of Contemporary History. 44 (4): 657–674. doi:10.1177/0022009409339344. ISSN 0022-0094. JSTOR 40542981. S2CID 159919208.
- Bartoli, Matteo (1919). Le parlate italiane della Venezia Giulia e della Dalmazia (in Italian). Tipografia italo-orientale. p. 16.[ISBN unspecified]
- Bloxham, Donald; Dirk Moses, Anthony (2011). "Genocide and ethnic cleansing". In Bloxham, Donald; Gerwarth, Robert (eds.). Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511793271.004. ISBN 9781107005037.
- Ferreto Clementi, Silvia. "La pulizia etnica e il manuale Cubrilovic". Foibe ed esodo: una storia negata a tre generazioni di italiani (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 5 November 2022.
- Ivetic, Egidio (2022). Povijest Jadrana: More i njegove civilizacije [History of the Adriatic: A Sea and Its Civilization] (in Croatian and English). Srednja Europa, Polity Press. ISBN 9789538281747.
- Konrád, Ota; Barth, Boris; Mrňka, Jaromír, eds. (2021). Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48. Springer International Publishing. p. 20. ISBN 9783030783860. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
- Lowe, Keith (2012). Savage continent. London. ISBN 9780241962220.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Oliva, Gianni (2003). Foibe. Le stragi negate degli italiani della Venezia Giulia e dell'Istria [Foibe. The denied massacres of the Italians of Venezia Giulia and Istria] (in Italian). Oscar Mondadori. pp. 4–25–36–71–72–148. ISBN 88-04-51584-8.
- Peričić, Šime (19 September 2003). "O broju Talijana/talijanaša u Dalmaciji XIX. stoljeća" [About the number of Italians in Dalmatia, XIX century]. Radovi Zavoda za povijesne znanosti HAZU u Zadru (in Croatian) (45): 327–355. ISSN 1330-0474.
- Petacco, Arrigo (1999). L'esodo: la tragedia negata degli italiani d'Istria, Dalmazia e Venezia Giulia (in Italian). Milano: Mondadori. ISBN 88-04-45897-6.
- English edition: Petacco, Arrigo (2005). A tragedy revealed: the story of Italians of Istria, Dalmatia, and Venezia Giulia, 1943–1956. Translated by Eisenbichler, Konrad. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-3921-9.
- Pizzi, Katia (1 February 2002). A City in Search of an Author. A&C Black. p. 91. ISBN 9780567244970.
- Pupo, Raoul; Spazzali, Roberto (2003). Foibe (in Italian). Bruno Mondadori. pp. 4–5–29–30–35–39–110–126–127–162–219–366. ISBN 88-424-9015-6.
- Pupo, Raoul (2005). Il lungo esodo. Istria: le persecuzioni, le foibe, l'esilio (in Italian). Rizzoli. ISBN 88-17-00562-2.
- Pupo, Raoul (April 1996). "Le foibe giuliane 1943-45". L'Impegno, A. XVI, N. 1 (in Italian). Istituto per la storia della Resistenza e della società contemporanea nel Biellese, nel Vercellese e in Valsesia. Archived from the original on 15 May 2021.
- Rumici, Guido (2002). Infoibati (1943–1945). I Nomi, I Luoghi, I Testimoni, I Documenti (in Italian). Ugo Mursia. ISBN 978-88-425-2999-6.
- Seton-Watson, Christopher (1967). Italy from Liberalism to Fascism, 1870–1925. Methuen. p. 107. ISBN 9780416189407.
- Tobagi, Benedetta (2014). "La Repubblica italiana". Treccani, il portale del sapere (in Italian). Treccani. Archived from the original on 14 June 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2022.
- Tomasevich, Jozo (October 2002). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7924-1.
- (in English) Pamela Ballinger, History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans, Princeton University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-691-08697-4.
- (in English) Benjamin David Lieberman, Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Ivan R. Dee, 2006 – Original from the University of Michigan 9 June 2008, ISBN 1-56663-646-9.
- (in English) Glenda Sluga, The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and Sovereignty in Twentieth-century Europe, SUNY Press, 2001 ISBN 0-7914-4823-1.
- (in Italian) Joze Pirjevec, Foibe: una storia d'Italia, Turin: Giulio Einaudi Editore, 2009, ISBN 978-88-06-19804-6.
- (in Italian) Gianni Bartoli, Il martirologio delle genti adriatiche
- (in Italian) Claudia Cernigoi, Operazione Foibe—Tra storia e mito, Kappa Vu, Udine, 2005, ISBN 978-88-89808-57-3. (The first edition of the book, published in 1997 as Operazione foibe a Trieste and limited in scope to the Trieste territory, is available online)
- (in Italian) Vincenzo Maria De Luca, Foibe. Una tragedia annunciata. Il lungo addio italiano alla Venezia Giulia, Settimo sigillo, Roma, 2000.
- (in Italian) Luigi Papo, L'Istria e le sue foibe, Settimo sigillo, Roma, 1999.
- (in Italian) Luigi Papo, L'ultima bandiera.
- (in Italian) Marco Pirina, Dalle foibe all'esodo 1943–1956.
- (in Italian) Franco Razzi, Lager e foibe in Slovenia.
- (in Italian) Giorgio Rustia, Contro operazione foibe a Trieste, 2000.
- (in Italian) Carlo Sgorlon, La foiba grande, Mondadori, 2005, ISBN 88-04-38002-0.
- (in Italian) Pol Vice, La foiba dei miracoli, Kappa Vu, Udine, 2008.
- (in Italian) Atti del convegno di Sesto San Giovanni 2008, "Foibe. Revisionismo di Stato e amnesie della Repubblica", Kappa Vu, Udine, 2008.
- (in Italian) Gaetano La Perna, Pola Istria Fiume 1943–1945, Mursia, Milan, 1993.
- (in Italian) Marco Girardo Sopravvissuti e dimenticati: il dramma delle foibe e l'esodo dei giuliano-dalmati Paoline, 2006.
- (in Italian and Croatian) Amleto Ballerini, Mihael Sobolevski, Le vittime di nazionalità italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1939–1947) – Žrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici (1939.-1947.), Società Di Studi Fiumani – Hrvatski Institut Za Povijest, Roma Zagreb, Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali Direzione generale per gli archivi, Pubblicazioni degli Archivi Di Stato, Sussidi 12, ISBN 88-7125-239-X.
- An Italian-Croatian joint research carried out by the Italian "Society of Fiuman studies" and the "Croatian Institute of History", containing an alphabetic list of recognized victims. As foot note, on each of the two lingual forewords, a warning states that Società di Studi Fiumani do not judge completed the present work, because the lack of funds, could not achieve to the finalization that was in intentions and goals of the initial project.
Further reading
[edit]- Pamela Ballinger, History in Exile: Memory and Identity at the Borders of the Balkans Archived 12 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, princeton.edu; accessed 14 December 2015.
- "In Trieste, Investigation of Brutal Era Is Blocked", nytimes.com, 20 April 1997.
Report of the Italian-Slovene historical-cultural commission (in three languages):
- "Period 1941–1945". Slovene-Italian Relations 1880–1956. Koper-Capodistria. 25 July 2000. Archived from the original on 23 February 2020.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - "Periodo 1941–1945". Relazioni italo-slovene 1880–1956 (in Italian). Archived from the original on 12 November 2020.
- "Obdobje 1941–1945". Slovensko-italijanski odnosi 1880–1956 (in Slovenian). Archived from the original on 7 November 2020.
External links
[edit]- Claudia Cernigoi, Operazione foibe a Trieste by Claudia Cernigoi (in Italian)
- Le foibe (in Italian)
- Gian Luigi Falabrino, Il punto sulle foibe e sulle deportazioni nelle regioni orientali (1943–45) (in Italian)
- Marco Ottanelli, "The truth about the foibe" (in Italian)
- Istituto regionale per la storia della Resistenza e dell'Età contemporanea nel Friuli Venezia Giulia, "Vademecum per il giorno del ricordo" Archived 12 February 2019 at the Wayback Machine (in Italian)
- Videos
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