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{{Short description|None}}
sandbox of [[Philippine–American War]] article
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}}


In the Philippines, '''Natural Parks'''. by law, are relatively large areas not materially altered by human activity. Rxtraction resources uses not allowed in these areas and they are maintained to protect outstanding natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational, and recreational use.
{{Short description|Armed conflict (1899–1902)}}
<ref name=RA11038>{{cite PH act |title=Expanded National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 2018 |chamber=RA|number=11038 |date=March 21, 2018|url=https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra2018/ra_11038_2018.html}} </REF>
{{Use Philippine English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Philippine–American War
| image = {{multiple image
| total_width = 300px
| perrow = 2/2/2
| image1 = Manila646 1899.jpg
| image2 = Gregorio del Pilar and his troops, around 1898.jpg
| image3 = Battle of Quingua.jpg
| image4 = Americans guarding Pasig River bridge, 1898.jpg
| image5 = Malolos Filipino Army.jpg
| image6 = LeadingtheTroops-SantaCruz-0.jpg
| border = infobox
}}
'''Clockwise from top left''': U.S. troops in Manila, [[Gregorio del Pilar]] and his troops around 1898, Americans guarding the Pasig River bridge in 1898, the [[Battle of Santa Cruz (1899)|Battle of Santa Cruz]], Filipino soldiers at [[Malolos]], the [[Battle of Quingua]]
| caption =
| date = Philippine–American War:<br> [[Battle of Manila (1899)|February 4, 1899]] – July 4, 1902<br>{{small|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=2|day1=4|year1=1899|month2=4|day2=16|year2=1902}})}}{{refn|group=lower-roman|There is disagreement regarding the official ending date of the conflict; see [[#Official end of the war|here]] for further information.}}<br>
[[Moro Rebellion]]:<br> February 4, 1899 – [[Battle of Bud Bagsak|June 15, 1913]]<br>{{small|({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=2|day1=4|year1=1899|month2=6|day2=15|year2=1913}})}}
| place = [[Philippines]]
| result = American victory
* [[American occupation of the Philippines]] fully established; dissolution of the [[First Philippine Republic]]
* [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]]
| territory = The Philippines becomes an [[unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated territory of the United States]] and later, a [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|U.S. Commonwealth]] ([[Treaty of Manila (1946)|until 1946]]).
| combatant1 = '''1899–1902:'''<br>{{flag|United States|1896}}
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands]]
| combatant1a = '''1902–1913:'''<br>{{flag|United States|1912}}
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands]]
| combatant2 = '''1899–1902:'''{{efn|The Philippine Republic was ''[[de jure]]'' dissolved in 1901 when Emilio Aguinaldo surrendered himself to the Americans and announce the Philippine people to lay down their weapons. However, his unofficial successor Miguel Malvar continued the fight without formal recognition of the people until his surrender in 1902.}}<br>{{flagcountry|First Philippine Republic}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Negros Republic.svg}} [[Negros Republic]]
* {{flagicon image|Purported_flag_of_the_Republic_of_Zamboanga.svg}} [[Republic of Zamboanga|Zamboanga Republic]]
'''Limited foreign support:'''<br>{{flag|Empire of Japan}}<ref name=Gazette2016/><br />{{flag|German Empire}}<ref name=CTribune/><ref name=ShawFrancia/>
| combatant2a = '''1902–1913:'''<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Katagalugan Republic.svg}} [[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|Tagalog Republic]] (until 1906)<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Maguindanao.svg}} [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao Sultanate]] (until 1905) <br>{{flag|Sulu Sultanate}}
| commander1 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[William McKinley]] [[Assassination of William McKinley|'''X''']]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Theodore Roosevelt]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Jacob Gould Schurman|Jacob G. Schurman]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[William Howard Taft]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Arthur MacArthur, Jr.]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Elwell Stephen Otis]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Adna Chaffee]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Henry Lawton]]{{KIA|Battle of San Mateo (1899)}}
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Frederick N. Funston]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[J. Franklin Bell]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Leonard Wood]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Tasker H. Bliss]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[John J. Pershing]]}}
| commander2 = {{plainlist|
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Emilio Aguinaldo]]
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Apolinario Mabini]]
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Pedro Paterno]]
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Antonio Luna]]{{Assassinated|Antonio Luna#Assassination and aftermath}}
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Artemio Ricarte]]
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[José Alejandrino]]
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Miguel Malvar]]
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Gregorio del Pilar]]{{KIA|Battle of Tirad Pass}}
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Gregorio Aglipay]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Negros Republic.svg}} [[Papa Isio|Dionisio Seguela]]
* {{flagicon image|Purported_flag_of_the_Republic_of_Zamboanga.svg}} [[Vicente Álvarez (general)|Vicente Alvarez]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Katagalugan Republic.svg}} [[Macario Sakay]]{{Executed}}
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Maguindanao.svg}} [[Datu Ali]]{{KIA}}
* {{flagdeco|Sulu Sultanate}} [[Jamalul Kiram II]]}}
| units1 = {{plainlist|'''1899–1902:'''
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[U.S. Army]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[U.S. Volunteers]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[U.S. Marine Corps]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[U.S. Navy]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1896}} [[Philippine Scouts#Macabebe Scouts|Macabebe Scouts]]
----'''1902–1913:'''
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[U.S. Marine Corps]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[Philippine Scouts]]
* {{flagdeco|United States|1912}} [[Philippine Constabulary]]}}
| units2 = {{plainlist|'''1899–1902:'''
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Philippine Revolutionary Army|Philippine Army]]
* {{flagdeco|First Philippine Republic}} [[Philippine Navy]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Negros Republic.svg}} [[Philippine shamans|Babaylanes]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of Negros Republic.svg}} [[Pulahan|Pulajanes]]
* {{flagicon|Empire of Japan}} [[Ishin Shishi]]}}
----'''1902–1913'''<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Philippines (1898–1901).svg}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Katagalugan Republic.svg}} [[Irreconcilables (Philippines)|Irreconcilables]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Negros Republic.svg}} [[Philippine shamans|Babaylanes]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Negros Republic.svg}} [[Pulahan|Pulajanes]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag of Maguindanao.svg}}{{flagdeco|Sulu Sultanate}} [[Moro people]]
| strength1 = {{plainlist|
* ≈126,000 total<ref name=JHUG20060410/><ref name=Deady2005p62 />
* ≈24,000 to ≈44,000 field strength<ref name=Deady2005p55 />
}}
| strength2 = ≈80,000–100,000<br>regular and irregular<ref name=Deady2005p55 />
| casualties1 = 4,200 killed,{{sfn|Hack|Rettig|2006|p=172}} 2,818 wounded, several succumbed to disease {{sfn|Karnow|1989|p=194}}
| casualties2 = About 10,000 killed<ref name="Aguinaldo 2016 p. 131">{{cite book | last=Aguinaldo | first=E. | title=A Second Look at America (Classic Reprint) | publisher=Fb&c Limited | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-333-84114-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDc-vgAACAAJ | access-date=2022-11-17 | page=131}}</ref> ([[Emilio Aguinaldo]] estimate),<br> 16,000–20,000 killed<ref name="burdeos2008p14casualties">{{Harvnb|Burdeos|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tN__4jLTnd8C&dq=250,000+1,000,000&pg=PA14 14]}}</ref> (American estimate)
| casualties3 = '''Filipino civilians''': 200,000–250,000 died, most because of famine and disease{{refn|group=lower-roman|While there are many estimates for civilian deaths, with some at around 1 million and others going well over a million for the war, modern historians generally place the death toll between 200,000 and 250,000;{{sfn|Ramsey|2007|p=103}}<ref name=Smallman1998/> see "[[#Casualties|Casualties]]".}}
| notes = {{reflist|group=lower-roman}}
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Philippine-American War}}
}}


== Natural parks ==
The '''Philippine–American War''',<ref name=StateDept/> known alternatively as the '''Philippine Insurrection''', '''Filipino–American War''',{{efn|{{lang-es|Guerra filipina-estadounidense}}; {{lang-tl|Digmaang Pilipino–Amerikano}}}} or '''Tagalog Insurgency''',<ref>Multiple sources:
{{{Color box|#CFECEC|border=darkgray}}&nbsp;''[[World Heritage Site]] or part of a World Heritage Site''.
* {{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/philippines/5098.htm|title=Philippines Background Note|website=2009-2017.state.gov|access-date=March 17, 2021|quote=Although Americans have historically used the term 'the Philippine Insurrection', Filipinos and an increasing number of American historians refer to these hostilities as the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), and in 1999 the U.S. Library of Congress reclassified its references to use this term. }} (Archived content; Information released online from January 20, 2009 to January 20, 2017)
{{toptextcells}}
* {{cite magazine|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2000/summer/philippine-insurrection.html|title=Researching Service in the U.S. Army During the Philippine Insurrection|year=2000|magazine=[[Prologue (magazine)|Prologue]]|volume=32|issue=3|publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]|last=Plante|first=Trevor K.}}</ref>{{sfn|Battjes|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=xbVQm1BLirkC&pg=PA5&dq=%22tagalog%20insurgency%22#v=onepage&q=%22tagalog%20insurgency%22&f=false 5], [https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=xbVQm1BLirkC&pg=PA74&dq=%22tagalog%20insurgency%22#v=onepage&q=%22tagalog%20insurgency%22&f=false 74]}}{{sfn|Silbey|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tZy7UBhsW24C&dq=%22tagalog+insurgency%22&pg=PR15 xv]}} was fought between the [[First Philippine Republic]] and the United States from February 4, 1899, until July 4, 1902.<ref name=AmnestyProc>Amnesty Proclamation
{| class="wikitable sortable toptextcells"
* {{cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/proclamation-483-granting-pardon-and-amnesty-participants-insurrection-the-philippines|title=Proclamation 483—Granting Pardon and Amnesty to Participants in Insurrection in the Philippines|publisher=United States Government|via=The American Presidency Project|date=July 4, 1902}}
|- style="vertical-align:middle;"
* {{Cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1902/07/04/101957581.pdf|title=General Amnesty for the Filipinos – Proclamation Issued by the President|date=July 4, 1902|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> Tensions arose after the United States annexed the Philippines under the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] at the conclusion of the [[Spanish–American War]] rather than acknowledging the Philippines' [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declaration of independence]].<ref>{{Cite web |author=<!-- Staff writer(s); no by-line -->|title=Philippine independence declared |url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/philippine-independence-declared |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=History |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Randolph|2009}} The war can be seen as a continuation of the Philippine struggle for independence that began in 1896 with the [[Philippine Revolution]] against [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish rule]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philippine-American War {{!}} Facts, History, & Significance |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Philippine-American-War |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Name

! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:6.5em;" | Area
Fighting between the forces of the United States and the forces of the Philippine Republic broke out on February 4, 1899, in what became known as the [[Battle of Manila (1899)|Battle of Manila]]. On February 4, 1899, The Philippine Council of Government issued a proclamation urging the people to continue the war.{{sfn|Kalaw|1927|pp=199–200}} Philippine President [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] was captured on March 23, 1901, and the war was officially declared ended by the US on July 4, 1902. /> However, some Philippine groups—some led by veterans of the [[Katipunan]]{{which|date=July 2023|reason=any othr than Sakay?}}, a Philippine revolutionary society that had launched the revolution against Spain—continued to fight for several more years. Other groups, including the [[Islam in the Philippines|Muslim]] [[Moro people|Moro]] peoples of the southern Philippines and [[Folk Catholicism|quasi-Catholic]] [[Pulahan]] religious movements, continued hostilities in remote areas. The resistance in the Moro-dominated provinces in the south, called the [[Moro Rebellion]] by the Americans, ended with their final defeat at the [[Battle of Bud Bagsak]] on June 15, 1913.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=247–297}}
! rowspan="2" scope="col" | Established

! colspan="2" scope="col" style="width:8em;" | Location
The war resulted in at least 200,000 Filipino civilian deaths, mostly from famine and diseases such as [[cholera]].<ref name=Clodfelter/><ref name=Wolff1961/><ref name=Foner1972/> Some estimates for civilian dead reach up to a million.<ref name="burdeos2008p14casualties"/> [[#Atrocities|War crimes]] were committed during the conflict by both sides,<ref name=dolan1991EarlyHistory>{{Cite web|url=http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-10372.html|title=Philippines - EARLY HISTORY|website=www.country-data.com}}</ref> including torture, mutilation, and summary executions of civilians and prisoners. In retaliation for Filipino [[guerrilla warfare]] tactics, the U.S. carried out reprisals and [[scorched earth]] campaigns and forcibly relocated many civilians to [[List of concentration and internment camps#Philippines|concentration camps]], where thousands died.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYfSbFGFWlUC&pg=PA477 |title=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |author=[[Spencer C. Tucker]] |year=2009 |page=477 |publisher=Abc-Clio |isbn=978-1851099528 }}</ref><ref name=Holloran>{{cite book |title=Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era |first1=Catherine |last1=Cocks |first2=Peter C. |last2=Holloran |first3=Alan |last3=Lessoff |date=2009 |page=332 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0810862937 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC&pg=PA332 }}</ref><ref name=Davis>{{cite book |title=The Hidden History of America at War: Untold Tales from Yorktown to Fallujah |author=Kenneth C. Davis |year=2015 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3WsVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 |page=141|publisher=Hachette Books |isbn=978-1401330781 }}</ref> The war and subsequent occupation by the U.S. changed the culture of the islands, leading to the rise of [[Protestantism in the Philippines|Protestantism]], disestablishment of the [[Catholic Church in the Philippines|Catholic Church]], and the adoption of [[Philippine English|English]] by the islands as the primary language of government, education, business, and industry.<ref name="dolan1991USRule" /> The U.S. annexation and war sparked political backlash from [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialists]] in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]], who argued that the war was a definite example of [[American imperialism|U.S. imperialism]], and that it was an inherent contradiction of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|founding principles]] of the United States contained in the [[Declaration of independence|Declaration of Independence]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The First Philippine Question · The Philippines and the University of Michigan, 1870–1935 · Philippines |url=https://philippines.michiganintheworld.history.lsa.umich.edu/s/exhibit/page/the-first-philippine-question#:~:text=The%20early%20debate%20broke%20down,Filipino%20population%20for%20self-governance. |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=philippines.michiganintheworld.history.lsa.umich.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Crucible of Empire – PBS Online |url=https://www.pbs.org/crucible/tl17.html |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Opposition to the Philippine-American War |url=https://sheg.stanford.edu/history-assessments/opposition-philippine-american-war |access-date=2023-08-23 |website=Stanford History Education Group |language=en}}</ref>
! rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:6.5em;" | Coordinates

|-
In 1902, the [[United States Congress]] passed the [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]], which provided for the creation of the [[Philippine Assembly]], with members to be elected by Filipino men (females did not have the right to vote). This act was superseded by the 1916 [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Act]] (Philippine Autonomy Act), which contained the first formal and official declaration of the United States government's commitment to eventually grant independence to the Philippines.<ref name=Filipiniana/> The 1934 [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] (Philippine Independence Act) created the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] the following year. The act increased self-governance and established a process towards full independence (originally scheduled for 1944, but delayed by [[World War II]] and the [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines]]). The United States eventually granted full Philippine independence in 1946 through the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=July 4, 1946: The Philippines Gained Independence from the United States |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/july-4-1946-philippines-independence |access-date=2022-03-15 |website=The National WWII Museum |date=July 2, 2021 |location=New Orleans |language=en}}</ref>
!Provinces

!Island Group
==Background==
|-
{{See also|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)}}
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Kalbario-Patapat Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|3,903.19|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
===Philippine Revolution===
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
{{Main|Philippine Revolution}}
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Ilocos Norte (province)|Ilocos Norte]]|}}

|Luzon
[[Andrés Bonifacio]] was a warehouseman and clerk from [[Manila]]. On July 7, 1892, he established the [[Katipunan]], a revolutionary organization formed to gain independence from [[Restoration (Spain)|Spanish]] colonial rule by armed revolt. In August 1896, the Katipunan was discovered by the Spanish authorities and thus launched its revolution. Fighters in [[Cavite]] province won early victories. One of the most influential and popular leaders from Cavite was [[Emilio Aguinaldo]], mayor of [[Kawit|Cavite El Viejo]] (modern-day Kawit), who gained control of much of the eastern portion of Cavite province. Eventually, Aguinaldo and his faction gained control of the revolution. After Aguinaldo was elected president of [[Tejeros Convention#Finalized government|a revolutionary government superseding the Katipunan]] at the [[Tejeros Convention]] on March 22, 1897, his government had Bonifacio [[Andrés Bonifacio#Trial and death|executed for treason]] after a [[show trial]] on May 10, 1897.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=180–181}}
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="18.5" | {{coord|18|31|57|N|120|54|50|E|name=Kalbario-Patapat Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

|-
===Aguinaldo's exile and return===
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Tumauini Watershed Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
{{Main|Hong Kong Junta}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|6,509.38|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
[[File:Gen Aguinaldo.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Emilio Aguinaldo]] in the field]]
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007

| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Isabela|Isabela]]|}}
By late 1897, after a succession of defeats for the revolutionary forces, the Spanish had regained control over most of rebel territory. Aguinaldo and Spanish [[Governor-General of the Philippines|Governor-General]] [[Fernando Primo de Rivera]] entered into armistice negotiations while Spanish forces surrounded Aguinaldo's hideout and base in [[San Miguel, Bulacan|Biak-na-Bato]] in [[Bulacan]] province. Aguinaldo reorganized his "[[Republic of Biak-na-Bato|Republic of the Philippines]]" in the meantime. On December 14, 1897, [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato|an agreement was reached]] in which the Spanish colonial government would pay Aguinaldo $MXN800,000{{efn|name=mex-us|1=The Mexican dollar at the time was worth about 50 US cents,<ref>{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=126 126]}}.</ref> equivalent to about ${{#expr:{{inflation|US|1|1897|r=2}}/2 round 2}} today. The ''[[Philippine peso fuerte|peso fuerte]]'' and the Mexican dollar were interchangeable at par.}} in Manila—in three installments if Aguinaldo would go into [[exile]] outside of the Philippines.{{sfn|Halstead|1898|p=177}}{{sfn|Aguinaldo|1899|p=4}}
|Luzon

| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="17.3" | {{coord|17.3|N|122|E|name=Tumauini Watershed Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}
Upon receiving the first installment, Aguinaldo and 25 of his closest associates left their headquarters at Biak-na-Bato and made their way to [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], in accord with the agreement. Before his departure, Aguinaldo denounced the Philippine Revolution, exhorted Filipino rebel combatants to disarm, and declared those who continued hostilities and waging war to be bandits.{{sfn|Constantino|1975|p=192}} Despite Aguinaldo's denunciation, some revolutionaries continued their armed revolt against the Spanish colonial government.{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=35}}<ref name=Novel/><ref name=Steinberg1972/> Aguinaldo claimed that the Spanish never paid the agreed second and third installments.{{sfn|Aguinaldo|1899|p=5}}
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Bataan Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
On April 22, 1898, while in exile, Aguinaldo had a private meeting in [[Singapore in the Straits Settlements|Singapore]] with United States Consul [[E. Spencer Pratt]], after which he decided to again lead the revolution.{{sfn|Aguinaldo|1899|pp=10–12}} According to Aguinaldo, Pratt had communicated with Commodore [[George Dewey]] (commander of the [[Asiatic Squadron]] of the [[United States Navy]]) by telegram and passed assurances from Dewey to Aguinaldo that the United States would recognize the independence of the Philippines. Pratt reportedly stated that there was no necessity for entering into a written agreement because the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were equivalent to the official word of the United States.{{sfn|Aguinaldo|1899|p=10}} With these assurances, Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines.
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|20,004.17|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
Pratt later contested Aguinaldo's account of these events and denied any "dealings of a political character" with the leader.<ref name=NYT18990826/> Dewey denounced Aguinaldo's account as a falsehood,<ref>{{cite book | last=Blount | first=J.H. | title=The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898-1912 | publisher=G. P. Putnam's sons | year=1913 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCItAAAAMAAJ | pages=[https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=pCItAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA189 189-190]}}</ref> asserting that he had made no promises regarding the future:
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Bataan|Bataan]]|}}
{{blockquote|From my observation of Aguinaldo and his advisers I decided that it would be unwise to co-operate with him or his adherents in an official manner. ... In short, my policy was to avoid any entangling alliance with the insurgents, while I appreciated that, pending the arrival of our troops, they might be of service.{{sfn|Brands|1992|p=46}}}}
|Luzon

| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="14.55" | {{coord|14|39|N|120|36|E|name= |region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}
[[File:Uncle Sam & Emilio Aguinaldo.jpg|thumb|Personifying the United States, [[Uncle Sam]] chases a bee representing [[Emilio Aguinaldo]].]]
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Apo Reef Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
Filipino historian [[Teodoro Agoncillo]] claimed that the Americans first approached Aguinaldo in Hong Kong and Singapore to persuade him to cooperate with Dewey in wresting power from the Spanish. He conceded that Dewey may not have promised Aguinaldo American recognition and Philippine independence (Dewey had no authority to make such promises). He asserted that Dewey and Aguinaldo had an informal alliance to fight Spain, that Dewey breached that alliance by making secret arrangements for a Spanish surrender to American forces, and that he later treated Aguinaldo badly. Agoncillo concluded that the American attitude towards Aguinaldo "... showed that they came to the Philippines not as a friend, but as an enemy masking as a friend."{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=213–214}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|15,799.23|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
Aguinaldo traveled from Singapore and arrived in Hong Kong on May 1,{{sfn|Aguinaldo|1899|pp=12–13}} the day that Dewey's naval forces destroyed Rear-Admiral [[Patricio Montojo]]'s Spanish Pacific Squadron at the [[Battle of Manila Bay]]. Aguinaldo departed Hong Kong aboard [[United States Revenue Cutter Service|USRC]] ''[[USS McCulloch (1897)|McCulloch]]'' on May 17 and arrived in Cavite on May 19.{{sfn|Aguinaldo|1899|pp=15–16}}
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Occidental Mindoro|Occidental Mindoro]]|}}

|Mindoro
Less than three months after Aguinaldo's return, the [[Philippine Revolutionary Army]] had conquered nearly all of the Philippines. With the exception of Manila, which was surrounded by revolutionary forces some 12,000 strong, the Filipinos controlled the islands. Aguinaldo [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] at his house in [[Cavite El Viejo]] on June 12, 1898.
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|-
The Philippine Declaration of Independence was not recognized by either the United States or Spain, and the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|1898 Treaty of Paris]], which was signed on December 10, 1898, in consideration for an [[indemnity]] for Spanish expenses and assets lost.<ref name=Avalon/>
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Mounts Iglit–Baco Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|106,655.62|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
Upon his return in May 1898, Aguinaldo established a "[[Dictatorial Government of the Philippines|Dictatorial Government]]" with himself as "Dictator", under which Philippine independence was declared. About a month later, he established a "[[Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898-1899)|Revolutionary Government]]" in its place and retook the title of President. He then organized a [[Malolos Congress|congress in Malolos]], Bulacan, to draft a [[Constitution of the Philippines|constitution]]. This led to the formal establishment of the Philippine Republic by late January 1899.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=199–212}} This government was later known as the [[First Philippine Republic]], and also as the Malolos Republic after its capital. Aguinaldo, who had again been ratified as president by the Malolos congress on January 1,{{sfn|Jaycox|2005|p=130}} is today officially considered as "the first [[President of the Philippines|President of the Republic of the Philippines]]" by the Philippine government.<ref>Multiple sources:
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
* {{cite web|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/presidents/first-republic/emilio-aguinaldo/|title=Emilio Aguinaldo|work=Presidential Museam and Library|publisher=Malacañan Palace|access-date=November 14, 2017|archive-date=November 4, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104144908/http://malacanang.gov.ph/presidents/first-republic/emilio-aguinaldo/}}*
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Occidental Mindoro|Occidental Mindoro]]<BR />[[Oriental Mindoro]]|}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2016/02/29/proclamation-no-1231-s-2016/|title=Proclamation No. 1231, s. 2016|date=February 29, 2016|quote=General Emilio Aguinaldo, the first President of the Republic of the Philippines}}</ref>
|Mindoro

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==Origins of the conflict==
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
===Battle of Manila===
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|15,799.23|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
{{Main|Battle of Manila (1898)}}
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| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Romblon]]|}}
On July 9, General Anderson informed Major General [[Henry Clark Corbin]], the [[List of Adjutants General of the U.S. Army|Adjutant General of the U.S. Army]], that Aguinaldo "has declared himself Dictator and President, and is trying to take Manila without our assistance", opining that that would not be probable but, if done, would allow him to resist any U.S. attempt to establish a provisional government.<ref name="worcester1914ch3p60"/> On July 15, Aguinaldo issued three [[Organic law|organic decrees]] assuming civil authority.<ref name="worcester1914ch7p154">{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=154 154]}} Ch. 7</ref>
|Sibuyan

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On July 18, Anderson wrote that he suspected Aguinaldo to be secretly negotiating with the Spanish authorities.<ref name="worcester1914ch3p60">{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=60 60]}} Ch. 3</ref> In a July 21 letter to the Adjutant General, Anderson wrote that Aguinaldo had "put in operation an elaborate system of military government, under his assumed authority as Dictator, and has prohibited any supplies being given us, except by his order", and that Anderson had demanded that Aguinaldo must aid in fulfilling Anderson's demands for necessary supplies.<ref name=worcester1914ch3p61>{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=61 61]}} Ch. 3</ref>
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Bicol Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
On July 24, Aguinaldo wrote a letter to Anderson in effect warning him not to disembark American troops in places liberated by Filipinos from Spain without first informing him in writing about the places and purpose of the action. [[Murat Halstead]], official historian of the Philippine Expedition, wrote that General Merritt remarked shortly after his arrival on June 25: {{blockquote|As General Aguinaldo did not visit me on my arrival, nor offer his services as a subordinate military leader, and as my instructions from the President fully contemplated the occupation of the islands by the American land forces, and stated that 'the powers of the military occupant are absolute and supreme and immediately operate upon the political condition of the inhabitants,' I did not consider it wise to hold any direct communication with the insurgent leader until I should be in possession of the city of Manila, especially as I would not until then be in a position to issue a proclamation and enforce my authority, in the event that his pretensions should clash with my designs.<ref name="halstead1898ch10p97">{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=97 97]}} Ch. 10</ref>}}
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U.S. commanders suspected that Aguinaldo and his forces were informing the Spaniards of American movements. U.S. Army Major [[John R. M. Taylor]] later wrote, after translating and analyzing insurgent documents:
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Camarines Sur]]|}}
{{blockquote|The officers of the United States Army who believed that the insurgents were informing the Spaniards of the American movements were right. Sastrón has printed a letter from [[Pío del Pilar]], dated July 30, to the Spanish officer commanding at [[Santa Ana, Manila|Santa Ana]], in which Pilar said that Aguinaldo had told him that the Americans would attack the Spanish lines on August 2 and advised that the Spaniards should not give way, but hold their positions. Pilar added, however, that if the Spaniards should fall back on the walled city and surrender Santa Ana to himself, he would hold it with his own men. Aguinaldo's information was correct, and on August 2 eight American soldiers were killed or wounded by the Spanish fire.<ref name="worcester1914ch3p63">{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=63 63]}} Ch. 3</ref>}}
|Luzon

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The secret agreement made by Commodore Dewey and Brigadier General [[Wesley Merritt]] with Spanish Governor-General [[Fermín Jáudenes]] and with his predecessor [[Basilio Augustín]] was for Spanish forces to surrender only to the Americans. To save face, the Spanish surrender would take place after a mock battle in Manila that the Spaniards would lose; the revolutionaries would not be allowed to enter the city. On the eve of the battle, Anderson telegraphed Aguinaldo, "Do not let your troops enter Manila without the permission of the American commander. On this side of the [[Pasig River]] you will be under fire."{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=196}} On August 13, American forces captured Manila.<ref name=Hispanic1898/>
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Mount Isarog Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
Before the attack on Manila, American and Filipino forces had been allies in all but name. After the capture of Manila, Spaniards and Americans entered in a partnership that excluded the insurgents. Fighting between American and Filipino troops had almost broken out as the former moved to dislodge the latter from strategic positions around Manila. Aguinaldo had been told by the Americans that his army could not participate and would be fired upon if it entered the city. The insurgents were infuriated, but Aguinaldo bided his time. Relations continued to deteriorate, however, as it became clear to Filipinos that the Americans were in the islands to stay.<ref name=dolan1991Outbreak>{{Cite web|url=https://countrystudies.us/philippines/13.htm|title=Philippines - SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR|website=countrystudies.us}}</ref>
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===End of the Spanish–American War===
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Camarines Sur|Camarines Sur]]|}}
[[File:McKinleyPhilippinesCartoon.jpg|thumb|1898 US political cartoon. U.S. President [[William McKinley]] is shown holding the Philippines, depicted as a native child, as the world looks on. The implied options for McKinley are to keep the Philippines, or give it back to Spain, which the cartoon compares to throwing a child off a cliff.]]
|Luzon

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On August 12, 1898, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that a peace protocol had been signed in Washington that afternoon between the U.S. and Spain, suspending hostilities.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1898/08/13/102566265.pdf|title=War Suspended, Peace Assured – President Proclaims a Cessation of Hostilities|work=The New York Times|date=August 12, 1898|access-date=February 6, 2008}}</ref> The full text of the protocol was not made public until November 5, but Article III read: "The United States will occupy and hold the City, Bay, and Harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace, which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines."<ref name="Halstead1898ch15p177">{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=177 177]}} Ch. 15</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://filipino.biz.ph/history/pr980812.html|title=Protocol of Peace: Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries|date=August 12, 1898}}</ref> After conclusion of this agreement, U.S. President [[William McKinley]] proclaimed a suspension of hostilities with Spain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=69245|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924124054/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws?pid=69245|archive-date=September 24, 2015|title=Proclamation 422 – Suspension of Hostilities with Spain|date=August 12, 1898|work=American Presidency Project|publisher=University of California}}</ref>
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Catanduanes Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
In a clash at Cavite between US soldiers and insurgents on August 25, 1898, George Hudson of the Utah regiment was killed, Corporal William Anderson was mortally wounded, and four troopers of the Fourth Cavalry were slightly wounded.<ref name=Halstead1898ch28p315/><ref name="taylor1907p19">{{Harvnb|Taylor|1907|p=19}}</ref> This provoked General Anderson to send Aguinaldo a letter saying, "In order to avoid the very serious misfortune of an encounter between our troops, I demand your immediate withdrawal with your guard from Cavite. One of my men has been killed and three wounded by your people. This is positive and does not admit of explanation or delay."<ref name="taylor1907p19" /> Internal insurgent communications reported that the Americans were drunk at the time. Halstead writes that Aguinaldo expressed his regret and promised to punish the offenders.<ref name="Halstead1898ch28p315">{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=315 315]}} Ch. 28</ref> In internal insurgent communications, [[Apolinario Mabini]] initially proposed to investigate and punish any offenders identified. Aguinaldo modified this, ordering, "... say that he was not killed by your soldiers, but by them themselves [the Americans] since they were drunk according to your telegram".<ref name="taylor1907p20">{{Harvnb|Taylor|1907|p=20}}</ref> An insurgent officer in Cavite at the time reported on his record of services that he: "took part in the movement against the Americans on the afternoon of the 24th of August, under the orders of the commander of the troops and the adjutant of the post".<ref name="worcester1914ch4p83">{{harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=83 83]}} Ch. 4</ref>
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[[1898 Philippine Malolos Congress election|Elections]] were held by the Revolutionary Government between June and September 10, seating a legislature known as the Malolos Congress. In a session between September 15 and November 13, 1898, the [[Malolos Constitution]] was adopted. It was promulgated on January 21, 1899, creating the First Philippine Republic with Emilio Aguinaldo as president.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kalaw|1927|p=132}}</ref>
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Catanduanes|Catanduanes]]|}}

|Catanduanes
Article V of the peace protocol signed on August 12 had mandated negotiations to conclude a treaty of peace to begin in Paris not later than October 1, 1898.<ref name="Halstead1898ch15pp176-178">{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|pp=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=176 176–178]}} Ch. 15</ref> President McKinley sent a five-man commission, initially instructed to demand no more than [[Luzon]], [[Guam]], and [[Puerto Rico]]; which would have provided a limited U.S. empire.<ref name="miller1982p20">{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=20}}</ref> In Paris, the commission was besieged with advice, particularly from American generals and European diplomats, to demand the entire Philippine archipelago.<ref name=miller1982p20/> The unanimous recommendation was that "it would certainly be cheaper and more humane to take the entire Philippines than to keep only part of it."<ref name="miller1982pp=20-21">{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|pp=20–21}}</ref> Furthermore, the sudden rise of the [[Empire of Japan]] as a great power following its victory against China in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] of 1895 had led to fears that the Philippines were poised to fall into Japanese hands if the United States did not take control of the islands.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://academic.oup.com/dh/article-abstract/9/4/363/361920 |title="A Question from Which We Could Not Escape": William McKinley and the Decision to Acquire the Philippine Islands |journal=Diplomatic History|volume=9|issue=4|date=October 1985|pages=363–375|doi=10.1111/j.1467-7709.1985.tb00544.x |access-date=2024-03-06 |via=academic.oup.com |last1=Smith |first1=Ephraim K. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schweikart |first1=Larry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=igOXnmTZ_wIC |title=A Patriot's History of the United States: From Columbus's Great Discovery to the War on Terror |last2=Allen |first2=Michael Patrick |year=2004 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-101-21778-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bennett |first=William John |author-link=William Bennett|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLP5U-M8dhoC |title=America: The Last Best Hope |date=2006 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-1-59555-111-5 |language=en}}</ref> On October 28, 1898, McKinley wired the commission that "cessation of Luzon alone, leaving the rest of the islands subject to Spanish rule, or to be the subject of future contention, cannot be justified on political, commercial, or humanitarian grounds. The cessation must be the whole archipelago or none. The latter is wholly inadmissible, and the former must therefore be required."<ref name="miller1982p24">{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=24}}</ref> The Spanish negotiators were furious over the "immodist demands of a conqueror", but their wounded pride was assuaged by an offer of twenty million dollars for "Spanish improvements" to the islands. The Spaniards capitulated, and on December 10, 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, formally ending the Spanish–American War. In Article III, Spain ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States, as follows: "Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the following line: [... geographic description elided ...]. The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty."<ref name="Kalaw1927:430-445">{{Harvnb|Kalaw|1927|pp=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=afj2233.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=450 430–445]}}Appendix D</ref><ref>Multiple sources:
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* {{cite book |last1=Draper |first1=Andrew Sloan |author-link=Andrew S. Draper|title=The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government |date=1899 |publisher=Silver, Burdett |pages=170–172 |isbn=978-0722278932 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA170 |access-date=29 January 2021 |language=en}}
|-
* {{cite book |last1=Fantina |first1=Robert |title=Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 |date=2006 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-0-87586-454-9 |page=83 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC&pg=PA83 |access-date=29 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Bongsanglay Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|518.90|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
The U.S. experienced a movement for Philippine independence; some said that the U.S. had no right to a land where many of the people wanted self-government. In 1898, industrialist [[Andrew Carnegie]] offered to pay the U.S. government $20 million to give the Philippines its independence.<ref>{{cite book|last=Price|first=Matthew C.|title=The Advancement of Liberty: How American Democratic Principles Transformed the Twentieth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a_qmOoJDfjQC|year=2008|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-34618-7|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a_qmOoJDfjQC&dq=%22Andrew+Carnegie+offered+to+pay+the+government+$20+million%22&pg=PA96 96]}}</ref>
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| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Masbate|Masbate]]|}}
===Benevolent assimilation===
| Masbate
[[File:Philippines, Manila, 1899- U.S. soldiers and insurrecto prisoners at the cathedral, Walled City LCCN2005691616.jpg|thumb|U.S. soldiers and ''insurrecto'' prisoners, Manila, 1899]]
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|-
On December 21, 1898, McKinley issued a proclamation of "[[benevolent assimilation]], substituting the mild sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule" for "the greatest good of the governed".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://tnsr.org/2017/11/america-cross-pacific-reconstructing-u-s-decision-take-philippines-1898-99/|title=Why Did America Cross the Pacific? Reconstructing the U.S. Decision to Take the Philippines, 1898–99|date=2017-11-25|website=Texas National Security Review|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-16}}</ref> Referring to the Treaty of Paris, it said that "as a result of the victories of American arms, the future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States." It enjoined military commander Major General [[Elwell Stephen Otis]] to inform Filipinos that "in succeeding to the sovereignty of Spain" the authority of the United States "is to be exerted for the securing of the persons and property of the people of the islands and for the confirmation of all their private rights and relations". The proclamation specified that "it will be the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends, to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their personal and religious rights".<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/benevolent.html|author=President William McKinley|title=McKinley's Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation|date=December 21, 1898|publisher=msc.edu.ph|access-date=February 10, 2008}}</ref>
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Bulusan Volcano Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

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The Spaniards yielded [[Iloilo]] to the insurgents on December 26. An American brigade under General [[Marcus P. Miller]] arrived on December 28 and opened communications with the insurgents.<ref>{{cite book | author=United States. President | title=The Abridgment: Containing Messages of the President of the United States to the Two Houses of Congress with Reports of Departments and Selections from Accompanying Papers | publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office | issue=v. 2 | year=1900 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F6YXAQAAMAAJ | access-date=2022-07-02|page=1001}}</ref> A Filipino official styling himself "Presidente Lopez of the Federal Government of the Visayas", stated landing required "express orders from the central government of Luzon" and refused permission to land.<ref name="Halstead1898ch28p316">{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=58428&pageno=316 316]}}</ref><ref name="miller1984p51">{{Harvnb|Miller|1984|p=50}}</ref> That news reached Washington on January 1, 1899.<ref name="Halstead1898ch28p316"/><ref name="miller1982p51">{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=51}}</ref>
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| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Sorsogon|Sorsogon]]|}}
Otis, who had been appointed [[Governor-General of the Philippines#United States Military Government (1898–1901)|Military Governor of the Philippines]], had delayed publication of McKinley's proclamation. On January 4, Otis published an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms ''sovereignty'', ''protection'', and ''right of cessation'', which were present in the original version.<ref name=Togores/> On January 6, 1899, General Otis was quoted in ''The New York Times'' as stating "convinced that the U.S. government intends to seek the establishment of a liberal government, in which the people will be as fully represented as the maintenance of law and order will permit, susceptible of development, on lines of increased representation, and the bestowal of increased powers, into a government as free and independent as is enjoyed by the most favored provinces in the world."<ref>{{Citation |title=President to Filipinos – Order Expressing His Intentions Proclaimed to Them |date=January 6, 1899 |work=The New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1899/01/06/102497181.pdf |access-date=February 10, 2008}}</ref>
|Luzon

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Unknown to Otis, the [[United States Department of War|War Department]] had sent an enciphered copy of the Benevolent Assimilation proclamation to General Miller for informational purposes. Miller assumed that it was for distribution and, unaware that a politically [[Expurgation|bowdlerized]] version had been published by Otis, published the original in both Spanish and Tagalog translations which eventually made their way to Aguinaldo.<ref>{{Harvnb|Wolff|2006|p=200}}</ref> Even before Aguinaldo received the unaltered version and observed the changes in the copy he had received from Otis, he was upset that Otis had altered his own title to "Military Governor of the Philippines" from "... ''in'' the Philippines", a change that Otis had made without authorization.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1982|p=52}}</ref>
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[North west Panay Peninsula Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
The original proclamation was given by supporters to Aguinaldo who, on January 5, issued a counter-proclamation:{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=214–215}}
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{{blockquote|Such procedures, so foreign to the dictates of culture and the usages observed by civilized nations, gave me the right to act without observing the usual rules of intercourse. Nevertheless, in order to be correct to the end, I sent to General Otis commissioners charged to solicit him to desist from his rash enterprise, but they were not listened to.
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Aklan]]<br />[[Antique|Antique]]|}}

|Panay
My government can not remain indifferent in view of such a violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by a nation which arrogated to itself the title champion of oppressed nations. Thus it is that my government is disposed to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the Visayan Islands. I denounce these acts before the world, in order that the conscience of mankind may pronounce its infallable verdict as to who are the true oppressors of nations and the tormentors of human kind.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=215}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|pp=356–357}}.</ref>}}
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|-
After some copies of that proclamation had been distributed, Aguinaldo ordered the recall of undistributed copies and issued another proclamation, which was published the same day in ''El Heraldo de la Revolucion'', the official newspaper of the Philippine Republic. His statement in part said:
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Sibalom Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|6,778.44|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
{{blockquote|As in General Otis's proclamation he alluded to some instructions edited by His Excellency the President of the United States, referring to the administration of the matters in the Philippine Islands, I in the name of God, the root and fountain of all justice, and that of all the right which has been visibly granted to me to direct my dear brothers in the difficult work of our regeneration, protest most solemnly against this intrusion of the United States Government on the sovereignty of these islands.
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007

| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Antique|Antique]]|}}
I equally protest in the name of the Filipino people against the said intrusion, because as they have granted their vote of confidence appointing me president of the nation, although I don't consider that I deserve such, therefore I consider it my duty to defend to death its liberty and independence.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=216}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|p=357}}.</ref>}}
|Panay

| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="18.5" | {{coord|18|31|57|N|120|54|50|E|name=Sibalom Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}
Otis, taking these two proclamations as tantamount to war, strengthened American observation posts and alerted his troops. Aguinaldo's proclamations energized the masses with a vigorous determination to fight what was perceived as an ally turned enemy. Some 40,000 Filipinos fled Manila within a period of 15 days.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=216}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1997|pp=357–358}}.</ref>
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Northen Negros Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
Meanwhile, [[Felipe Agoncillo]], who had been commissioned by the Philippine Revolutionary Government as Minister Plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties with foreign governments, and who had unsuccessfully sought to be seated at the negotiations between the U.S. and Spain in Paris, had traveled to Washington. On January 6, he filed a request for an interview with the President to discuss affairs in the Philippines. The next day the government officials were surprised to learn that messages to General Otis to deal mildly with the rebels and not to force a conflict had become known to Agoncillo, and cabled by him to Aguinaldo.<ref name="Halstead1898ch28p316"/>
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|70,826.16|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
On January 8, Agoncillo stated:<ref name="Halstead1898ch28p316"/>
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Negros Occidental|Negros Occidental]]|}}

|Negros
{{blockquote|In my opinion the Filipino people, whom I represent, will never consent to become a colony dependency of the United States. The soldiers of the Filipino army have pledged their lives that they will not lay down their arms until General Aguinaldo tells them to do so, and they will keep that pledge, I feel confident.}}
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="10.6" | {{coord|10.6|N|123.0|E|name=Northen Negros Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

|-
The Filipino committees in London, Paris, and Madrid about this time telegraphed to President McKinley:
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Balisasayao Twin Lakes Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|8,016.05|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
{{blockquote|We protest against the disembarkation of American troops at Iloilo. The treaty of peace still unratified, the American claim to sovereignty is premature. Pray reconsider the resolution regarding Iloilo. Filipinos wish for the friendship of America and abhor militarism and deceit.<ref name=Halstead1898ch28p416>{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bPNAAQAAMAAJ&q=%22we+protest+against+the%22&pg=PA407 416–417]}}</ref>}}
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007

| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Negros Oriental|Negros Oriental]]|}}
On January 8, Aguinaldo received the following message from [[Teodoro Sandiko]]:
|Negros

| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="9.4" | {{coord|9.4|N|123.2|E|name=Balisasayao Twin Lakes Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}
{{blockquote|To the President of the Revolutionary Government, Malolos, from Sandico, Manila. 8 Jan., 1899, 9.40 p.m..: In consequence of the order of General Rios to his officers, as soon as the Filipino attack begins the Americans should be driven into the Intramuros district and the walled city should be set on fire. Pipi.<ref name=taylor1907p39>{{Harvnb|Taylor|1907|p=39}}</ref>}}
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Lake Danao Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
The ''New York Times'' reported on January 8, that two Americans who had been guarding a waterboat in Iloilo had been attacked, one fatally, and that insurgents were threatening to destroy the business section of the city by fire; and on January 10 that a peaceful solution to the Iloilo issues may result but that Aguinaldo had issued a proclamation threatening to drive the Americans from the islands.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1899/01/09/100434663.pdf|title=Bloodshed at Iloilo – Two Americans Attacked and One Fatally Wounded by Natives.|date=January 8, 1899|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 10, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1899/01/10/117910003.pdf|title=The Philippine Climax – Peaceful Solution of the Iloilo Issue May Result To-day – Aguinaldo's Second Address – He Threatened to Drive the Americans from the Islands – Manifesto Was Recalled|date=January 10, 1899|work=The New York Times|access-date=February 10, 2008}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|8,016.05|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
By January 10, insurgents were ready to take the offensive, but wanted to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. They increased their hostile demonstrations and entered forbidden territory. Their attitude is illustrated by an extract from a telegram sent by Colonel Cailles to Aguinaldo on January 10, 1899:<ref name=worcester1914ch4p93/>
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Leyte|Leyte]]|}}

|Leyte
{{blockquote|Most urgent. An American interpreter has come to tell me to withdraw our forces in Maytubig fifty paces. I shall not draw back a step, and in place of withdrawing, I shall advance a little farther. He brings a letter from his general, in which he speaks to me as a friend. I said that from the day I knew that Maquinley (McKinley) opposed our independence I did not want any dealings with any American. War, war, is what we want. The Americans after this speech went off pale.}}
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="11.1" | {{coord|11.1|N|124.7|E|name=Lake Danao Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

|-
Aguinaldo approved the hostile attitude of Cailles, replying:<ref name="worcester1914ch4p93">{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|Ref=worcester1914ch4|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=93 93]}} Ch. 4</ref>
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Mahagnao Volcano Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|340.82|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
{{Blockquote|I approve and applaud what you have done with the Americans, and zeal and valour always, also my beloved officers and soldiers there. I believe that they are playing us until the arrival of their reinforcements, but I shall send an ultimatum and remain always on the alert. – E. A. Jan. 10, 1899.}}
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007

| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Leyte|Leyte]]|}}
==War==
| Leyte
[[File:Filipino soldiers outside Manila 1899.jpg|thumb|Filipino soldiers outside Manila in 1899]]
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="10.8" | {{coord|10|52|26|N|124|51|35|E|name=Mahagnao Volcano Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

|-
===Path to war===
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Samar Island Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
The First Philippine Republic was declared on January 21, 1899.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Starr |editor-first1=J. Barton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |title=The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia |date=September 1988 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |location=Hong Kong, China |isbn=978-962-209-201-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260]}}</ref> Lack of recognition by the United States led to rising tensions and, eventually, to [[Battle of Manila (1899)|hostilities]]. On January 31, 1899, the Minister of Interior of the Republic, Teodoro Sandiko, signed a decree saying that President Aguinaldo had directed that all idle lands be planted to provide food, in view of impending war with the Americans.<ref>{{Harvnb|Guevara|1972|p=124}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|335,105.57|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
On the evening of February 4, Private William W. Grayson fired the war's first shots along Sociego Street towards a sub-post of blockhouse 7 located at the turn towards the blockhouse.<ref name=casalmir2023>{{cite web|url=http://www.philamwar.com/thefirstshotofthephilamwarwasnotonsociegosilencio.html|title=The First Shot of the Phil-Am war did not happen on Sociego-Silencio|date=November 17, 2023|website=philamwas.com}}</ref>{{efn|The first shot was long believed to have been fired at the corner of Sociego and Silencio streets and a monument had been erected at that location in 1941. However, the [[National Historical Commission of the Philippines|National Historical Commission]] determined based on a private study submitted to them that the shots had instead been fired along Sociego Street, and ordered the relocation of the monument.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:National_Historical_Institute_Resolution_No._07,_S._2003.pdf|title=Board Resolution 07 s_2003|date=27 January 2003|publisher=National Historical Commission|via=[[Wikimedia Commons]]}}</ref><ref name=casalmir2023 />}} According the [[National Historical Commission of the Philippines]], two unarmed soldiers were killed.<ref name=Palafox2012/> According to Grayson's account, his patrol ordered four Filipino soldiers to "Halt!" and, when the men responded by cocking their rifles, they fired on them and then retreated.<ref name="Legarda2001">{{citation |last=Legarda |first=Benito Justo |title=The Hills of Sampaloc: The Opening Actions of the Philippine–American War, February 4–5, 1899 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9fhwAAAAMAAJ |page=43 |year=2001 |publisher=Bookmark |isbn=978-971-569-418-6}}</ref>{{efn|Grayson claimed that he killed a Filipino lieutenant and another Filipino soldier,<ref name=Chaput1980/> but neither American nor Filipino official reports mentioned anyone being hit.<ref name="Legarda2001"/>}} The outbreak of violence triggered the [[Battle of Manila (1899)|1899 Battle of Manil]]a. Later that day, Aguinaldo declared "That peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war."<ref name="Halstead1898ch28p318">{{Harvnb|Halstead|1898|p=[https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/12409/pg12409-images.html 318]}}Ch.28</ref>
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Samar]]<br />[[Eastern Samar]]<br />[[Northern Samar|Northern Samar]]|}}

|Samar
[[File:First Shot in Filipino–American War PHC historical marker.jpg|thumb|left|Historical marker installed by the Philippines Historical Committee in 1941 to commemorate the shot that started the war]]
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="12.1" | {{coord|12|2|10|N|125|12|40|E|name=Samar Island Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

|-
The following day, Filipino General Isidoro Torres came through the lines under a flag of truce to deliver a message from Aguinaldo to General Otis that the fighting had begun accidentally, and that Aguinaldo wished for the hostilities to cease immediately and for the establishment of a neutral zone. Otis dismissed these overtures, and replied that the "fighting, having begun, must go on to the grim end".<ref name=Nation18990504/> On February 5, General [[Arthur MacArthur Jr.|Arthur MacArthur]] ordered his troops to advance against Filipino troops.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|p=217}}
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Pasonanca Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|12,102.08|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
[[File:Wounded American soldiers at Santa Mesa.jpg|thumb|Wounded American soldiers at [[Santa Mesa]], Manila in 1899]]
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007

| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga City]]|}}
In the U.S., President McKinley had created a commission chaired by [[Jacob G. Schurman]] on January 20{{efn|The [[First Philippine Commission]], sometimes referred to as the ''Schurman Commission''}} and tasked it to study the situation in the Philippines and make recommendations on how the U.S. should proceed. Members included General Otis and two other civilian appointees. The three civilian members of the commission arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899, a month after hostilities began.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|p=279}}.</ref>
|Mindanao

| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="7.1" | {{coord|7|4|16|N|122|4|32|E|name=Pasonanca Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}
General Otis viewed the arrival of his fellow commission members as an intrusion and boycotted commission meetings.<ref name=golay1997pp48,49>{{Harvnb|Golay|1997|pp=48, 49}}.</ref> The civilian members of the commission spent a month meeting with [[Ilustrado]]s who had deserted Aguinaldo's [[Malolos Republic]] government and studying the Malolos Constitution and other documents of Aguinaldo's revolutionary government. Meanwhile, with U.S. forces advancing northwards from Manila, the seat of Aguinaldo's revolutionary government had been moved from [[Malolos]] to [[San Isidro, Nueva Ecija]]. When Malolos fell at the end of March, it moved further north to [[San Fernando, Pampanga]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Agoncillo|1990|p=219}}, {{Harvnb|Golay|1997|pp=49, 51}}.</ref>
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Mount Kalatungan Range Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
The commission published a proclamation containing assurances that the U.S. did not intend exploitation of Filipinos, but their "advancement to a position among the most civilized peoples of the world", and announced "that the United States is ... anxious to establish in the Philippine Islands an enlightened system of government under which the Philippine people may enjoy the largest measure of home rule and the amplest liberty."<ref>{{cite book | last=Worcester | first=D.C. | title=Papers by the various members of the commission on existing and desired conditions, e.g. "Efforts toward conciliation and the establishment of peace" "Peoples of the islands" "Education" "Government" "Condition and needs of the United States in the Philippines from a naval and maritime standpoint", etc | publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office | series=Report of the Philippine Commission to the President, January 31, 1900-[December 20, 1900] | year=1900 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b6czAQAAIAAJ|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b6czAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22to%20the%20people%20of%20the%20Philippine%20Islands%22&pg=PA3 3-5]}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|22,225.11|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
Though not authorized to discuss an armistice, civilian commission members held informal discussions with a representative of Aguinaldo. Progress on a path without war ended after General Luna arrested Aguinaldo's then-cabinet and replaced it with a more hawkish one headed by Apolinario Mabini.{{efn|See the {{section link|Schurman Commission|Survey visit to the Philippines}} article for more detail.}} On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic declared war on the United States.<ref name="Kalaw1927:199-200">{{Harvnb|Kalaw|1927|pp=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer&cc=philamer&idno=afj2233.0001.001&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=219 199–200]}}Ch.7</ref>
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Bukidnon|Bukidnon]]|}}

|Mindanao
===American strategy===
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="7.9" | {{coord|7.9|N|124.8|E|name=Mount Kalatungan Range Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}
[[File:Battle before Caloocan, 02-10-1899.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Caloocan]], February 10, 1899. Major General [[Arthur MacArthur Jr.|Arthur MacArthur]] with binoculars at the front line.]]
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Mount Inayawan Range Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />
American annexation was justified in the name of liberating and protecting the peoples in the former Spanish colonies. Senator [[Albert J. Beveridge]], a prominent American imperialist, said: "Americans altruistically went to war with Spain to liberate Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and Filipinos from their tyrannical yoke. If they lingered on too long in the Philippines, it was to protect the Filipinos from European predators waiting in the wings for an American withdrawal and to tutor them in American-style democracy."{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=2}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|4,236.19|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
On February 11, 1899, one week after the first shots were fired, Iloilo was bombarded by American naval forces from the {{USS|Petrel|PG-2}} and the {{USS|Baltimore|C-3}}. Filipino forces lit the town on fire before retreating. The city was captured by ground forces led by Brigadier General Marcus Miller, with no loss of American lives. 25 to 30 Filipinos were wounded. The "native" part of the city was almost entirely destroyed.<ref name=Call18990214/>
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Lanao del Norte|Lanao del Norte]]|}}

|Mindanao
Months later, after finally securing Manila, American forces moved northward, engaging in combat at the brigade and battalion level in pursuit of the fleeing insurgent forces.{{sfn|Lone|2007|p=56}} In response to the use of guerrilla warfare tactics by Filipino forces, beginning in September 1899,{{sfn|Worcester|1914|p=285}} American military strategy shifted to suppression of the resistance. Tactics became focused on the control of key areas with [[internment]] and segregation of the civilian population in "zones of protection" from the guerrillas.{{sfn|Worcester|1914|pp=290–293}} Many of the interned civilians died from [[dysentery]].{{sfn|Lone|2007|p=58}}
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="7.8" | {{coord|7|49|10|N|123|55|34|E|name=Mount Inayawan Range Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

|-
General Otis gained notoriety for some of his actions. Although his superiors had directed Otis to avoid military conflict, he did little to prevent war. Otis refused to accept anything but unconditional surrender from the Philippine Army. He often made major military decisions without first consulting Washington. He acted aggressively in dealing with the Filipinos under the assumption that their resistance would collapse quickly.{{sfn|Miller|1982|pp=63–66}} Even after this assumption proved false, he continued to insist that the insurgency had been defeated, and that the remaining casualties were caused by "isolated bands of outlaws".{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=66}}
! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[Mount Balatukan Range Natural Park]]<ref name=RA11038 />

| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|8,437.86|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}
Otis was also active in suppressing information about American military tactics. When letters describing American atrocities reached the American media, Otis had each press clipping forwarded to the original writer's commanding officer, who would convince or force the soldier to retract his statements.{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=89}}
| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007

| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[Misamis Oriental|Misamis Oriental]]|}}
===Filipino strategy===
|Mindanao
[[File:20th Kansas Volunteers marching through Caloocan at night.jpg|thumb|20th Kansas Volunteers marching through [[Caloocan]] at night, 1899]]
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="8.8" | {{coord|8.8|N|124.9|E|name=Mount Balatukan Range Natural Park|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

<!-- template for additions
Estimates of the Filipino forces vary between 80,000 and 100,000, with tens of thousands of [[auxiliaries]]. Most of the forces were armed only with [[Bolo knife|bolo knives]], [[Bow and arrow|bows and arrows]], [[spear]]s, and other primitive weapons, which were vastly inferior to the guns and other weapons of the American forces.<ref name=Deady2005p55,67/>
|-

! scope="row" style="text-align:left;background-color:initial;" | [[<>]]<ref name=RA11038 />
A fairly rigid indigenous [[Filipinos#Historic caste systems|caste system]] existed in the Philippines before the Spanish colonial era, which partially survived among the natives during Spanish rule. The goal, or end-state, sought by the First Philippine Republic was a sovereign, independent, stable nation led by an [[oligarchy]] composed of members of the [[Education in the Philippines during Spanish rule|educated]] class (known as the ''ilustrado'' class). Local chieftains, landowners, businessmen, and ''[[Cabeza de barangay|cabezas de barangay]]'' were the ''[[Principalía|principales]]'' who controlled local politics. The war was at its peak when ''ilustrados'', ''principales'', and peasants were unified in opposition to annexation by the United States. The peasants, who represented the majority of the fighting forces, had interests different from their ''ilustrado'' leaders and the ''principales'' of their villages. Coupled with the [[Ethnic issues in the Philippines|ethnic]] and geographic fragmentation, aligning the interests of people from different social castes was a daunting task.<ref>{{cite web|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|authorlink=Benedict Anderson|url=https://www.academia.edu/22457665|title=Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams|year=1988|at=The Growth of National Sentiment|via=academia.org}}</ref> The challenge for Aguinaldo and his generals was to sustain unified Filipino public opposition; this was the revolutionaries' [[Military strategy|strategic]] [[Center of gravity (military)|center of gravity]].<ref name=Deady2005p57/>
| style="text-align:right;" | {{convert|<>|ha|disp=br()|sortable=on|abbr=on}}

| style="text-align:center;" |April 20, 2007
The Filipino [[Operational level of war|operational]] center of gravity was the ability to sustain its force of 100,000 irregulars in the field. The Filipino general [[Francisco Macabulos]] described the Filipinos' war aim as, "not to vanquish the U.S. Army but to inflict on them constant losses". In the early stages of the war, the Philippine Revolutionary Army employed the conventional [[military tactics]] typical of an organized armed resistance. The hope was to inflict enough American casualties to result in McKinley's defeat by [[William Jennings Bryan]] in the [[1900 United States presidential election|1900 presidential election]]. They hoped that Bryan, who held strong [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] views, would withdraw the American forces from the Philippines.<ref name=Deady2005p58/>
| {{hlist | item_style=white-space:nowrap; | [[<>province|]]|}}

|<>island(s)
McKinley's election victory in 1900 was demoralizing for the insurgents, and convinced many Filipinos that the United States would not depart quickly.<ref name=Deady2005p58/> Coupled with a series of devastating losses on the battlefield against American forces equipped with superior technology and training, Aguinaldo became convinced that he needed to change his approach. Beginning on September 14, 1899, Aguinaldo accepted the advice of General [[Gregorio del Pilar]] and authorized the use of [[guerrilla warfare]] tactics in subsequent military operations in Bulacan.{{sfn|Worcester|1914|p=285}}
| style="text-align:center;font-size:90%;" data-sort-value="<>" | {{coord|18|31|57|N|120|54|50|E|name=<>|region:PH_type:landmark|format=dms}}

-->
===Guerrilla war phase===
|}
For most of 1899, the revolutionary leadership had viewed guerrilla warfare strategically only as a tactical option of final recourse, not as a means of operation which better suited their disadvantaged situation. On November 13, 1899, Aguinaldo decreed that guerrilla warfare would henceforth be the strategy.{{sfn|Linn|2000a|pp=186–187, 362 (notes 5 and 6)}} This made American occupation of the Philippine archipelago all the more difficult over the next few years. During the first four months of the guerrilla war, the Americans had nearly 500 casualties.{{sfn|Sexton|1939|p=237}} The Philippine Army began staging bloody ambushes and raids, such as the guerrilla victories at [[Battle of Paye|Paye]], [[Siege of Catubig|Catubig]], [[Battle of Makahambus Hill|Makahambus Hill]], [[Battle of Pulang Lupa|Pulang Lupa]], and [[Battle of Mabitac|Mabitac]]. At first, it seemed that the Filipinos might be able to fight the Americans to a stalemate and force them to withdraw. President McKinley considered withdrawal when the guerrilla raids began.

===Martial law===
On December 20, 1900, MacArthur, who had succeeded [[Elwell Otis]] as U.S. [[United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands|Military Governor]] on May 5,<ref>{{cite book|last=Pershing|first=John J.|title=My Life Before the World War, 1860—1917: A Memoir|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a74_JIbehzsC|year=2013|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-4199-2|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a74_JIbehzsC&dq=%225+May+1900%22&pg=PA547 547]}}</ref> placed the Philippines under martial law, invoking U.S. Army [[Lieber Code|General Order 100]]. He announced that guerrilla abuses would no longer be tolerated and outlined the rights which would govern the U.S. Army's treatment of guerrillas and civilians. In particular, guerrillas who wore no uniform but peasant dress and shifted from civilian to military status would be held accountable; secret committees that collected revolutionary taxes and those accepting U.S. protection in occupied towns while assisting guerrillas would be treated as "war rebels or war traitors". Filipino leaders who continued to work towards Philippine independence were deported to Guam.{{sfn|Linn|2000b|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-5WOrmt_VxcC&pg=PA23 23–24]}}

===Decline and fall of the First Philippine Republic===
{{Main|First Philippine Republic}}
[[File:Filipinoinsurgentssurrender.jpg|thumb|A group of Filipino combatants laying down their weapons during their surrender, c. 1900]]

The Philippine Army continued suffering defeats from the better armed United States Army during the conventional warfare phase, forcing Aguinaldo to continually change his [[base of operations]] throughout the course of the war.

On June 24, 1900, MacArthur as U.S. Military Governor published a proclamation offering full and complete amnesty to all insurgents who surrendered within ninety days.

On August 3, 1900, Aguinaldo issued a decree urging a continuation of the war and offering rewards for rifles and ammunition brought in by prisoners or deserters from opposing forces.<ref>{{cite book | last=Foreman | first=J. | title=The Philippine Islands: A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago, Embracing the Whole Period of Spanish Rule, with an Account of the Succeeding American Insular Government | publisher=C. Scribner's sons | series=Philippine culture series | year=1906 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pp8TAAAAYAAJ | page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pp8TAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22august%203,%201900%22&pg=PA505 505]}}</ref>

[[File:24th Infantry.jpg|thumb|The [[24th Infantry Regiment (United States)|24th U.S. Infantry]] (primarily made up of African American soldiers) at drill in Camp Walker, [[Cebu]], 1902]]

On March 23, 1901, General [[Frederick Funston]] and his troops captured Aguinaldo in [[Palanan, Isabela]], with the help of some Filipinos (called the [[Philippine Scouts|Macabebe Scouts]] after their home locale{{sfn|Birtle|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fW_aeCJJ9J0C&pg=PA116 116–118]}}{{sfn|Keenan|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JMRwK4ng_zYC&pg=PA211 211–212]}}) who had joined the Americans. The Americans pretended to be captives of the Scouts, who were dressed in Philippine Army uniforms. Once Funston and his "captors" entered Aguinaldo's camp, they quickly overwhelmed Aguinaldo's forces.{{sfn|Linn|2000a|p=275}}

On April 1, 1901, at [[Malacañang Palace]] in Manila, Aguinaldo swore an oath accepting the authority of the United States over the Philippines and pledging his allegiance to the American government. On April 19, he issued a Proclamation of Formal [[Surrender (military)|Surrender]] to the United States, telling his followers to lay down their weapons and give up the fight.

"Let the stream of blood cease to flow; let there be an end to tears and desolation," Aguinaldo said. "The lesson which the war holds out and the significance of which I realized only recently, leads me to the firm conviction that the complete termination of hostilities and a lasting peace are not only desirable but also absolutely essential for the well-being of the Philippines."<ref name=Aguinaldo1901/>{{sfn|Brands|1992|p=[https://archive.org/details/boundtoempireuni0000bran/page/59/mode/1up 59]}}

The capture of Aguinaldo dealt a severe blow to the Filipino cause, but not as much as the Americans had hoped. General [[Miguel Malvar]] took over the leadership of the Filipino government.<ref name=Cruz2008/> He originally had taken a defensive stance against the Americans, but launched an offensive against the American-held towns in the [[Batangas]] region.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=247–297}} General [[Vicente Lukbán]] in Samar, and other army officers, continued the war in their respective areas.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=247–297}}

General Bell relentlessly pursued Malvar and his men, forcing the surrender of many of the Filipino soldiers. Finally, Malvar surrendered, along with his sick wife and children and some of his officers, on April 16, 1902.{{sfn|Tucker|2009|p=217}}<ref name=Gazette2002/> By the end of the month nearly 3,000 of Malvar's men had also surrendered. With the surrender of Malvar, the Filipino war effort dwindled.{{sfn|Tucker|2009|pp=477–478}}

===Establishment of U.S. civil government===
[[File:Taft Addressing First Philippine Assembly 1907.jpg|thumb|Governor General [[William Howard Taft]] addressing the audience at the [[Philippine Assembly]] in the [[Manila Grand Opera House]]]]

On March 3, 1901, the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriation Act containing (along with the [[Platt Amendment]] on Cuba) the [[Spooner Amendment]] which provided the president with legislative authority to establish a civil government in the Philippines.<ref name="Piedad-Pugay">{{cite web|last=Piedad-Pugay|first=Chris Antonette|url=http://www.nhcp.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=147|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130710024109/http://www.nhcp.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=147|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 10, 2013|title=The Philippine Bill of 1902: Turning Point in Philippine Legislation|publisher=National Historical Commission of the Philippines|access-date=July 9, 2013}}</ref> Up until this time, the president had been administering the Philippines by virtue of his war powers.<ref name="Jernegan2009pp57-58">{{Harvnb|Jernegan|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=70XqApkaZ7YC&pg=PA57 57–58]}}</ref> On July 4, 1901, the office of U.S. Military Governor was terminated and civil government was inaugurated with [[William Howard Taft]] as civil governor.<ref name="Zaide1994ch21p281">{{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|p=281}}Ch.21</ref><ref name="Gates">{{cite book |author=Gates, John M. |chapter-url=http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805061319/http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html|archive-date=August 5, 2010|title=The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare |chapter=The Pacification of the Philippines |date=November 2002 |access-date=February 20, 2010}}</ref> Hostilities continued, and the civil governor shared power and control with the U.S. military government.

A centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using English as the medium of instruction. This created a heavy shortage of teachers, and the Philippine Commission authorized the secretary of public instruction to engage 600 teachers from the U.S.—the so-called [[Thomasites]]. Free primary schools that instructed on duties of citizenship and avocation was introduced.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.deped.gov.ph/about_deped/history.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716160809/http://www.deped.gov.ph/about_deped/history.asp|archive-date=July 16, 2011|title=Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System|publisher=RP Department of education|access-date=March 11, 2008}}</ref> The Catholic Church was officially disestablished, and much church land was purchased and redistributed.

An anti-[[sedition]] law was established in 1901, followed by an anti-[[brigandage]] law in 1902.<ref name="Hernandez">{{cite book |last1=Hernandez |first1=Jose Rhommel B. |editor1-last=Lee Lai To |editor2-last=Zarina Othman |title=Regional Community Building in East Asia: Countries in Focus |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781317265566 |page=144 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |chapter=The Philippines: Everything in place}}</ref>

===Resistance===
Guerrilla activity continued in some areas, notably in Samar under Lukbán and in Batangas under Malvar. In Samar, the [[Balangiga massacre]] led to the [[march across Samar]]; Lukbán was captured on 18 February 1902. Some sources assert that Malvar succeeded to the titular presidency of the Philippine Republic after Aguinaldo's capture; he surrendered in April 1902.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2002/04/09/proclamation-no-173-s-2002/|title=Proclamation No. 173. s. 2002|date=April 9, 2002|publisher=Official Gazette of the Philippine Government.}}</ref>

===Official end of the war===
On July 4, [[Theodore Roosevelt]], who had succeeded to the U.S. presidency, proclaimed officially that the war was at an end and extended a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine Archipelago who had participated in the conflict.<ref name=AmnestyProc /><ref name="worcester1914ch9p180">{{Harvnb|Worcester|1914|p=[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=56151&pageno=180 180]}}Ch.9</ref>{{sfn|Worcester|1914|p=293}}<ref name=NYT19020704/>

On April 9, 2002, Philippine President [[Gloria Macapagal Arroyo]] proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902, with the surrender of Malvar.<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2002/04/09/proclamation-no-173-s-2002/|title=Presidential Proclamation No. 173 S. 2002|date=April 9, 2002|publisher=Official Gazette}}</ref><ref name="auto1">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2002/04/16/speech-of-president-arroyo-during-the-commemoration-of-the-centennial-celebration-of-the-end-of-the-philippine-american-war/|title=Speech of President Arroyo during the Commemoration of the Centennial Celebration of the end of the Philippine-American War April 16, 2002|work=Official Gazette|date=April 16, 2002 |publisher=Government of the Philippines}}</ref> She declared the centennial anniversary of that date as a national working holiday and as a special non-working holiday in the province of Batangas and in the cities of Batangas, [[Lipa, Batangas|Lipa]], and [[Tanauan, Batangas|Tanauan]].<ref name="auto"/><ref name="auto1"/><ref name=Gazette2002/>

The [[Kiram–Bates Treaty]] secured the [[Sultanate of Sulu]].<ref name=Bates>{{cite web|url=http://www.philippineupdate.com/Bates.htm|title=The Bates Treaty|first=Madge|last=Kho|publisher=PhilippineUpdate.com|access-date=December 2, 2007}}</ref> American forces also established control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period|author=Aguilar-Cariño, Ma. Luisa|year=1994|journal=Philippine Studies|volume=42|issue=2|pages=194–209|jstor=42633435}}</ref>

==Casualties==
{{multiple image
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Filipino casualties were much greater than among Americans. The [[United States Department of State]] states that the war "resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants", and that "as many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease".<ref name="milestones" /><ref name="burdeos2008p14casualties" /> The total number of Filipinos who died remains a matter of debate. Modern sources cite a figure of 200,000 dead civilian Filipinos, with most losses attributable to famine and disease.<ref name="Clodfelter" /><ref name="Valentino2005" /><ref name="Graff1969" /> A cholera epidemic at the war's end killed between 150,000 and 200,000 people.<ref>{{cite book |author=David Silbey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Vp63xXFh64C&pg=PA200 |title=A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine–American War, 1899–1902 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |year=2008 |isbn=9780809096619 |pages=200–01}}</ref>

Some estimates reach 1,000,000 dead.{{sfn|Tucker|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA478 478]}}<ref name="burdeos2008p14casualties" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=Clem|first=Andrew|date=2016|title=The Filipino Genocide|url=https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1138&context=historical-perspectives|access-date=November 4, 2021|website=Santa Clara University Scholar Commons}}</ref> In 1903 the population of the Philippines was counted by American authorities. The survey yielded 7,635,426 people, including 56,138 foreign born.<ref name="CensusSanger1905">{{Cite book |last1=United States. Bureau of the Census |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h6QJAAAAIAAJ |title=Census of the Philippine Islands: Taken Under the Direction of the Philippine Commission in the Year 1903, in Four Volumes ... |last2=Joseph Prentiss Sanger |last3=Henry Gannett |last4=Victor Hugo Olmsted |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |year=1905 |access-date=September 19, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216193417/https://books.google.com/books?id=h6QJAAAAIAAJ |archive-date=February 16, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1887, a Spanish census recorded a population of 5,984,717 excluding non-Christians.<ref name="TroiGawpo">{{cite web|url=http://www.cicred.org/Eng/Publications/pdf/c-c42.pdf|title=The Population of The Philippines|author=Aurora E. Perez|year=1997}}</ref>

[[Rudolph Rummel]] estimates that 16,000 to 20,000 Filipino soldiers and 34,000 civilians were killed, with up to an additional 200,000 civilian deaths, mostly from a [[cholera]] epidemic.{{sfn|Boot|2014|p=125}}<ref name="Rummel1998">{{cite book|last=Rummel|first=Rudolph J.|author-link=Rudolph Rummel|title=Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LFDWp7O9_dIC|year=1998|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-4010-5|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LFDWp7O9_dIC&dq=%22128,000%22&pg=PA201 201]}}</ref>{{sfn|Ramsey|2007|p=103}}

==Atrocities==

===American atrocities===
{{See also|United States war crimes#Philippine–American War|United States Senate Committee on the Philippines#Investigation}}
[[File:Editorial cartoon about Jacob Smith's retaliation for Balangiga.PNG|thumb|Brigadier General [[Jacob H. Smith]]'s infamous order "''KILL EVERY ONE OVER TEN''" became the caption in the ''[[New York Journal]]'' cartoon on May 5, 1902. The [[Old Glory]] draped an [[Great Seal of the United States|American shield]] on which a vulture replaced the bald eagle. The caption at the bottom proclaimed, "''Criminals Because They Were Born Ten Years Before We Took the Philippines''".]]
[[File:Life 05-22-1902.JPG|thumb|1902 [[Life (magazine)|''Life'' magazine]] cover, depicting [[Water cure (torture)|water curing]] by U.S. Army troops in the Philippines]]

Throughout the war, numerous atrocities were committed by the U.S. military, including the targeting of civilians. American soldiers and other witnesses sent letters home that described some of these atrocities. For example, In 1902, the Manila correspondent of the ''[[Public Ledger (Philadelphia)|Philadelphia Ledger]]'' wrote:

{{blockquote|The present war is no bloodless, [[opera bouffe]] engagement; our men have been relentless, have killed to exterminate men, women, children, prisoners and captives, active insurgents and suspected people from lads of ten up, the idea prevailing that the Filipino as such was little better than a dog...{{sfn|Zinn|2003|p=230}}}}

Reports from returning soldiers stated that upon entering a village, American soldiers would ransack every house and church and rob the inhabitants of everything of value, while Filipinos who approached the battle line waving a flag of truce were fired upon.<ref name=Call18990801/>

Some of the authors were critical of leaders such as Major General Otis and the overall conduct of the war. In 1899, the [[American Anti-Imperialist League]] published a pamphlet of letters allegedly written by U.S. soldiers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Soldiers_Letters|title=Letters of soldiers during the Philippine-American War|via=Wikisource}}</ref> When some of these letters circulated in newspapers, they became national news, which forced the War Department to investigate. Examples:
* A soldier from New York: "The town of Titatia was surrendered to us a few days ago, and two companies occupy the same. Last night one of our boys was found shot and his stomach cut open. Immediately orders were received from General Wheaton to burn the town and kill every native in sight; which was done to a finish. About 1,000 men, women and children were reported killed. I am probably growing hard-hearted, for I am in my glory when I can sight my gun on some dark skin and pull the trigger."{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=88}}
* Corporal Sam Gillis: "We make everyone get into his house by seven p.m., and we only tell a man once. If he refuses we shoot him. We killed over 300 natives the first night. They tried to set the town on fire. If they fire a shot from the house we burn the house down and every house near it, and shoot the natives, so they are pretty quiet in town now."{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=89}}

Major General Otis' investigation of the content of these letters consisted of sending a copy of them to the author's superior and having him force the author to write a retraction. Soldiers such as Private Charles Brenner refused and he was [[court-martial]]ed. The charge was "for writing and conniving at the publication of an article which ... contains willful falsehoods concerning himself and a false charge against Captain Bishop."{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=89}} Not all such letters that discussed atrocities were intended to criticize General Otis or American actions. Many portrayed U.S. actions as the result of Filipino provocation and thus entirely justified.

[[File:Beriberi USNLM.jpg|left|thumb|224x224px|A man from [[Batangas]] riddled with [[beriberi]] contracted in a U.S. Army concentration camp, circa 1902]]
In September 1901, enraged by a guerrilla ambush on U.S. troops in Samar, Brigadier General [[Jacob H. Smith]] retaliated by ordering an indiscriminate attack upon its inhabitants, openly disregarding [[General Order 100]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp|title=General Orders No. 100: The Lieber Code|orig-date=1863|date=1898|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|via=Yale Law School}}</ref> and issuing an order to "kill everyone over the age of ten" and turn the island into a "howling wilderness".<ref>{{cite book | last1=Stone | first1=O. | last2=Kuznick | first2=P. | title=The Untold History of the United States | publisher=Gallery Books | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-4516-1352-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hZlFAQAAQBAJ |page=24 }}</ref> Major [[Littleton Waller]] countermanded the order to his own men saying, "we are not making war on women and children".<ref name="Couttie2005" /> Still, 2,000 to 2,500 Filipino civilians were killed in the expedition across Samar.<ref name="Bruno2011" /> This became a caption in the ''[[New York Journal-American]]'' cartoon on May 5, 1902. Smith was eventually court-martialed by the American military and forced to retire.<ref name="Bruno2011" /><ref name="young">Fritz, David L, Before "The Howling Wilderness": The Military Career of Jacob Heard Smith, ''Military Affairs'', November–December (1979), p. 186</ref>

In late 1901, Brigadier General [[J. Franklin Bell]] took command of American operations in Batangas and Laguna provinces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schirmer|first1=Daniel B.|last2=Shalom|first2=Stephen Rosskamm|title=The Philippines Reader: A History of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC|year=1987|publisher=South End Press|isbn=978-0-89608-275-5|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TXE73VWcsEEC&dq=bell+batangas+laguna&pg=PA17 17]}}</ref> In response to Malvar's guerrilla warfare tactics, Bell employed [[Counter-insurgency#Tactics|counterinsurgency tactics]] (described by some as a [[scorched earth]] campaign) that took a heavy toll on guerrilla fighters and civilians.{{sfn|Francisco|Jenkins|Taruc|Constantino<!--See note re truncating author list in {{sfn}} docs-->|1999|p=18}} "Zones of protection" were established,{{sfn|Worcester|1914|pp=290–293}}{{sfn|Storey|Codman|1902|pp=32, 64, 77–79, 89–95}} and civilians were given identification papers and forced into concentration camps (called ''reconcentrados'') surrounded by [[free-fire zone]]s.{{sfn|Storey|Codman|1902|pp=32, 64, 77–79, 89–95}} At the [[United States Senate Committee on the Philippines|Lodge Committee]], in an attempt to counter the negative reception in America to Brigadier General Bell's camps, Colonel [[Arthur L. Wagner|Arthur Wagner]], the U.S. Army's chief public relations office, insisted the camps were to "protect friendly natives from the insurgents, and assure them an adequate food supply" while teaching them "proper sanitary standards". Wagner's assertion was undermined by a letter from a commander of one of the camps, who described them as "some [[suburb]] of [[Hell]]".<ref>Stuart Creighton Miller, ''Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903'', 1982 p. 244.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Pitzer |first=Andrea |date=2019-06-21 |title='Some Suburb of Hell': America's New Concentration Camp System |url=https://www.nybooks.com/online/2019/06/21/some-suburb-of-hell-americas-new-concentration-camp-system/ |access-date=2024-05-21 |website=The New York Review of Books |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Bud Dajo Massacre Trench on Jolo Island c1906.png|thumb|Aftermath of the [[First Battle of Bud Dajo]] in March 1906, in which up to 900 civilians, including women and children, were killed]]
Methods of torture such as the [[Water cure (torture)|water cure]] were frequently employed during interrogation,{{sfn|Storey|Codman|1902|pp=44, 48–49, 61–62, 65, 67}} and entire villages were burned or otherwise destroyed.{{sfn|Storey|Codman|1902|pp=10, 38, 64, 95}}

During the [[First Battle of Bud Dajo]] in March 1906, 800–900 [[Moro people|Moros]], including women and children, were killed by U.S. Marines under the command of Major General [[Leonard Wood]]. The description of the engagement as a "battle" is disputed because of the overwhelming firepower of the attackers and the lopsided casualties; 99% of Moros were killed in the attack, with only six survivors. Author [[Vic Hurley]] wrote, "By no stretch of the imagination could Bud Dajo be termed a 'battle'".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hurley |first=Vic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgacaW_qEOQC&q=by+no+stretch+of+the+imagination+could+bud+dajo+battle&pg=PA186 |title=Swish of the Kris, the Story of the Moros, Authorized and Enhanced Edition |date=October 2010 |publisher=Cerberus Books |isbn=978-0-615-38242-5 |language=en}}</ref> [[Mark Twain]] commented, "In what way was it a battle? It has no resemblance to a battle ... We cleaned up our four days' work and made it complete by butchering these helpless people."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Twain |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o101DwAAQBAJ&q=twain+complete+works+comments+moro&pg=PT5120 |title=The Complete Works of Mark Twain (Illustrated Edition): Novels, Short Stories, Memoir, Travel Books, Letters, Biography, Articles & Speeches: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer & Huckleberry Finn, Life on the Mississippi, Yankee in King Arthur's Court... |date=2017-07-20 |publisher=e-artnow |isbn=978-80-268-7814-8 |language=en}}</ref>

===Filipino atrocities===
U.S. Army Major General Otis alleged that Filipino insurgents tortured American prisoners of war in "fiendish fashion". According to Otis, many were buried alive or were buried up to their necks in ant hills. He claimed others had their genitals removed and stuffed into their mouths and were then executed by suffocation or bled to death.{{sfn|Miller|1982|pp=92–93}} Stories in other newspapers described deliberate attacks by Filipino sharpshooters upon American surgeons, chaplains, ambulances, hospitals, and wounded soldiers.<ref name=Call18990221/> An incident was described in ''[[The San Francisco Call]]'' that occurred in [[Escalante, Negros Occidental]], where several crewmen of a landing party from the [[Cable layer|CS]] ''Recorder'' were fired upon and later disemboweled by Filipino insurgents, while the insurgents displayed a [[White flag#Contemporary use|flag of truce]].<ref name=Call18990529/>

It was reported that Spanish priests were mutilated before their congregations, and Filipinos who refused to support Aguinaldo were slaughtered in the thousands. American newspaper headlines announced the "Murder and Rapine" by the "Fiendish Filipinos". Brigadier General [[Joseph Wheeler]] insisted that Filipinos had mutilated their own dead, murdered women and children, and burned down villages, solely to discredit American soldiers.{{sfn|Miller|1982|pp=92–93}} [[Apolinario Mabini]], in his autobiography, confirms these offenses, stating that Aguinaldo did not punish Filipino troops who engaged in [[war rape]], burned and looted villages, or stole and destroyed private property.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mabini |first=Apolinario |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-hQMAAAAIAAJ |title=Memoirs of the Philippine Revolution |date=1964 |publisher=Asvel Publishing Company |language=en}}</ref>

Other Filipino atrocities included those attributed by the Americans to Filipino commander Lukbán, who allegedly masterminded the Balangiga massacre in Samar province, a surprise Filipino attack that killed almost fifty American soldiers.<ref name=Oswald2001/> Media reports stated that many bodies were mutilated.{{sfn|Boot|2014|p=204}}

Testimony before the Lodge Committee stated that natives were given the water cure, "... in order to secure information of the murder of Private O'Herne of Company I, who had been not only killed, but roasted and otherwise tortured before death ensued."<ref name=NYT19020504/>

In his ''History of the Filipino People'', Agoncillo writes that Filipino troops could match/exceed American brutality. Kicking, slapping, and spitting at faces were common. In some cases, ears and noses were cut off and salt applied to the wounds. In other cases, captives were buried alive. These atrocities occurred regardless of Aguinaldo's orders and circulars concerning the treatment of prisoners.{{sfn|Agoncillo|1990|pp=227–231}}

Worcester recounts two specific Filipino atrocities as follows:

{{blockquote|A detachment, marching through Leyte, found an American who had disappeared a short time before crucified, head down. His abdominal wall had been carefully opened so that his intestines might hang down in his face. Another American prisoner, found on the same trip, had been buried in the ground with only his head projecting. His mouth had been propped open with a stick, a trail of sugar laid to it through the forest, and a handful thrown into it. Millions of ants had done the rest.{{sfn|Worcester|1914|p=384}}}}

==Campaigns==
{{Main|Campaigns of the Philippine–American War}}

==Political atmosphere==

===First Philippine Commission===
{{main article|Schurman Commission}}
The Schurman Commission concluded that "... The Filipinos are wholly unprepared for independence ... there being no Philippine nation, but only a collection of different peoples."<ref name="golay1997pp50-51">{{Harvnb|Golay|1997|pp=50–51}}.</ref> In the report that they issued to McKinley the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it. Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian control over Manila (Otis would have [[veto]] power over the city's government), creation of civilian government as rapidly as possible, especially in areas already declared "pacified",{{sfn|Miller|1982|p=132}} including the establishment of a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools.<ref name="Seekins1993US-Rule">{{Harvnb|Seekins|1993|Ref=Seekins1993US-Rule}}</ref>

On November 2, 1900, Schurman signed the following statement:
{{blockquote|Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would speedily lapse into [[anarchy]], which would excuse, if it did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, self-governing, and united Philippine commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the Filipino point of view of maintaining American sovereignty over the archipelago is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even by those insurgents who desire an American protectorate. The latter, it is true, would take the revenues and leave us the responsibilities. Nevertheless, they recognize the indubitable fact that the Filipinos cannot stand alone. Thus the welfare of the Filipinos coincides with the dictates of national honour in forbidding our abandonment of the archipelago. We cannot from any point of view escape the responsibilities of government which our sovereignty entails; and the commission is strongly persuaded that the performance of our national duty will prove the greatest blessing to the peoples of the Philippine Islands. [...]{{sfn|Schurman|Dewey|Denby|Worcester|1900|p=[https://archive.org/stream/reportofphilippi01unit#page/183/mode/1u 183]}}|sign=|source=}}

===Second Philippine Commission===
{{Main|Taft Commission}}

The Second Philippine Commission, appointed by President McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by [[William Howard Taft]], was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers.{{sfn|Kalaw|1927|pp=[http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=philamer;cc=philamer;idno=afj2233.0001.001;frm=frameset;view=image;seq=473;page=root;size=s 452–459] (Appendix F)}} On September 1, the Taft Commission began to exercise legislative functions.<ref name="Zaide1994ch24p280">{{Harvnb|Zaide|1994|p=280}}Ch.21</ref> Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws.<ref name="chronphil">{{Citation|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/chronphil.html|title=Chronology for the Philippine Islands and Guam in the Spanish–American War|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress|access-date=February 16, 2008}}</ref> The commission established a [[civil service]] and a [[Judiciary|judicial system]] that included a [[Supreme Court of the Philippines|Supreme Court]], and a [[Code of law|legal code]] was drawn up to replace obsolete Spanish ordinances. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on [[Municipalities of the Philippines|municipal boards]]. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors.<ref name=dolan1991USRule /><ref name=ChanRobles1902/><ref name=Seekins1993US-Rule/>

===American opposition===
Some Americans, notably William Jennings Bryan, Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, [[Ernest Crosby]], and other members of the American Anti-Imperialist League, strongly objected to the annexation of the Philippines. Anti-imperialist movements claimed that the United States had become a colonial power.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-10-09 |title=Anti-Imperialism and Liberty, by Michael P. Cullinane |url=http://www.antiimperialist.com/webroot/1647.html |access-date=2022-08-30 |website= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009174631/http://www.antiimperialist.com/webroot/1647.html |archive-date=9 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Platform of the American Antilmperialist League |url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1899antiimp.asp |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=Internet History Sourcebooks Fordham Institute}}</ref>

Some anti-imperialists opposed annexation on racist grounds. Among these was Senator [[Benjamin Tillman]] of South Carolina, who feared that annexation of the Philippines would lead to an influx of non-white immigrants into the United States. Others worried that annexing the Philippines would lead to the non-white population having a say in the American government.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Milestones: 1899–1913 – Office of the Historian|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war|access-date=2021-06-06|website=history.state.gov}}</ref>

As news of atrocities committed in subduing the Philippines arrived in the United States, support for the war flagged.<ref>{{Cite journal | last=Welch | first=Richard E. Jr. |date=May 1974 |title=American Atrocities in the Philippines: The Indictment and the Response |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/phr/article/43/2/233/66676/American-Atrocities-in-the-Philippines-The |access-date=2022-08-30 |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=233–253 |doi=10.2307/3637551|jstor=3637551 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brewer |first=Susan A |date=October 1, 2013 |title=Selling Empire: American Propaganda and War in the Philippines |url=https://apjjf.org/-Susan-A--Brewer/4002/article.pdf |journal=The Asia-Pacific Journal |volume=11 |issue=40 |pages=1–26 |via=The Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus}}</ref>

====Mark Twain====
Mark Twain opposed the war using his influence in the press. He said the war betrayed the ideals of American democracy by not allowing the Filipino people to choose their own destiny:

{{blockquote|There is the case of the Philippines. I have tried hard, and yet I cannot for the life of me comprehend how we got into that mess. Perhaps we could not have avoided it—perhaps it was inevitable that we should come to be fighting the natives of those islands—but I cannot understand it, and have never been able to get at the bottom of the origin of our antagonism to the natives. I thought we should act as their protector—not try to get them under our heel. We were to relieve them from Spanish tyranny to enable them to set up a government of their own, and we were to stand by and see that it got a fair trial. It was not to be a government according to our ideas, but a government that represented the feeling of the majority of the Filipinos, a government according to Filipino ideas. That would have been a worthy mission for the United States. But now—why, we have got into a mess, a quagmire from which each fresh step renders the difficulty of extrication immensely greater. I'm sure I wish I could see what we were getting out of it, and all it means to us as a nation.<ref name=Twain1900/>}}

In a diary passage, Twain refers to American troops as "our uniformed assassins" and describes their killing of "six hundred helpless and weaponless savages" in the Philippines as "a long and happy picnic with nothing to do but sit in comfort and fire the Golden Rule into those people down there and imagine letters to write home to the admiring families, and pile glory upon glory".<ref name=Rohter2010/>

===Filipino opposition===
[[File:Aguinaldo (seated 3d from right) and other Insurgent leaders., ca. 1900 - NARA - 542446.tif|thumb|Aguinaldo (seated 3d from right) and other insurgent leaders., {{circa|1900}}]]

Some of Aguinaldo's associates supported America, even before hostilities began. [[Pedro Paterno]], Aguinaldo's prime minister and the author of the 1897 armistice treaty with Spain, advocated the incorporation of the Philippines into the United States in 1898. Other associates sympathetic to the U.S. included [[Trinidad Pardo de Tavera]] and [[Benito Legarda]], prominent members of Congress; [[Gregorio Araneta]], Aguinaldo's Secretary of Justice; and [[Felipe Buencamino]], Aguinaldo's [[Secretary of Foreign Affairs]]. Buencamino is recorded to have said in 1902: "I am an American and all the money in the Philippines, the air, the light, and the sun I consider American." Many supporters subsequently held posts in the colonial government.<ref name=Buencamino1902/>

U.S. Army Captain [[Matthew Arlington Batson]] formed the [[Macabebe Scouts]]<ref name=Macabebes/> as a native guerrilla force to fight the insurgency from among a tribe of that name having a history of antipathy with [[Tagalog people|Tagalogs]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Beede | first=B.R. | title=The War of 1898, and U.S. Interventions, 1898-1934: An Encyclopedia | publisher=Garland | series=Garland reference library of the humanities | year=1994 | isbn=978-0-8240-5624-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC | page=[https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&pg=PA273 273]}}</ref>

==Aftermath==

===Post-1902 conflicts===
{{Further|Moro Rebellion}}
[[File:Knocking Out the Moros. DA Poster 21-48.jpg|left|thumb|"Knocking Out the Moros": illustration depicting the [[Battle of Bud Bagsak]] in June 1913, which ended the [[Moro Rebellion]] in [[Jolo]]]]

After military rule was terminated on July 4, 1902,{{sfn|Worcester|1914|p=293}} the [[Philippine Constabulary]] was established as an archipelago-wide police force to control [[brigandage]] and deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement. Commanded by Brigadier General [[Henry Tureman Allen]], the Philippine Constabulary gradually took responsibility for suppressing hostile forces' activities.<ref name=dolan1991USRule /> Remnants of Aguinaldo's Republic, and remnants or holdovers of the ''Katipunan'' organization, which had predated the American presence, and other resistance groups all remained active, fighting for nearly a decade after the official end of the war.<ref name=Call19111012/> After the close of the war, however, Governor General Taft preferred to rely on the Philippine Constabulary and to treat this as a law enforcement concern. Thus the actions of these remaining [[guerrilla]] resistance movements were labeled as brigandage or banditry, and dismissed by the American government as bandits, fanatics and cattle rustlers.

In 1902, [[Macario Sakay]] established the ''[[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|Republika ng Katagalugan]]'', claiming to succeed the First Philippine Republic, in [[Rizal (province)|Morong]] [[Tagalog Republic#Bonifacio|along Katipunan lines]] as opposed to Aguinaldo's Republic. This republic ended in 1906 when Sakay and his top followers surrendered based on offer of amnesty from the American authorities. Instead, they were arrested by constabulary forces under Colonel [[Harry Hill Bandholtz]] and executed the following year.{{sfn|Ileto|1997|pp=193–197}}<ref name=Flores1996/><ref name="Duka">{{cite book |last1=Duka |first1=Cecilio D. |title=Struggle for Freedom |date=2008 |publisher=Rex Bookstore, Inc. |isbn=9789712350450 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA202}}</ref>{{rp|200–202}}<ref name="antonio abad">{{cite book|last=Kabigting Abad|first=Antonio|title=General Macario L. Sakay: Was He a Bandit or a Patriot?|year=1955|publisher=J. B. Feliciano and Sons Printers-Publishers}}{{Full citation needed|date=December 2020}}</ref>

Beginning in 1903, brigandage by organized groups became a problem in some outlying provinces in the [[Visayas]]. Among these groups were the [[Pulahan]] (Spanish: ''Pulajanes''), who were from the highlands of [[Samar]] and [[Leyte]]. The term is derived from the native word ''pula'', meaning "red", as they were distinguished by their red garments.{{sfn|Worcester|1914|pp=392–395}} The Pulajanes subscribed to a blend of [[Catholic]] and [[Animism|folk beliefs]]. For example, they believed certain [[amulet]]s called ''[[agimat]]'' would render them bulletproof. The last of these groups were defeated or had surrendered to the Philippine Constabulary by 1911.{{sfn|Worcester|1914|pp=392–395}}<ref name="Call19111012" />

The American government had signed the Kiram–Bates Treaty with the Sultanate of Sulu at the outbreak of the war, which was supposed to prevent resistance in that part of the Philippines (which included parts of [[Mindanao]], the [[Sulu Archipelago]], [[Palawan]], and [[Sabah]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://claimsabah.wordpress.com/2011/08/31/the-kiram-bates-treaty/|title=The Kiram-Bates Treaty|date=August 31, 2011}}</ref> However, after the First Philippine Republic collapsed, the United States canceled the treaty, and began to colonize Moroland, which provoked the [[Moro Rebellion]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Welman|first=Frans|title=Face of the New Peoples Army of the Philippines: Volume Two Samar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp1zcswA0LgC|year=2012|publisher=Booksmango|isbn=978-616-222-163-7|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Xp1zcswA0LgC&dq=%22united+states%22+provoked+moro+rebellion&pg=PA134 134]}}</ref> beginning with the [[Battle of Bayan]] in May 1902. The rebellion continued until the [[Battle of Bud Bagsak]] in June 1913, in which Moro forces under [[Datu]] Amil were defeated by US troops led by Brigadier General [[John J. Pershing]]. The battle marked the end of the Moro conflict; negotiations between the US authorities and Sulu Sultanate continued until the latter's dissolution in March 1915.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Choy |first1=Catherine Ceniza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=04lZDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA184 |title=Gendering the Trans-Pacific World |last2=Wu |first2=Judy Tzu-Chun |author-link2=Judy Tzu-Chun Wu |date=13 March 2017 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-33610-0 |page=184}}</ref>

A 1907 law prohibited the display of flags and other symbols "used during the late insurrection in the Philippine Islands".<ref name="Hernandez" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lumbera |first1=Bienvenido |title=Philippine Studies: Have We Gone Beyond St. Louis? |editor1-last=Patajo-Legasto |editor1-first=Priscelina |date=2008 |publisher=The University of the Philippines Press |isbn=9789715425919 |chapter=Splintering Identity: Modes of Filipino Resistance Under Colonial Repression |page=90 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uF6WDAQHu08C&pg=PA90}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1907/08/23/act-no-1696-s-1907/ |title=Act No. 1696, s. 1907 |date=August 23, 1907 |publisher=Government of the Philippines |access-date=11 February 2021}}</ref> Some historians consider these unofficial extensions to be part of the war.<ref>{{Harvnb|Constantino|1975|pp=251–3}}</ref>

===Cultural impact===
The influence of the Roman Catholic Church was reduced when the secular United States Government [[disestablish]]ed the Church and purchased and redistributed Church lands, one of the earliest attempts at [[land reform in the Philippines]].<ref name=dolan1991USRule /> The land amounted to {{convert|170917|ha|acre}}, for which the Church asked $12,086,438.11 in March 1903.{{sfn|Escalante|2007|pp=223–224}} The purchase was completed on December 22, 1903, at a sale price of $7,239,784.66.{{sfn|Escalante|2007|p=226}} The land redistribution program was stipulated in at least three laws: the Philippine Organic Act,<ref name=ChanRobles1902/> the Public Lands Act,<ref name=ChanRobles1903/> and the Friar Lands Act.<ref name=ChanRobles1904/>{{sfn|Escalante|2007|p=218}} Section 10 of the Public Lands Act limited purchases to a maximum of 16 hectares for an individual or 1024 hectares for a corporation or like association.<ref name=ChanRobles1903/>{{sfn|Escalante|2007|p=219}} Land was also offered for lease to landless farmers, at prices ranging from fifty centavos to one peso and fifty centavos per hectare per annum.<ref name=ChanRobles1903/>{{sfn|Escalante|2007|p=219}} Section 28 of the Public Lands Act stipulated that lease contracts ran for a maximum of 25 years, renewable for another 25 years.<ref name=ChanRobles1903/>{{sfn|Escalante|2007|p=219}}

In 1901, at least five hundred teachers (365 males and 165 females) arrived from the U.S. aboard the {{USAT|Thomas}}. The name "Thomasite" was adopted for these teachers, who established education as one of America's contributions to the Philippines. Among the assignments given were [[Albay]], [[Catanduanes]], [[Camarines Norte]], [[Camarines Sur]], [[Sorsogon]], and [[Masbate]], which are the present day [[Bicol Region]], which was heavily resistant to American rule. Twenty-seven of the original Thomasites either died of [[tropical disease]]s or were murdered by Filipino rebels during their first 20 months of residence. Despite the hardships, the Thomasites persisted, teaching and building learning institutions. They opened the Philippine Normal School (now [[Philippine Normal University]]) and the [[Philippine School of Arts and Trades]] (PSAT) in 1901 and reopened the [[Philippine Nautical School]], established in 1839 by the Board of Commerce of Manila under Spain. By the end of 1904, primary courses were mostly taught by Filipinos under American supervision.<ref name=Thomasites/>

According to historian [[Daniel Immerwahr]], the first 15 American officers to hold the office of [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]] all served in the Philippine–American War.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Immerwahr |first=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GYtbDwAAQBAJ |title=How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States |date=2019-02-19 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-0-374-71512-0 |language=en}}</ref> Some veterans of the war, including [[Douglas MacArthur]], [[Chester W. Nimitz]], and [[Walter Krueger]] were senior commanders in the [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|US campaign to liberate the Philippines]] from the Empire of Japan during World War II.

====In the media====
Multiple films were based on the war: ''[[Virgin Forest]]'' (1985), ''[[Baler (film)|Baler]]'' (2008), ''[[Amigo (film)|Amigo]]'' (2010), ''[[El Presidente (film)|El Presidente]]'' (2012), ''[[Heneral Luna]]'' (2015), and ''[[Goyo: The Boy General]]'' (2018). The film ''[[Sakay (film)|Sakay]]'' portrays the latter part of the life of Filipino patriot and hero Macario Sakay. ''[[Malvar: Tuloy ang Laban]]'' is a biographical film about the life of Miguel Malvar; it has been in development since 2000 and is still pending release.

The 1945 film ''[[Last Stand in the Philippines|Los últimos de Filipinas]]'' and the 2016 film ''[[1898, Our Last Men in the Philippines|1898, Los últimos de Filipinas]]'' depict the [[siege of Baler]].

In the U,S., the 1926 film ''[[Across the Pacific (1926 film)|Across the Pacific]]'' and the 1949 film ''Last Stand in the Philippines'' are about or are set against a background of the war. The 1939 film ''[[The Real Glory]]'' is set against the backdrop of the Moro Rebellion beginning in 1906.

===Philippine independence and sovereignty (1946)===
{{Further|History of the Philippines (1946–1965)}}
[[File:Manuel L. Quezon (November 1942).jpg|thumb|[[Manuel L. Quezón]], the first president of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] (from 1935 to 1944) and former revolutionary military commander]]

The Schurman Commission declared that the Philippines was not ready for independence. Specific recommendations included the rapid establishment of civilian government, including establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a new system of [[Free public education|free public]] [[elementary schools]].<ref name=dolan1991USRule />

From the beginning, United States presidents and their representatives in the islands defined their colonial mission as tutelage: preparing the Philippines for eventual independence.{{sfn|Escalante|2007|pp=48–54}} Except for a small group of "retentionists", the issue was not whether the Philippines would be granted self-rule, but when and under what conditions.{{sfn|Escalante|2007|pp=48–54}} Thus, political development in the islands was rapid in light of the complete lack of representative institutions under the Spanish. The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 stipulated that with the achievement of peace, a legislature would be established composed of a popularly elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly, and an upper house consisting of the Philippine Commission, which was to be appointed by the United States president.<ref name=dolan1991USRule>{{Cite web|url=https://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm|title=Philippines - UNITED STATES RULE|website=countrystudies.us}}</ref>

The [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Act]], passed by the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] in 1916 to serve as the [[organic law]] in the Philippines, promised eventual independence and instituted an elected [[Senate of the Philippines|Philippine Senate]]. The [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] (officially the Philippine Independence Act; Public Law 73–127) approved on March 24, 1934, provided for self-government and for independence after ten years. World War II intervened, bringing the [[History of the Philippines#World War II and Japanese occupation|Japanese occupation]] between 1941 and 1945. In 1946, the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]] between the governments of the U.S. and the Republic of the Philippines provided for the recognition of the independence of the Philippines and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the islands.


==See also==
==See also==
* [[List of protected areas of the Philippines]]
* [[Campaigns of the Philippine–American War]]
* [[Foreign interventions by the United States]]
* [[Environment of the Philippines]]
* [[Anti-Americanism#Philippines|Anti-Americanism in the Philippines]]
* [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)]]
* [[List of Philippine–American War Medal of Honor recipients]]
* [[List of wars between democracies]]
* [[Philippines–United States relations]]
* [[Timeline of the Philippine–American War]]
* [[United States involvement in regime change]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=Aguinaldo1901>{{cite web|last=Aguinaldo y Famy|first=Don Emilio|author-link=Emilio Aguinaldo|title=Aguinaldo's Proclamation of Formal Surrender to the United States|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=Kabayan Central Net Works Inc.|location=Pasig, Philippines|date=April 19, 1901|url=http://filipino.biz.ph/history/ag010419.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=Avalon>{{cite web|title=Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain; December 10, 1898|work=[[Avalon Project|The Avalon Project]]|publisher=Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School|location=New Haven, Connecticut|year=2008|url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=Bruno2011>{{cite journal|last=Bruno|first=Thomas A|title=The Violent End of Insurgency on Samar, 1901–1902|journal=Army History|volume=79|issue=Spring|pages=30–46|year=2011|url=http://www.history.army.mil/armyhistory/AH79(W)r.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name=Buencamino1902>{{cite book|last=Buencamino |first=Felipe|author-link=Felipe Buencamino|title=Statement before the Committee on Insular Affairs on conditions in the Philippine islands|pages=64|publisher=United States Government Publishing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1902|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rliFqt4HgVwC&pg=PA64}}</ref>

<!-- not used
<ref name=Call1899>''[[San Francisco Call]]'' February 23, March 30, 31, 1899.</ref>
-->

<ref name=Call18990214>{{cite news|author=Special Dispatch|title=Iloilo is taken and no American loses his life|newspaper=San Francisco Call|location=San Francisco|volume=85|issue=76|page=1|date=February 14, 1899|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SFC18990214}}</ref>
<ref name=Call18990221>{{cite news|last=Bennett|first=James Gordon|author-link=James Gordon Bennett Jr.|title=Aguinaldo's dusky demons in arms making war on those who aid the wounded|newspaper=San Francisco Call|location=San Francisco|volume=85|issue=83|page=1|date=February 21, 1899|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SFC18990221.2.5&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------}}</ref>
<ref name=Call18990529>{{cite news|author=Special Dispatch|title=Treachery of natives of Negros: display a flag of truce and then fire upon landing party of Americans|newspaper=San Francisco Call|location=San Francisco|volume=85|issue=180|page=1|date=May 29, 1899|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SFC18990529}}</ref>
<ref name=Call18990801>{{cite news|last=Coulter|first=Clinton R.|title=Our policy in the Philippines|newspaper=San Francisco Call|location=San Francisco|volume=86|issue=62|page=6|date=August 1, 1899|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SFC18990801.2.111&e=-------en--20--1--txt-txIN--------1}}</ref>

<!-- <ref name=Call18990914>{{cite news|title=There was no necessity for war in the Philippine islands|newspaper=San Francisco Call|location=San Francisco|volume=86|issue=106|page=1|date=September 14, 1899|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SFC18990914}}</ref> -->

<ref name=Call19111012>{{cite news|title=Otoy, Filipino bandit, slain by Constabulary|newspaper=San Francisco Call|location=San Francisco|volume=110|issue=134|page=5|date=October 12, 1911|url=https://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=SFC19111012.2.58}}</ref>
<ref name=ChanRobles1902>{{cite web|title=The Philippine Bill (enacted July 1, 1902)|work=ChanRobles Virtual Law Library: Philippine Laws, Statutes & Codes|publisher=ChanRobles & Associates Law Firm|location=Manila|year=2016|url=http://www.chanrobles.com/philippinebillof1902.htm|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=ChanRobles1903>{{cite web|title=Act No. 926 (enacted October 7, 1903)|work=ChanRobles Virtual Law Library: Philippine Laws, Statutes & Codes|publisher=ChanRobles & Associates Law Firm|location=Manila|year=2016|url=http://www.chanrobles.com/acts/actsno926.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=ChanRobles1904>{{cite web|title=Act No. 1120 (enacted April 26, 1904)|work=ChanRobles Virtual Law Library: Philippine Laws, Statutes & Codes|publisher=ChanRobles & Associates Law Firm|location=Manila|year=2016|url=http://www.chanrobles.com/acts/actsno1120.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=Chaput1980>{{cite journal|last=Chaput|first=Donald|title=Private William W Grayson's war in the Philippines, 1899|journal=Nebraska History|volume=61|pages=355–66|year=1980|url=http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1980GraysonWar1899.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522161102/http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1980GraysonWar1899.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref>
<ref name=Clodfelter>Clodfelter, Micheal, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991</ref>
<ref name=Couttie2005>"[http://www.philnews.com/2005/da4.html Bob Couttie] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017025246/http://www.philnews.com/2005/da4.html|date=October 17, 2015}}"</ref>
<ref name=Cruz2008>Cruz, Maricel V. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081211205431/http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2008/jan/02/yehey/top_stories/20080102top6.html "Lawmaker: History wrong on Gen. Malvar"]. ''[[Manila Times]]'', January 2, 2008 (archived on December 11, 2008)</ref>
<ref name=Deady2005p55>{{harvnb|Deady|2005|p=55 (p. 3 of the pdf)}}</ref>
<ref name=Deady2005p55,67>{{harvnb|Deady|2005|p=55,67 (pp. 3, 14 of the pdf)}}</ref>
<ref name=Deady2005p57>{{harvnb|Deady|2005|p=57 (p. 5 of the pdf)}}</ref>
<ref name=Deady2005p58>{{harvnb|Deady|2005|p=58 (p. 6 of the pdf)}}</ref>
<ref name=Deady2005p62>{{harvnb|Deady|2005|p=62 (p. 10 of the pdf)}}</ref>

<!-- not used
<ref name=Digest1899>''[[Literary Digest]]'' Volume 18 (1899), p.&nbsp;499</ref>
<ref name=Digest1900>[[Literary Digest]] Volume 20 (1900), p.&nbsp;25;</ref>
-->

<ref name=Filipiniana>In the "[http://www.filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactID=T00000000007 Instructions of the President to the Philippine Commission] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227012601/http://www.filipiniana.net/ArtifactView.do?artifactID=T00000000007 |date=February 27, 2009 }}" dated April 7, 1900, [[President of the United States|President]] [[William McKinley]] reiterated the intentions of the United States Government to establish and organize governments, essentially popular in their form, in the municipal and provincial administrative divisions of the Philippine Islands. However, there was no official mention of any declaration of Philippine Independence.</ref>
<ref name=Flores1996>{{cite web|url=http://www.bibingka.com/phg/sakay/default.htm|last=Froles|first=Paul|title=Macario Sakay: Tulisán or Patriot?|publisher=Philippine History Group of Los Angeles|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609060908/http://www.bibingka.com/phg/sakay/default.htm|archive-date=June 9, 2007|df=mdy-all}}<!-- Note: Copyright 1996 by Paul Flores and PHGLA, published online by copyright-holder --></ref>
<ref name=Foner1972>Philip Sheldon Foner, The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism (1972) p. 626</ref>
<ref name=Gazette2002>{{cite news|last=Macapagal Arroyo|first=Gloria|author-link=Gloria Macapagal Arroyo|title=Proclamation No. 173. s. 2002|newspaper=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|location=Manila|date=April 9, 2002|url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2002/04/09/proclamation-no-173-s-2002/|access-date=December 25, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
<ref name=Gazette2016>{{cite web|title=Diplomatic relations between the Philippines and Japan|work=Diplomatic relations|publisher=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines|location=Manila|year=2016|url=http://www.gov.ph/diplomatic-relations/ph-jp/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827063805/http://www.gov.ph/diplomatic-relations/ph-jp/|archive-date=August 27, 2015|quote=On February 4, 1899, the Philippine-American War broke out. A handful of Japanese ''shishi'', or ultranationalists, fought alongside President Aguinaldo's army. They landed in Manila, led by Captain Hara Tei and joined Aguinaldo's forces in Bataan.|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=CTribune> {{cite web|title=GERMANY'S PHILIPPINE PLAN|work=Chicago Tribune|date=February 28, 1899|url=https://newspapers.com/image/355200542/?match=1&terms=GERMANY%27S%20PHILIPPINE%20PLAN|access-date=May 21, 2024}}</ref>
<ref name=ShawFrancia> {{cite book|title=Vestiges of War: The Philippine-American War and the Aftermath of an Imperial Dream 1899-1999| isbn=978-0-8147-9791-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1v48DAAAQBAJ|access-date=May 24, 2024 | last1=Shaw | first1=Angel Velasco | last2=Francia | first2=Luis H. | date=December 2002 | publisher=NYU Press }} In January 1899, German diplomat Gotthard Klocke sent a letter to Philippine Secretary of the Interior Teodoro Sandico, offering to serve as a special agent for the Philippine government. This resulted in the delivery of a shipment of several batteries of Krupp guns from Germany to arm Philippine forces against the Americans, which was reported by the Chicago Tribune on February 28, 1899 while the German arms shipment was still en route to the Philippines</ref>

<!-- not used

<ref name=Globe1900>''[[Boston Globe]]'' June 27, 1900</ref>
-->

<!-- not used
<ref name=Gonzalez>{{cite journal|url=http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/019/0487/jmmd0190487.pdf|title=The Language Planning Situation in the Philippines|last=Gonzalez|first=Andrew|journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development|volume=19|issue=5&6|year=1998|page=513|doi=10.1080/01434639808666365|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616101625/http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/019/0487/jmmd0190487.pdf|archive-date=June 16, 2007|df=mdy-all}}</ref>-->

<ref name=Graff1969>Graff, American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection (1969)</ref>
<ref name=Hispanic1898>{{cite web|title=Introduction|work=The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War|publisher=Hispanic Division, United States Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2011|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=JHUG20060410>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jhu.edu/~gazette/2006/10apr06/10paul.html|title=Historian Paul Kramer revisits the Philippine–American War|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore, Maryland|journal=The JHU Gazette|date=April 10, 2006|volume=35|issue=29|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=LoC>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm|title=Philippines: United States Rule|publisher=United States Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=Macabebes>[https://www.nytimes.com/1900/07/17/archives/new-filipino-horse-four-troops-of-macabebes-to-be-formed-with.html?sq=Macabebe&scp=2&st=p "New Filipino Horse – Four Troops of Macabebes to be Formed with Americans as Officers"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305224509/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9406E6DF173FE433A25754C1A9619C946197D6CF&scp=2&sq=Macabebe&st=p|date=March 5, 2016}}, ''New York Times'', July 17, 1900.</ref>
<ref name=milestones>[https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019064749/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war|date=October 19, 2016}}, U.S. State Department, Office of the Historian.</ref>
<ref name=Nation18990504>{{cite magazine|title=The week|magazine=The Nation|volume=68|issue=1766|page=323|date=May 4, 1899|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QUDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA323}}</ref>

<!-- <ref name=NHIB>{{cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B9c6mrxI4zoYRjU5VUVzRk1jaWs/view|title=National Historical Institute Board Resolution No. 7, s. 2003|publisher=National Historical Commission of the Philippines|location=Manila|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref> -->

<ref name=Novel>{{cite news|last=Ocampo|first=Ambeth R.|title=The first Philippine novel|newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer|location=Manila|date=January 7, 2005}}</ref>
<ref name=NYT18990826>{{cite news|title=Spencer-Pratt and Aguinaldo|newspaper=The New York Times|location=New York City|date=August 26, 1899|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1899/08/26/118939483.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name=NYT19020504>{{cite news|title=The water cure described: discharged soldier tells Senate committee how and why the torture was inflicted|newspaper=The New York Times|location=New York City|date=May 4, 1902|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1902/05/04/117979423.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name=NYT19020704>{{cite news|title=General amnesty for the Filipinos; proclamation issued by the President|newspaper=The New York Times|location=New York City|date=July 4, 1902|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1902/07/04/101957581.pdf}}</ref>
<ref name=Oswald2001>{{cite book|title=The "howling wilderness" courts-martial of 1902|last=Oswald|first=Mark|publisher=United States Army War College|location=Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania|year=2001|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA390585.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227060020/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA390585|url-status=live|archive-date=December 27, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=Palafox2012>{{cite web|last=Palafox|first=Quennie Ann J.|title=Betrayal of Trust – The San Juan Del Monte Bridge Incident|publisher=National Historic Commission of the Philippines|location=Manila|date=September 6, 2012|url=http://nhcp.gov.ph/betrayal-of-trust-the-san-juan-del-monte-bridge-incident/|access-date=December 25, 2016|archive-date=December 26, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226055926/http://nhcp.gov.ph/betrayal-of-trust-the-san-juan-del-monte-bridge-incident/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<!-- not used
<ref name=Paterno1899>{{cite web|last=Paterno|first=Pedro Alejandro|author-link=Pedro Paterno|title=Pedro Paterno's Proclamation of War|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=MSC Institute of Technology, Inc.|location=San Pablo City, Philippines|date=June 2, 1899|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pa990602.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=PO1899p291>''Public Opinion'' volume 27 (1899), p.&nbsp;291</ref>
-->

<ref name=Rohter2010>{{cite news|last=Rohter|first=Larry|title=Dead for a century, Twain says what he meant|newspaper=The New York Times|location=New York City|date=July 9, 2010|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/10/books/10twain.html?_r=3&pagewanted=1&src=twr}}</ref>

<!-- not used
<ref name=selvesandothers>{{cite web|url=http://www.selvesandothers.org/article9315.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622095234/http://www.selvesandothers.org/article9315.html|archive-date=June 22, 2009|title=U.S. Genocide in the Philippines: A Case of Guilt, Shame, or Amnesia?|last=San Juan|first=Epifanio|author-link=E. San Juan Jr.|date=March 22, 2005|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref> -->

<ref name=Smallman1998>{{cite journal|last1=Smallman-Raynor|first1=Matthew|last2=Cliff|first2=Andrew D.|title=The Philippines insurrection and the 1902–4 cholera epidemic: Part I—Epidemiological diffusion processes in war|journal=Journal of Historical Geography|volume=24|issue=1|pages=69–89|year=1998|doi=10.1006/jhge.1997.0077}}</ref>
<ref name=StateDept>{{cite web|title=Philippines Background Note|work=U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets: Background Notes|publisher=United States Department of State|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2004|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/philippines/47535.htm|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>
<ref name=Steinberg1972>{{cite journal|last=Steinberg|first=David Joel|title=An Ambiguous Legacy: Years at War in the Philippines|journal=[[Pacific Affairs]]|volume=45|issue=2|pages=165–190|year=1972|doi=10.2307/2755549|jstor=2755549}}</ref>

<!-- <ref name=thecorpusjuris>{{cite web|url=http://www.thecorpusjuris.com/constitutions/philippine-bill-of-1902.php|title=Philippine Autonomy Act|author=United States Congress|date=August 29, 1916|publisher=thecorpusjuris.com}}</ref> -->

<ref name=Thomasites>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.ph/news/default.asp?i=3748|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080429124823/http://www.gov.ph/news/default.asp?i=3748|archive-date=April 29, 2008|title=Thomasites: An army like no other|publisher=Government of the Philippines|date=October 12, 2003|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>

<ref name=Togores>The text of the amended version published by General Otis is quoted in its entirety in {{cite book|author1=José Roca de Togores y Saravia|author2=Remigio Garcia|author3=National Historical Institute (Philippines)|title=Blockade and siege of Manila|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lhZ3AAAAMAAJ|publisher=National Historical Institute|year=2003|isbn=978-971-538-167-3|pages=148–150}}; See also [[s:Letter from E.S. Otis to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands, January 4, 1899]].</ref>
<ref name=Twain1900>{{cite news|last=Twain|first=Mark|author-link=Mark Twain|title=Mark Twain, the greatest American humorist, returning home|newspaper=New York World|location=New York City|date=October 6, 1900|isbn=9780817315221|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dOD7ilN1R38C&pg=PA346}}</ref>
<ref name=Valentino2005>{{cite book|first=Benjamin A.|last=Valentino|title=Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=2005|page=27|isbn=978-0801472732}}</ref>
<ref name=Wolff1961>Leon Wolff, Little Brown Brother (1961) p. 360</ref>
}}


==References==
==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
{{reflist}}
* {{cite book|last=Agoncillo|first=Teodoro A.|author-link=Teodoro Agoncillo|title=History of the Filipino People|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoffilipin00teod|url-access=registration|edition=Eighth|publisher=Garotech Publishing|location=Quezon City|year=1990|orig-date=1960|isbn=978-9718711064}}
* {{Citation|last=Agoncillo|first=Teodoro Andal|title=Malolos: The Crisis of the Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LnxvAAAACAAJ|year=1997|publisher=University of the Philippines Press|isbn=978-971-542-096-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Aguinaldo|first=Don Emilio|author-link=Emilio Aguinaldo|title=True version of the Philippine revolution|publisher=self-published|location=Tarlac, Philippines|year=1899|url=https://archive.org/stream/afj2298.0001.001.umich.edu#page/n1/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book|last=Battjes|first=Mark E.|title=Protecting, Isolating, and Controlling Behavior: Population and Resource Control Measures in Counterinsurgency Campaigns|publisher=Combat Studies Institute Press|location=[[United States Army Combined Arms Center]], Fort Leavenworth, Kansas|year=2011|isbn=978-0-9837226-6-3|url=http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/download/csipubs/ArtOfWarPapers_ProtectingIsolatingandControlling.pdf|access-date=December 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215172550/https://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/download/csipubs/ArtOfWarPapers_ProtectingIsolatingandControlling.pdf|archive-date=December 15, 2018}}
* {{cite book|last=Birtle|first=Andrew J.|title=U.S. Army counterinsurgency and contingency operations doctrine 1860–1941|publisher=United States Government Publishing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1998|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fW_aeCJJ9J0C|isbn=978-0-16-061324-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Boot|first=Max|author-link=Max Boot|title=The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars And The Rise Of American Power|edition=Revised|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York City|year=2014|isbn=978-0-465-03866-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Brands|first=Henry William|author-link=H. W. Brands|title=Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=1992|isbn=0-19-507104-2|url=https://archive.org/details/boundtoempireuni00bran}}
* {{cite book|last=Brody|first=David|title=Visualizing American Empire: Orientalism and Imperialism in the Philippines|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|year=2010|isbn=978-0226075341|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CVaxuyXEpZoC&pg=PA69}}
<!-- remove selfpub source
* {{cite book|last=Burdeos|first=Ray L.|title=Filipinos in the U.S. Navy & Coast Guard During the Vietnam War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tN__4jLTnd8C|year=2008|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4343-6141-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Constantino|first=Renato|title=The Philippines: A Past Revisited|url=https://books.google.com/books?
id=xnFVPgAACAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Renato Constantino|isbn=978-971-8958-00-1}} (note: page number info in short footnotes citing this work may be incorrect—work is underway to correct this)
-->
* {{cite journal|last=Deady|first=Timothy K.|title=Lessons from a Successful Counterinsurgency: The Philippines, 1899–1902|journal=Parameters|volume=35|issue=1|pages=53–68|publisher=United States Army War College|location=Carlisle, Pennsylvania|year=2005|url=http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/05spring/deady.pdf|access-date=December 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161210173710/http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/05spring/deady.pdf|archive-date=December 10, 2016|df=mdy-all}}
* {{cite web|editor-last=Dolan|editor-first=Ronald E.|title=Philippines: A Country Study|publisher=United States Library of Congress|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1991|url=http://countrystudies.us/philippines/}}
* {{cite book|last=Escalante|first=Rene R.|title=The Bearer of Pax Americana: The Philippine Career of William H. Taft 1900–1903|year=2007|publisher=New Day Publishers|location=Quezon City|isbn=978-971-10-1166-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Francisco|first1=Luzviminda|last2=Jenkins|first2=Shirley|last3=Taruc|first3=Luis|last4=Constantino|first4=Renato|last5=Diokno|first5=Ramon|last6=Steinberg|first6=David Joel|display-authors=4|editor-last=Schirmer|editor-first=Daniel B.|editor2-last=Shalom|editor2-first=Stephen Rosskamm|editor2-link=Stephen Shalom|title=The Philippines Reader: A History of Colonialism, Neocolonialism, Dictatorship, and Resistance|url=https://archive.org/details/philippinesreade00schi|url-access=registration|publisher=South End Press|location=Brooklyn, New York|year=1999|isbn=978-0896082755}}
* {{Citation|last=Golay|first=Frank H.|title=Face of empire: United States-Philippine relations, 1898–1946|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=up5KPgAACAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|isbn=978-971-550-254-2}}.
* {{cite book|last=Golay|first=Frank Hindman|title=Face of Empire: United States-Philippine Relations, 1898–1946|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|location=Quezon City|year=2004|isbn=978-1881261179}}
* {{Citation|editor-last=Guevara|editor-first=Sulpico|title=The laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899.|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;iel=1;view=toc;idno=aab1246.0001.001|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=University of Michigan Library|publication-date=1972|year=2005|ref=CITEREFGuevara1972|access-date=March 26, 2008}}. (English translation by Sulpicio Guevara.)
* {{cite book|last1=Hack|first1=Karl|author-link=Karl Hack (historian)|last2=Rettig|first2=Tobias|title=Colonial Armies in Southeast Asia (Routledge Studies in the Modern History of Asia)|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon-on-Thames, United Kingdom|isbn=978-0-415-33413-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Halstead|first=Murat|author-link=Murat Halstead|title=The Story of the Philippines and Our New Possessions, Including the Ladrones, Hawaii, Cuba and Porto Rico|publisher=Our Possessions Publishing Company|location=Chicago|year=1898|url=https://archive.org/stream/storyphilippine00halsgoog#page/n4/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book|last=Ileto|first=Reynaldo Clemeña|title=Pasyon and revolution: popular movements in the Philippines, 1840–1910|publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press|location=Quezon City|year=1997|isbn=978-9715502320}}
* {{cite book|last=Jaycox|first=Faith|title=The Progressive Era: Eyewitness History (Eyewitness History Series)|publisher=Infobase Publishing|location=New York City|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8160-5159-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/progressiveera0000jayc}}
* {{Citation|last=Jernegan|first=Prescott F|title=The Philippine Citizen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=70XqApkaZ7YC|year=2009|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC|isbn=978-1-115-97139-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Kalaw|first=Maximo Manguiat|title=The Development of Philippine politics (1872-1920)|publisher=Oriental Commercial Company, Inc.|location=Manila|year=1927|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afj2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext}}
* {{cite book|last=Karnow|first=Stanley|author-link=Stanley Karnow|title=In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines|url=https://archive.org/details/inourimage00karn|url-access=registration|publisher=Random House|location=New York City|year=1989|isbn=978-030777543-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Keenan|first=Jerry|title=Encyclopedia of the Spanish–American & Philippine–American wars|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California|year=2001|isbn=978-1-57607-093-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JMRwK4ng_zYC}}
* {{cite book |last=Linn |first=Brian McAllister|author-link=Brian McAllister Linn |title=The Philippine War, 1899–1902 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |year=2000a |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-1225-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Linn|first=Brian McAllister|author-link=Brian McAllister Linn|title=The U.S. Army and counterinsurgency in the Philippine war, 1899–1902|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|location=Chapel Hill|year=2000b|isbn=978-0807849484}}
* {{cite book|last=Lone|first=Stewart|title=Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia: From the Taiping Rebellion to the Vietnam War|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|location=Santa Barbara, California|year=2007|isbn=978-0313336843}}
* {{cite book|last=Miller|first=Stuart Creighton|title=Benevolent assimilation: the American conquest of the Philippines, 1899—1903|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Connecticut|year=1982|isbn=0-300-03081-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj6g2ag47TwC}}
* {{Citation|last=Miller|first=Stuart Creighton|title=Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903|edition=4th edition, reprint|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1984|isbn=978-0-300-03081-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj6g2ag47TwC}}
* "Race-Making and Colonial Violence in the U.S. Empire: The Philippine–American War as Race War", ''Diplomatic History'', Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2006), 169–210. ([http://www.japanfocus.org/Adapted version]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} at Japanfocus.org).<!-- Cite copied from author's Publications list at http://www.uiowa.edu/~history/People/kramer.html#Publications -->
* {{cite book|last=Ramsey|first=Robert D. III|title=Savage Wars of Peace: Case Studies of Pacification in the Philippines, 1900–1902|publisher=Combat Studies Institute Press|location=[[United States Army Combined Arms Center]], Fort Leavenworth, Kansas|year=2007|isbn=978-0-16-078950-2|url=http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/download/csipubs/ramsey_24.pdf|access-date=December 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116230209/https://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/download/csipubs/ramsey_24.pdf|archive-date=January 16, 2019}}
* {{cite book|last=Randolph|first=Carman Fitz|title=The Law and Policy of Annexation|chapter=Chapter I, The Annexation of the Philippines|publisher=BiblioBazaar, LLC|location=Charleston, South Carolina|year=2009|isbn=978-1-103-32481-1}}
* {{cite book|last1=Schurman|first1=Jacob Gould|author-link=Jacob Gould Schurman|last2=Dewey|first2=George|author2-link=George Dewey|last3=Denby|first3=Charles Harvey|author3-link=Charles Harvey Denby|last4=Worcester|first4=Dean Conant|author4-link=Dean Conant Worcester|title=Report of the Philippine Commission to the President|volume=I|publisher=United States Government Publishing Office|location=Washington, D.C.|year=1900|url=https://archive.org/stream/reportofphilippi01unit}}
* {{Citation|last=Seekins <!-- chapter author -->|first=Donald M.|editor-last=Dolan|editor-first=Ronald E.|url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/phtoc.html|title=Philippines: A Country Study|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress|year=1993|edition=4th|chapter-url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ph0026)|chapter=The First Phase of United States Rule, 1898–1935|access-date=December 25, 2007|ref=Seekins1993US-Rule}}
* {{cite book|last=Sexton|first=William Thaddeus|title=Soldiers in the Sun|publisher=Nabu Press|location=Charleston, South Carolina|year=1939|isbn=978-1179372662}}
* {{cite book|last=Silbey|first=David J.|title=A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine–American War, 1899–1902|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8090-9661-9|publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux}}
* {{cite book|last=Simmons|first=Edwin Howard|author-link=Edwin H. Simmons|title=The United States Marines: a history|url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesmari0000simm_r8b9|url-access=registration|edition=4th|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis, Maryland|year=2003|isbn=978-1557508683}}
* {{cite book|last1=Storey|first1=Moorfield|author-link=Moorfield Storey|last2=Codman|first2=Julian|author2-link=Julian Codman|title=Secretary Root's record. "Marked severities" in Philippine warfare. An analysis of the law and facts bearing on the action and utterances of President Roosevelt and Secretary Root|publisher=George H. Ellis Company|location=Boston|year=1902|url=https://archive.org/stream/secretaryrootsr00codmgoog#page/n8/mode/2up}} See also [[Moorfield Storey]] and [[Julian Codman]] (1902). [[s:Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare|Secretary Root's Record:"Marked Severities" in Philippine Warfare – Wikisource]].
* {{Citation|editor-last=Taylor|editor-first=John R.M.|editor-link=John R. M. Taylor|url=http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/p4013coll11&CISOPTR=374|title=Compilation of Philippine Insurgent Records|chapter-url=http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/p4013coll11&CISOPTR=374&f=ilename=374.pdf|chapter=Chapter I. Telegraphic Correspondence of Emilio Aguinaldo, July 15, 1898 to February 28, 1899, Annotated|publisher=Combined Arms Research Library, originally from War Department, Bureau of Insular Affairs|year=1907|access-date=June 2, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003035754/http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/p4013coll11&CISOPTR=374&filename=374.pdf|archive-date=October 3, 2008}}<!--NOTE:This item appears to be one among several such items making up the compilation as of this writing, I have not been able to locate the expected remaining items-->
* {{cite book|editor-last=Tucker|editor-first=Spencer C.|editor-link=Spencer C. Tucker|title=The encyclopedia of the Spanish–American and Philippine–American wars: a political, social, and military history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC|volume=I-III|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California|year=2009|isbn=978-1-85109-951-1}}
* {{Citation|last=Wolff|first=Leon|title=Little brown brother: how the United States purchased and pacified the Philippine Islands at the century's turn|publisher=History Book Club|year=2006|publication-date=2005|isbn=978-1-58288-209-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TGowAAAACAAJ}}(Introduction, ''Decolonizing the History of the Philippine–American War'', by Paul A. Kramer dated December 8, 2005)
* {{Citation|last=Worcester|first=Dean Conant|title=The Philippines: Past and Present (vol. 1 of 2)|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12077|chapter=III. Insurgent "Coöperation"|chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12077/12077-h/12077-h.htm#ch03|pages=43–74|publisher=Macmillan|year=1914|isbn=1-4191-7715-X|ref=worcester1914ch3}}
* {{Citation|last=Worcester|first=Dean Conant|title=The Philippines: Past and Present (vol. 1 of 2)|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12077|chapter=IV. The Premeditated Insurgent Attack|chapter-url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12077/12077-h/12077-h.htm#ch04|pages=75–89|publisher=Macmillan|year=1914|isbn=1-4191-7715-X|ref=worcester1914ch4}}
* {{Citation|last=Zaide|first=Sonia M.|title=The Philippines: A Unique Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6YMsNgAACAAJ|publisher=All-Nations Publishing Co.|year=1994|isbn=978-971-642-071-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Zinn|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Zinn|title=[[A People's History of the United States]]|publisher=The New Press|location=New York City|year=2003|isbn=978-1-56584-826-9}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Delmendo|first=Sharon|title=The star-entangled banner: one hundred years of America in the Philippines|publisher=Rutgers University Press|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|year=2004|isbn=0-8135-3411-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6nkB_PDdXcC}}
* {{cite book|last=Jacobson|first=Matthew Frye|author-link=Matthew Frye Jacobson|title=Barbarian virtues: the United States encounters foreign peoples at home and abroad, 1876–1917|publisher=Hill & Wang|location=New York City|year=2000|isbn=978-0-8090-1628-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Gregg|author-link=Gregg Jones|title=Honor in the Dust Theodore Roosevelt, War in the Philippines, and the Rise and Fall of America's Imperial Dream|publisher=New American Library|location=New York City|year=2012|isbn=978-0-451-22904-5}}
* Legarda, Benito J. Jr. (2001). ''The Hills of Sampaloc: the Opening Actions of the Philippine–American War, February 4–5, 1899''. Makati: Bookmark. {{ISBN|978-971-569-418-6|}}.
* Stewart, Richard W. General Editor, Ch. 16, [http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch16.htm Transition, Change, and the Road to war, 1902–1917"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112135923/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ch16.htm |date=January 12, 2012 }}, in [http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ "American Military History, Volume I: The United States Army and the Forging of a Nation, 1775–1917"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227060017/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/ |date=December 27, 2011 }}, Center of Military History, United States Army, {{ISBN|0-16-072362-0|}}.
* [[Edward Stratemeyer|Stratemeyer, Edward]]. (1898). [[s:Under Dewey at Manila|Under Dewey at Manila – Wikisource]].
* [[Edward Stratemeyer|Stratemeyer, Edward]] (as Ralph Bonehill). (1899). [[s:A Sailor Boy with Dewey|A Sailor Boy with Dewey – Wikisource]].
* [[Edward Stratemeyer|Stratemeyer, Edward]]. (1900). [[s:The Campaign of the Jungle|The Campaign of the Jungle – Wikisource]].
* [[Edward Stratemeyer|Stratemeyer, Edward]]. (1901). [[s:Under MacArthur in Luzon|Under MacArthur in Luzon – Wikisource]].
* The "[[Lodge Committee]]" (a.k.a. Philippine Investigating Committee) hearings and a great deal of documentation were published in three volumes (3000 pages) as S. Doc. 331, 57th Cong., 1st Session An abridged version of the oral testimony can be found in: ''American Imperialism and the Philippine Insurrection: Testimony Taken from Hearings on Affairs in the Philippine Islands before the Senate Committee on the Philippines—1902''; edited by Henry F Graff; Publisher: Little, Brown; 1969.
* {{cite book | last1=Young | first1=L.S. | last2=Northrop | first2=H.D. | title=The Life of Admiral Dewey and the Conquest of the Philippines | publisher=P. W. Ziegler | year=1899 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mMWCAAAAIAAJ }}
* Wilcox, Marrion. ''Harper's History of the War''. Harper, New York and London 1900, reprinted 1979. [Alternate title: ''Harper's History of the War in the Philippines'']. Also reprinted in the Philippines by Vera-Reyes.
{{refend}}


==External links==
==External links==
{{GeoGroup}}
{{Commons category|Philippine-American War}}
* [https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2018/06jun/20180622-RA-11038-RRD.pdf Expanded National Integrated Protected Area Systems Act of 2018] – Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{commons category-inline|Natural parks of the Philippines}}
{{Library resources box}}
* [https://archive.today/20110604214452/http://de.geocities.com/hispanofilipino/Articles/Estadisticas03.htm The American Peril – An Examination of the Spanish–American War and the Philippine Insurrection by Dan Carlin]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170510170131/http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/Philippine%E2%80%93American War] Arnaldo Dumindin
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060514211411/http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&artid=479 Images from the Philippine-United States War] historicaltextarchive.com
* [http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/The Philippine Centennial Celebration]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} MSC Computer Training Center.
* [http://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/birth-american-empire-lesson-3-matter-philippines The Matter of the Philippines, from Birth of an American Empire], [http://edsitement.neh.gov/EDSITEment]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{cite web |url=http://de.geocities.com/hispanofilipino/Articles/Estadisticas03.htm |title=El Primer Genocido |access-date=January 2, 2017}}{{dead link|date=May 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}(Spanish) (archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027104028/http://de.geocities.com/hispanofilipino/Articles/Estadisticas03.html the original] on 2006-10-15)
* [http://www.historyguy.com/PhilipineAmericanwar.html A brief description of the war between the United States and the Philippines, which began in 1899.]
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213193324/http://pinoynewsmagazine.com/default.asp?sourceid=&smenu=66&twindow=Default&mad=No&sdetail=260&wpage=1&skeyword=&sidate=&ccat=&ccatm=&restate=&restatus=&reoption=&retype=&repmin=&repmax=&rebed=&rebath=&subname=&pform=&sc=1536&hn=pinoynewsmagazine&he=.com|date=February 13, 2008|title="August 13, 1898 and RP's short-lived republic"}}by Mariano "Anong" Santos, ''Pinoy Newsmagazine'', August 2006 (archived on 2008-02-13)
* [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/54a/051.html "Imperial Amnesia"] by John B. Judis, ''Foreign Policy'', July/August 2004
* The [https://archive.today/20121205105451/http://www.filipiniana.net/microsite/prr/index.jsp Philippine Revolutionary Records]''' at '''[https://web.archive.org/web/20090525184131/http://filipiniana.net/index.jsp Filipiniana.net] (archived on 2009-05-25).
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511185512/http://www.philaprintshop.com/images/kurzpaceo.jpg|date=May 11, 2011|title="Battle of Paceo", 1899 painting by Kurz and Allison}}(archived on 2011-05-11)
* {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511185517/http://www.philaprintshop.com/images/kurzquinqua.jpg|date=May 11, 2011|title="Battle of Quingua", 1899 painting by Kurz and Allison}}(archived on 2011-05-11)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170502064006/http://philippineamericanwar.webs.com/Images of Philippine–American War]
* [https://www.c-span.org/video/?7773-1/image ''Booknotes'' interview] with [[Stanley Karnow]] on ''In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines'', May 28, 1989.
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/cannons/cannons9.html No. 15 Spanish 12-pounder] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921194751/http://www.history.navy.mil/cannons/cannons9.html |date=September 21, 2012 }} Photo of a bronze cannon captured by the Americans in Manila.
* [https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=Philippine--American+War&oq=Philippine--American+War&aq=f&aqi=g-C1g-mC1&aql=&gs_l=youtube.12..0i33j0i5i33.3835297.3835297.0.3836983.1.1.0.0.0.0.50.50.1.1.0...0.0.uWtD4VlWRtM Philippine–American War – 1899–1902 (videos)]
* {{YouTube|mBfh7lop880|Reenactment of Spanish–American War (video)}}
* [http://www.spanamwar.com/reenct.htm Spanish–American War Reenactment Groups]


{{National parks of the Philippines}}
{{American conflicts}}
{{Philippines conflicts}}
{{Philippine coups}}
{{Great Power diplomacy}}
{{Philippine Revolution}}
{{Philippines topics}}
{{Philippines topics}}
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{{William McKinley}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:National Parks Of Philippines}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:National parks of the Philippines| ]]

[[Category:Lists of national parks|Philippines]]
stuff commented out here while sandboxing
[[Category:Philippines geography-related lists]]
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Revision as of 01:02, 25 December 2024

In the Philippines, Natural Parks. by law, are relatively large areas not materially altered by human activity. Rxtraction resources uses not allowed in these areas and they are maintained to protect outstanding natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational, and recreational use. [1]

Natural parks

{  World Heritage Site or part of a World Heritage Site.

Name Area Established Location Coordinates
Provinces Island Group
Kalbario-Patapat Natural Park[1] 3,903.19 ha
(9,645.0 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Luzon 18°31′57″N 120°54′50″E / 18.53250°N 120.91389°E / 18.53250; 120.91389 (Kalbario-Patapat Natural Park)
Tumauini Watershed Natural Park[1] 6,509.38 ha
(16,085.0 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Luzon 17°18′N 122°00′E / 17.3°N 122°E / 17.3; 122 (Tumauini Watershed Natural Park)
Bataan Natural Park[1] 20,004.17 ha
(49,431.4 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Luzon 14°39′N 120°36′E / 14.650°N 120.600°E / 14.650; 120.600
Apo Reef Natural Park[1] 15,799.23 ha
(39,040.7 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Mindoro 12°42′N 120°24′E / 12.7°N 120.4°E / 12.7; 120.4 (Apo Reef Natural Park)
Mounts Iglit–Baco Natural Park[1] 106,655.62 ha
(263,551.8 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Mindoro 12°54′N 121°13′E / 12.900°N 121.217°E / 12.900; 121.217 (Mounts Iglit–Baco Natural Park)
Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park[1] 15,799.23 ha
(39,040.7 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Sibuyan 12°25′N 122°30′E / 12.41°N 122.5°E / 12.41; 122.5 (Mount Guiting-Guiting Natural Park)
Bicol Natural Park[1] 5,466.35 ha
(13,507.6 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Luzon 13°55′32″N 122°58′17″E / 13.92556°N 122.97139°E / 13.92556; 122.97139 (Bicol Natural Park)
Mount Isarog Natural Park[1] 10,090.89 ha
(24,935.1 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Luzon 13°39′33″N 123°22′24″E / 13.65917°N 123.37333°E / 13.65917; 123.37333 (Mount Isarog Natural Park)
Catanduanes Natural Park[1] 48,924.09 ha
(120,894.1 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Catanduanes 13°48′N 122°24′E / 13.8°N 122.4°E / 13.8; 122.4 (Catanduanes Natural Park)
Bongsanglay Natural Park[1] 518.90 ha
(1,282.2 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Masbate 12°23′9″N 123°46′58″E / 12.38583°N 123.78278°E / 12.38583; 123.78278 (Bongsanglay Natural Park)
Bulusan Volcano Natural Park[1] 3,641.47 ha
(8,998.3 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Luzon 12°46′12″N 124°0′0″E / 12.77000°N 124.00000°E / 12.77000; 124.00000 (Bulusan Volcano Natural Park)
North west Panay Peninsula Natural Park[1] 12,009.29 ha
(29,675.6 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Panay 11°48′N 121°48′E / 11.8°N 121.8°E / 11.8; 121.8 (North west Panay Peninsula Natural Park)
Sibalom Natural Park[1] 6,778.44 ha
(16,749.9 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Panay 18°31′57″N 120°54′50″E / 18.53250°N 120.91389°E / 18.53250; 120.91389 (Sibalom Natural Park)
Northen Negros Natural Park[1] 70,826.16 ha
(175,015.3 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Negros 10°36′N 123°00′E / 10.6°N 123.0°E / 10.6; 123.0 (Northen Negros Natural Park)
Balisasayao Twin Lakes Natural Park[1] 8,016.05 ha
(19,808.1 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Negros 9°24′N 123°12′E / 9.4°N 123.2°E / 9.4; 123.2 (Balisasayao Twin Lakes Natural Park)
Lake Danao Natural Park[1] 8,016.05 ha
(19,808.1 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Leyte 11°06′N 124°42′E / 11.1°N 124.7°E / 11.1; 124.7 (Lake Danao Natural Park)
Mahagnao Volcano Natural Park[1] 340.82 ha
(842.2 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Leyte 10°52′26″N 124°51′35″E / 10.87389°N 124.85972°E / 10.87389; 124.85972 (Mahagnao Volcano Natural Park)
Samar Island Natural Park[1] 335,105.57 ha
(828,063.9 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Samar 12°2′10″N 125°12′40″E / 12.03611°N 125.21111°E / 12.03611; 125.21111 (Samar Island Natural Park)
Pasonanca Natural Park[1] 12,102.08 ha
(29,904.9 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Mindanao 7°4′16″N 122°4′32″E / 7.07111°N 122.07556°E / 7.07111; 122.07556 (Pasonanca Natural Park)
Mount Kalatungan Range Natural Park[1] 22,225.11 ha
(54,919.4 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Mindanao 7°54′N 124°48′E / 7.9°N 124.8°E / 7.9; 124.8 (Mount Kalatungan Range Natural Park)
Mount Inayawan Range Natural Park[1] 4,236.19 ha
(10,467.9 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Mindanao 7°49′10″N 123°55′34″E / 7.81944°N 123.92611°E / 7.81944; 123.92611 (Mount Inayawan Range Natural Park)
Mount Balatukan Range Natural Park[1] 8,437.86 ha
(20,850.4 acres) 		April 20, 2007
Mindanao 8°48′N 124°54′E / 8.8°N 124.9°E / 8.8; 124.9 (Mount Balatukan Range Natural Park)

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Republic Act No. 11038 (March 21, 2018), Expanded National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of 2018
Map all coordinates using OpenStreetMap

Download coordinates as:

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