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[[File:Lithium-Ion Cell cylindric.JPG|thumb|Disassembly of a lithium-ion cell showing internal structure ]]
[[File:Lithium-Ion Cell cylindric.JPG|thumb|Disassembly of a lithium-ion cell showing internal structure]][[Lithium battery|Lithium batteries]] are batteries that use [[lithium]] as an [[anode]]. This type of battery is also referred to as a lithium-ion battery<ref name="tandfonline.com">{{Cite journal |last1=Zeng |first1=Xianlai |last2=Li |first2=Jinhui |last3=Singh |first3=Narendra |date=2014-05-19 |title=Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Battery: A Critical Review |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10643389.2013.763578 |journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology |language=en |volume=44 |issue=10 |pages=1129–1165 |doi=10.1080/10643389.2013.763578 |issn=1064-3389 |s2cid=110579207}}</ref> and is most commonly used for electric vehicles and electronics.<ref name="tandfonline.com"/> The first type of lithium battery was created by the British chemist [[M. Stanley Whittingham]] in the early 1970s and used titanium and lithium as the electrodes. Applications for this battery were limited by the high prices of titanium and the unpleasant scent that the reaction produced.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Bottled lightning: superbatteries, electric cars, and the new lithium economy |date=2011-11-01}}</ref> Today's lithium-ion battery, modeled after the Whittingham attempt by [[Akira Yoshino]], was first developed in 1985.
[[File:Samsung E1200i - Lithium-ion battery AB463446BU-4036.jpg|thumb|A lithium-ion battery from a [[Samsung Electronics|Samsung]] phone ]]
[[File:Australian lithium exports.svg|alt=Graph visualizing the tonnes of lithium and income generated from Australian lithium mining and exportation over the recent years.|thumb|Tonnes of lithium and income generated from Australian lithium mining and exportation over the recent years]]
While lithium-ion batteries can be used as a part of a sustainable solution, shifting all fossil fuel-powered devices to lithium-based batteries might not be the Earth's best option. There is no scarcity yet, but it is a natural resource that can be depleted.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pyakurel |first=Parakram |date=11 January 2019 |title=Lithium is finite – but clean technology relies on such non-renewable resources |url=http://theconversation.com/lithium-is-finite-but-clean-technology-relies-on-such-non-renewable-resources-109630 |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=The Conversation |language=en}}</ref> According to researchers at Volkswagen, there are about 14 million tons of lithium left, which corresponds to 165 times the production volume in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lithium mining: What you should know about the contentious issue |url=https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2020/03/lithium-mining-what-you-should-know-about-the-contentious-issue.html#:~:text=The%20total%20global%20reserves%20are,the%20production%20volume%20in%202018.&text=Where%20is%20the%20most%20lithium%20mined? |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=www.volkswagenag.com}}</ref>


== Extraction ==
[[Lithium battery|Lithium batteries]] are primary batteries that use [[lithium]] as an [[anode]]. This type of battery is also referred to as a lithium-ion battery<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zeng|first1=Xianlai|last2=Li|first2=Jinhui|last3=Singh|first3=Narendra|date=2014-05-19|title=Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Battery: A Critical Review|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10643389.2013.763578|journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology|language=en|volume=44|issue=10|pages=1129–1165|doi=10.1080/10643389.2013.763578|s2cid=110579207 |issn=1064-3389}}</ref> and is most commonly used for electric vehicles and electronics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zeng|first1=Xianlai|last2=Li|first2=Jinhui|last3=Singh|first3=Narendra|date=2014-05-19|title=Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Battery: A Critical Review|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10643389.2013.763578|journal=Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology|language=en|volume=44|issue=10|pages=1129–1165|doi=10.1080/10643389.2013.763578|s2cid=110579207 |issn=1064-3389}}</ref> The first type of lithium battery was created by the British chemist [[M. Stanley Whittingham]] in the early 1970s and used titanium and lithium as the electrodes. Unfortunately, applications for this battery were limited by the high prices of titanium and the unpleasant scent that the reaction produced.<ref>{{Cite book|date=2011-11-01|title=Bottled lightning: superbatteries, electric cars, and the new lithium economy}}</ref> Today's lithium ion battery, modeled after the Whittingham attempt by [[Akira Yoshino]], was first developed in 1985.
Lithium is extracted on a commercial scale from three principal sources: salt brines, lithium-rich clay, and hard-rock deposits. Each method incurs certain unavoidable environmental disruptions. Salt brine extraction sites are by far the most popular operations for extracting lithium, they are responsible for around 66% of the world's lithium production.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Sterba |first=Jiri |last2=Krzemień |first2=Alicja |last3=Riesgo Fernández |first3=Pedro |last4=Escanciano García-Miranda |first4=Carmen |last5=Fidalgo Valverde |first5=Gregorio |date=August 2019 |title=Lithium mining: Accelerating the transition to sustainable energy |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.05.002 |journal=Resources Policy |volume=62 |pages=416–426 |doi=10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.05.002 |issn=0301-4207|hdl=10651/52578 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The major environmental benefit of brine extraction compared to other extraction methods is that there is very little machinery needed to be used throughout the operation.<ref name=":2" /> Whereas hard-rock deposits and lithium-rich clays both require relatively typical mining methods, involving heavy machinery.<ref name=":2" /> Despite this benefit, all methods are continually used as they all achieve relatively similar recovery percentages.<ref name=":2" /> Brine extraction achieves a 97% recovery percentage whereas hard-rock deposits achieve a 94% recovery percentage.<ref name=":2" />


=== Continental brine extraction ===
== Environmental impact==
[[File:Triangulo del lito.png|alt=Map of the Lithium Triangle in South America, which includes Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile|thumb|The [[Lithium Triangle]] in [[South America]], which includes [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Chile]]]]
{{Cleanup|section|date=September 2022|reason=Some factual inaccuracies and vague claims. Lack of academic style. Some grammatical errors.}}
[[Brine mining|Brine extraction]] uses [[Evaporation pond|open-air evaporation]] to concentrate the brine over time. This results in large quantities of water being lost due to evaporation. It is worth noting that in general, this brine being evaporated has a very high salinity, making the water unusable for any agricultural or human consumption.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Vera |first=María L. |last2=Torres |first2=Walter R. |last3=Galli |first3=Claudia I. |last4=Chagnes |first4=Alexandre |last5=Flexer |first5=Victoria |date=March 2023 |title=Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-022-00387-5 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=149–165 |doi=10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5 |issn=2662-138X}}</ref> Afterwards, the concentrated brine is moved to a nearby production facility to produce [[Lithium carbonate|Li<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>]] and LiOH•H<sub>2</sub>O.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Jarod C. |last2=Wang |first2=Michael |last3=Dai |first3=Qiang |last4=Winjobi |first4=Olumide |date=2021-11-01 |title=Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921344921003712 |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=174 |pages=105762 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105762 |issn=0921-3449}}</ref> These production facilities are responsible for the bulk of the atmospheric pollution caused by brine extraction sites, releasing harmful gasses such as [[Sulfur dioxide|Sulphur dioxide]] into the air.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dailey |first=Sarah |date=2011 |title=Where's all the lithium from? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/renetechsustfutu.115.64 |journal=ReNew: Technology for a Sustainable Future |issue=115 |pages=64–65 |issn=1327-1938}}</ref>
The physical mining of lithium and the production of lithium-ion are both labor-intensive processes. Additionally, most batteries are not properly recycled.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-12 |title=The Environmental Impact of Lithium Batteries |url=https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/the-environmental-impact-of-lithium-batteries/ |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=IER |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Extraction ===
The extraction process of lithium is very resource demanding and specifically uses a lot of water in the extraction process. It is estimated that 500,000 gallons of water is used to mine one metric ton of lithium.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bauer|first=Sophie|date=2020-12-02|title=Explainer: the opportunities and challenges of the lithium industry|url=https://dialogochino.net/en/extractive-industries/38662-explainer-the-opportunities-and-challenges-of-the-lithium-industry/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-14|website=Dialogo Chino|language=en-US}}</ref> With the world's leading country in production of lithium being [[Chile]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rapier|first=Robert|title=The World's Top Lithium Producers|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rrapier/2020/12/13/the-worlds-top-lithium-producers/|access-date=2021-04-10|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> the lithium mines are in rural areas with an extremely diverse ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Agusdinata|first1=Datu Buyung|last2=Liu|first2=Wenjuan|last3=Eakin|first3=Hallie|last4=Romero|first4=Hugo|date=2018-11-27|title=Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=13|issue=12|pages=123001|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1|bibcode=2018ERL....13l3001B|issn=1748-9326|doi-access=free}}</ref> In Chile’s Salar de Atacama, one of the driest places on earth, about 65% of the water is used to mine lithium; leaving many of the local farmers and members of the community to find water elsewhere.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-11-12|title=The Environmental Impact of Lithium Batteries|url=https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/the-environmental-impact-of-lithium-batteries/|access-date=2021-12-14|website=IER|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center|title=Lithium Mining in Salar de Atacama, Chile {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey|url=https://www.usgs.gov/media/before-after/lithium-mining-salar-de-atacama-chile|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-14|website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref> Along with physical implications on the environment, working conditions can violate the standards of sustainable development goals. Additionally, it is common for locals to be in conflict with the surrounding lithium mines. There have been many accounts of dead animals and ruined farms in the surrounding areas of many of these mines. In Tagong, a small town in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture China, there are records of dead fish and large animals floating down some of the rivers near the Tibetan mines. After further investigation, researchers found that this may have been caused by leakage of evaporation pools that sit for months and sometimes even years.<ref>{{Cite magazine|title=The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction|language=en-GB|magazine=Wired UK|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact|access-date=2021-12-14|issn=1357-0978}}</ref>


The majority of brine extraction sites are situated in [[South America]], more specifically, in [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]], where around half of the world's lithium reserves exist in a place referred to as the "lithium triangle".<ref name=":2" /> In [[Chile]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Rapier |first=Robert |title=The World's Top Lithium Producers |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/rrapier/2020/12/13/the-worlds-top-lithium-producers/ |access-date=2021-04-10 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> the world's second-largest lithium producer, the nation's two active mines, run by SQM and Albemarle, are both located on the [[Salar de Atacama]] salt flat in the [[Atacama Desert]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Agusdinata |first1=Datu Buyung |last2=Liu |first2=Wenjuan |last3=Eakin |first3=Hallie |last4=Romero |first4=Hugo |date=2018-11-27 |title=Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=123001 |bibcode=2018ERL....13l3001B |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1 |issn=1748-9326 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Tests performed on the brines of these mines showed that the brine has ~350&nbsp;g/L of total dissolved solids.<ref name=":0" /> Studies on this mine and the area's water tables have shown that the total water storage of Salar de Atacama decreased by -1.16&nbsp;mm per year from 2010-2017.<ref name=":02" /> There is a complex divide among and within local communities, with some accepting payouts from the mining corporations and taking part in their community development initiatives, whilst others are either neglected by such programs or refuse the corporations' offers due to their aforementioned environmental concerns.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-12 |title=The Environmental Impact of Lithium Batteries |url=https://www.instituteforenergyresearch.org/renewable/the-environmental-impact-of-lithium-batteries/ |access-date=2021-12-14 |website=IER |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center |title=Lithium Mining in Salar de Atacama, Chile {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/media/before-after/lithium-mining-salar-de-atacama-chile |access-date=2021-12-14 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref> In [[Tagong]], a small town in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture China, there are records of dangerous chemicals such as [[hydrochloric acid]] leaking into the Liqi River from the nearby lithium mining facilities.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Ahmad |first=Samar |date=2020 |title=The Lithium Triangle: Where Chile Argentina, and Bolivia Meet |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26917284 |journal=Harvard International Review |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=51–53 |issn=0739-1854}}</ref> As a result, dead fish and large animals were seen floating down the Liqi River and other nearby rivers near the Tibetan mines.<ref name=":3" /> After further investigation, researchers found that this may have been caused by leakage of evaporation pools that sit for months and sometimes even years.<ref>{{Cite magazine |title=The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact |access-date=2021-12-14 |magazine=Wired UK |language=en-GB |issn=1357-0978}}</ref>
=== Disposal ===
Lithium-ion batteries contain metals such as cobalt, nickel, and manganese, which are toxic and can contaminate water supplies and ecosystems if they leach out of landfills.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jacoby |first=Mitch |date=July 14, 2019 |title=It's time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries |url=https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28 |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=cen.acs.org}}</ref> Additionally, fires in landfills or battery-recycling facilities have been attributed to inappropriate disposal of lithium-ion batteries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2020-09-16 |title=Frequent Questions on Lithium-ion Batteries |url=https://www.epa.gov/recycle/frequent-questions-lithium-ion-batteries |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref> As a result, some jurisdictions require lithium-ion batteries to be recycled.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Robert |last2=Baum |first2=Zachary J. |last3=Yu |first3=Xiang |last4=Ma |first4=Jia |date=2022-02-11 |title=The Regulatory Environment for Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsenergylett.1c02724 |journal=ACS Energy Letters |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=736–740 |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.1c02724 |s2cid=246116929 |issn=2380-8195}}</ref> In spite of the environmental cost of improper disposal of lithium-ion batteries, the rate of recycling is still relatively low, as recycling processes remain costly and immature.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-24 |title=Worldwide Regulations on Lithium-ion Battery Recycling |url=https://www.azom.com/news.aspx?newsID=57992 |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=AZoM.com |language=en}}</ref>


=== Finite resource ===
=== Hard-rock deposits ===
Lithium can also be extracted from [[Underground hard-rock mining|hard-rock]] deposits. These deposits are most commonly found in [[Australia]], the world's largest producer of lithium,<ref name=":2" /> through spodumene ores. [[Spodumene]] ores and other lithium-bearing hard-rock deposits are far less abundant throughout the world than continental brines.<ref name=":02" /> Although the deposits are far less commonly found and available for mining, the operating costs are very similar to the costs of operating a brine extraction operation.<ref name=":2" /> As a result, hard-rock deposit extraction sites are continuing to be created and used even though salt brines are much more common to find and typically bear a smaller environmental impact.<ref name=":02" />
While lithium ion batteries can be used as a part of sustainable solution, shifting all fossil fuel-powered devices to lithium based batteries might not be the Earth's best option. There is no scarcity yet, but it is a natural resource that can be depleted.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pyakurel |first=Parakram |title=Lithium is finite – but clean technology relies on such non-renewable resources |url=http://theconversation.com/lithium-is-finite-but-clean-technology-relies-on-such-non-renewable-resources-109630 |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=The Conversation |date=11 January 2019 |language=en}}</ref> According to researchers at Volkswagen, there are about 14 million tons of lithium left, which corresponds to 165 times the production volume in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lithium mining: What you should know about the contentious issue |url=https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2020/03/lithium-mining-what-you-should-know-about-the-contentious-issue.html#:~:text=The%20total%20global%20reserves%20are,the%20production%20volume%20in%202018.&text=Where%20is%20the%20most%20lithium%20mined? |access-date=2022-04-25 |website=www.volkswagenag.com}}</ref>

=== Lithium-rich clays ===
Extracting lithium from lithium-rich clays first involves mining the clays themselves which results in lots of atmospheric pollution. There are several minerals within clay that contain lithium such as, [[lepidolite]], [[hectorite]], masutomilite, [[zinnwaldite]], swinefordite, [[cookeite]], and [[jadarite]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Hao |last2=Wang |first2=Yang |last3=Cheng |first3=Hongfei |date=March 2023 |title=Recent advances in lithium extraction from lithium-bearing clay minerals |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2023.106025 |journal=Hydrometallurgy |volume=217 |pages=106025 |doi=10.1016/j.hydromet.2023.106025 |issn=0304-386X}}</ref> After extracting these minerals from the ground, the clays are processed to extract the lithium, this is typically done through chemical reactions like acidification.<ref name=":4" /> This chemical process can result in harmful gasses and chemicals being produced as byproducts which can easily result in pollution if not handled properly.<ref name=":4" /> Lithium-rich [[clay]]s are the third major source of lithium, although they are far less abundant than salt [[brine]]s and [[Underground hard-rock mining|hard-rock]] ores containing lithium. To be exact, lithium-rich clays make up less than 2% of the world's lithium products.<ref name=":5">{{Cite report |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep53268.8 |title=Global Supply of Lithium |last=Goel |first=Siddharth |last2=Moerenhout |first2=Tom |date=2023 |publisher=International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) |pages=21–29 |last3=Sharma |first3=Deepak |last4=Raizada |first4=Swasti |last5=Kumar |first5=Prashant}}</ref> For comparison, brine extraction represents 39% and hard-rock ores represent 59% of the lithium production.<ref name=":5" />

== Disposal ==
Some types of Lithium-ion batteries such as [[Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides|NMC]] contain metals such as [[nickel]], [[manganese]] and [[cobalt]], which are toxic and can contaminate water supplies and ecosystems if they leach out of landfills.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jacoby |first=Mitch |date=July 14, 2019 |title=It's time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries |url=https://cen.acs.org/materials/energy-storage/time-serious-recycling-lithium/97/i28 |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=cen.acs.org}}</ref> Additionally, fires in landfills or battery-recycling facilities have been attributed to inappropriate disposal of lithium-ion batteries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2020-09-16 |title=Frequent Questions on Lithium-ion Batteries |url=https://www.epa.gov/recycle/frequent-questions-lithium-ion-batteries |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref> As a result, some jurisdictions require lithium-ion batteries to be recycled.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Robert |last2=Baum |first2=Zachary J. |last3=Yu |first3=Xiang |last4=Ma |first4=Jia |date=2022-02-11 |title=The Regulatory Environment for Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsenergylett.1c02724 |journal=ACS Energy Letters |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=736–740 |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.1c02724 |issn=2380-8195 |s2cid=246116929}}</ref> Despite the environmental cost of improper disposal of lithium-ion batteries, the rate of recycling is still relatively low, as recycling processes remain costly and immature.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-24 |title=Worldwide Regulations on Lithium-ion Battery Recycling |url=https://www.azom.com/news.aspx?newsID=57992 |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=AZoM.com |language=en}}</ref> A study in Australia that was conducted in 2014 estimates that in 2012-2013, 98% of lithium-ion batteries were sent to the landfill.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'farrell |first=K |last2=Veit |first2=R |last3=A'vard |first3=D |last4=Allan |first4=P |last5=Perchard |first5=D |date=2014 |title=Trend analysis and market assessment report |url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=K.%20O%E2%80%99Farrell%2C%20R.%20Veit%2C%20and%20D.%20A%E2%80%99Vard%2C%20%E2%80%9CTrend%20analysis%20and%20market%20assessment%20report%2C%E2%80%9D%20National%20Environment%20Protection%20Council%20Service%20Corporation%2C%20Jul.%202014.#d=gs_cit&t=1712780819417&u=%2Fscholar%3Fq%3Dinfo%3AcwL277rC_D0J%3Ascholar.google.com%2F%26output%3Dcite%26scirp%3D0%26hl%3Den |journal=National Environment Protection Council Service Corporation}}</ref>


== Recycling ==
== Recycling ==
{{main|Battery recycling}}
{{main|Battery recycling}}
[[File:Recycling companies.png|alt=List of companies that are responsible for recycling lithium-ion batteries and the capacity of lithium-ion batteries they can intake.|thumb|296x296px|List of companies that are responsible for recycling lithium-ion batteries and the capacity of lithium-ion batteries they can intake.]]
The EPA has guidelines regarding recycling lithium batteries in the U.S.  There are different processes for single-use or rechargeable batteries, so it is advised that batteries of all sizes are brought to special recycling centers. This will allow a safer process of breaking down the individual metals that can be reclaimed for further use.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2019-05-16 |title=Used Lithium-Ion Batteries |url=https://www.epa.gov/recycle/used-lithium-ion-batteries |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref>
Lithium-ion batteries must be handled with extreme care from when they're created, to being transported, to being recycled. Recycling is extremely vital to limiting the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries. By recycling the batteries, emissions and energy consumption can be reduced as less lithium would need to be mined and processed.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Doolan |first=Matthew |last2=Boyden |first2=Anna |date=2016 |title=Recycling analysis: Options for lithium batteries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/renetechsustfutu.137.56 |journal=ReNew: Technology for a Sustainable Future |issue=137 |pages=56–57 |issn=1327-1938}}</ref>

The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] has guidelines regarding recycling lithium batteries in the U.S.  There are different processes for single-use or rechargeable batteries, so it is advised that batteries of all sizes are brought to special recycling centers. This will allow a safer process of breaking down the individual metals that can be reclaimed for further use.<ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OLEM |date=2019-05-16 |title=Used Lithium-Ion Batteries |url=https://www.epa.gov/recycle/used-lithium-ion-batteries |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref>


There are currently three major methods used for the recycling of lithium-ion batteries, those being pyrometallurgical recovery, hydrometallurgical metal reclamation, and mechanical recycling.<ref name=":6" /> A study conducted in 2016 with several recycling plants in Australia found that mechanical recycling recovered the most materials, recovering 7 of the 10 possible materials from lithium-ion batteries on average.<ref name=":6" /> This same study also found that hydrometallurgy recovered 6 out of 10 materials on average and pyrometallurgical processes recovered only half of the possible materials on average.<ref name=":6" />
There are currently three major methods used for the recycling of lithium-ion batteries, those being:


=== Pyrometallurgical recovery ===
=== Pyrometallurgical recovery ===
The processes within the [[Pyrometallurgy|pyrometallurgical]] recovery include pyrolysis, incineration, roasting, and smelting. Right now, most traditional industrial processes are not able to recover lithium. They main process is to extract other metals including cobalt, nickel, and copper. There is a very low recycling efficiency in materials and use of capital resources.  There are high energy requirements along with gas treatment mechanisms that will produce a lower volume of gas byproducts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Makuza |first1=Brian |last2=Tian |first2=Qinghua |last3=Guo |first3=Xueyi |last4=Chattopadhyay |first4=Kinnor |last5=Yu |first5=Dawei |date=2021-04-15 |title=Pyrometallurgical options for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: A comprehensive review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378775321001671 |journal=Journal of Power Sources |language=en |volume=491 |pages=229622 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229622 |bibcode=2021JPS...49129622M |s2cid=233572653 |issn=0378-7753}}</ref>
The processes within the [[Pyrometallurgy|pyrometallurgical]] recovery include pyrolysis, incineration, roasting, and smelting.<ref name=":6" /> Right now, most traditional industrial processes are not able to recover lithium. The main process is to extract other metals including cobalt, nickel, and copper. There is a very low recycling efficiency in materials and use of capital resources.  There are high energy requirements along with gas treatment mechanisms that will produce a lower volume of gas byproducts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Makuza |first1=Brian |last2=Tian |first2=Qinghua |last3=Guo |first3=Xueyi |last4=Chattopadhyay |first4=Kinnor |last5=Yu |first5=Dawei |date=2021-04-15 |title=Pyrometallurgical options for recycling spent lithium-ion batteries: A comprehensive review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378775321001671 |journal=Journal of Power Sources |language=en |volume=491 |pages=229622 |bibcode=2021JPS...49129622M |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229622 |issn=0378-7753 |s2cid=233572653}}</ref>


=== Hydrometallurgical metals reclamation ===
=== Hydrometallurgical metals reclamation ===
[[Hydrometallurgy]] is the application of aqueous solution to recover metal from ores. It is commonly used for copper recovery. This method has been used for other metals to help eliminate the problem of sulfur dioxide byproducts that more conventional smelting causes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrometallurgy - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hydrometallurgy |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>
[[Hydrometallurgy]] uses chemical reactions to dissolve materials into a solution, which is later precipitated to retrieve the desired raw material.<ref name=":6" /> This method of recycling destroys all organic materials, such as plastic, during the process.<ref name=":6" /> That being said, [[Hydrometallurgy]] does achieve a very high purity in the recovered metals, making it a good recycling method.<ref name=":6" /> It is commonly used for copper recovery. This method has been used for other metals to help eliminate the problem of sulfur dioxide byproducts that more conventional smelting causes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hydrometallurgy - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hydrometallurgy |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>


=== Direct recycling ===
=== Direct/mechanical recycling ===
While recycling is an option, it still generally remains being more expensive than mining the ores themselves.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-09-17|title=Are Lithium Ion batteries sustainable to the environment? -(I)|url=http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/are-lithium-ion-batteries-sustainable-to-the-environment-i.html|access-date=2021-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917012206/http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/are-lithium-ion-batteries-sustainable-to-the-environment-i.html|archive-date=2011-09-17}}</ref> With the rising demand for lithium-ion batteries the need for a more efficient recycling program is detrimental with many companies racing to find the most efficient method. One of the most pressing issues is when the batteries are manufactured, recycling is not considered a design priority.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=L. Thompson|first1=Dana|last2=M. Hartley|first2=Jennifer|last3=M. Lambert|first3=Simon|last4=Shiref|first4=Muez|last5=J. Harper|first5=Gavin D.|last6=Kendrick|first6=Emma|last7=Anderson|first7=Paul|last8=S. Ryder|first8=Karl|last9=Gaines|first9=Linda|last10=P. Abbott|first10=Andrew|date=2020|title=The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling – a critical review|journal=Green Chemistry|language=en|volume=22|issue=22|pages=7585–7603|doi=10.1039/D0GC02745F|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Direct or mechanical recycling involves breaking down old lithium-ion batteries to extract important, usable components and/or materials to be re-used with new batteries.<ref name=":6" /> This process involves shredding or crushing old batteries and then extracting the materials afterwards.<ref name=":6" /> This can lead to cross-contamination which can result in certain materials or components becoming unrecyclable.<ref name=":6" /> While this form of recycling is an option, it still generally remains more expensive than mining the ores themselves.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-09-17 |title=Are Lithium Ion batteries sustainable to the environment? -(I) |url=http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/are-lithium-ion-batteries-sustainable-to-the-environment-i.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110917012206/http://www.alternative-energy-resources.net/are-lithium-ion-batteries-sustainable-to-the-environment-i.html |archive-date=2011-09-17 |access-date=2021-03-07}}</ref> With the rising demand for lithium-ion batteries, the need for a more efficient recycling program is detrimental with many companies racing to find the most efficient method. One of the most pressing issues is when the batteries are manufactured, recycling is not considered a design priority.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=L. Thompson |first1=Dana |last2=M. Hartley |first2=Jennifer |last3=M. Lambert |first3=Simon |last4=Shiref |first4=Muez |last5=J. Harper |first5=Gavin D. |last6=Kendrick |first6=Emma |last7=Anderson |first7=Paul |last8=S. Ryder |first8=Karl |last9=Gaines |first9=Linda |last10=P. Abbott |first10=Andrew |date=2020 |title=The importance of design in lithium ion battery recycling – a critical review |journal=Green Chemistry |language=en |volume=22 |issue=22 |pages=7585–7603 |doi=10.1039/D0GC02745F |doi-access=free}}</ref> The advantage of this recycling method is that it generally involves very little pollution if any from the process, whereas the previous two methods can both produce harmful chemicals and gasses.<ref name=":6" />


== Application ==
== Application ==
There are many uses for lithium-ion batteries since they are light, rechargeable and are compact. They mostly used in electric vehicles and hand held electronics, but they are also increasingly used in military and [[aerospace]] applications.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-05-09|title=Electrovaya, Tata Motors to make electric Indica {{!}} Cleantech Group|url=http://www.cleantech.com/news/3694/electrovaya-tata-motors-make-electric-indica|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509010846/http://www.cleantech.com/news/3694/electrovaya-tata-motors-make-electric-indica|archive-date=2011-05-09}}</ref>
There are many uses for lithium-ion batteries since they are light, rechargeable and are compact. They are mostly used in electric vehicles and hand-held electronics, but are also increasingly used in military and [[aerospace]] applications.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-05-09|title=Electrovaya, Tata Motors to make electric Indica {{!}} Cleantech Group|url=http://www.cleantech.com/news/3694/electrovaya-tata-motors-make-electric-indica|access-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509010846/http://www.cleantech.com/news/3694/electrovaya-tata-motors-make-electric-indica|archive-date=2011-05-09}}</ref>
[[File:Lithium-Ion Battery for BMW i3 - Battery Pack.JPG|thumb|Depiction of a battery pack in a BMW i3]]
[[File:Lithium-Ion Battery for BMW i3 - Battery Pack.JPG|thumb|Battery pack in a BMW i3]]


=== Electric vehicles ===
=== Electric vehicles ===
{{seealso|Environmental footprint of electric cars}}
{{see also|Environmental footprint of electric cars}}
The primary industry and source of the lithium-ion battery is [[electric vehicle]]s (EV). Electric vehicles have seen a massive increase in sales in recent years with over 90% of all global car markets having EV incentives in place as of 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Electric Vehicles – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/electric-vehicles|access-date=2021-03-26|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> With this increase in sales of EVs and the continued sales of them we can see a significant improvement to environmental impacts from the reduction of [[fossil fuel]] dependencies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Lin|last2=Dababneh|first2=Fadwa|last3=Zhao|first3=Jing|date=September 2018|title=Cost-effective supply chain for electric vehicle battery remanufacturing|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.05.115|journal=Applied Energy|volume=226|pages=277–286|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.05.115|s2cid=115360445 |issn=0306-2619}}</ref> There has been recent studies that explore different uses for recycled lithium ion batteries specifically from electric vehicles. Specifically the secondary use of lithium ion batteries recycled from electric vehicles for secondary use in power load peak shaving in China has been proven to be effective for grid companies.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-12-10|title=Economic analysis of lithium-ion batteries recycled from electric vehicles for secondary use in power load peak shaving in China|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620333722|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=276|pages=123327|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123327|issn=0959-6526|last1=Sun|first1=Bingxiang|last2=Su|first2=Xiaojia|last3=Wang|first3=Dan|last4=Zhang|first4=Lei|last5=Liu|first5=Yingqi|last6=Yang|first6=Yang|last7=Liang|first7=Hui|last8=Gong|first8=Minming|last9=Zhang|first9=Weige|last10=Jiang|first10=Jiuchun|s2cid=225030759 }}</ref> With the environmental threats that are posed by spent lithium-ion batteries paired with the future supply risks of battery components for electric vehicles, remanufacturing of lithium batteries must be considered. Based on the EverBatt model, a test was conducted in China which concluded that remanufacturing of lithium-ion batteries will only be cost effective when the purchase price of spent batteries remains low. Recycling will also have significant benefits to environmental impacts. In terms of greenhouse gas reduction we see a 6.62% reduction in total GHG emissions with the use of remanufacturing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xiong|first1=Siqin|last2=Ji|first2=Junping|last3=Ma|first3=Xiaoming|date=February 2020|title=Environmental and economic evaluation of remanufacturing lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.11.013|journal=Waste Management|volume=102|pages=579–586|doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2019.11.013|pmid=31770692|s2cid=208321682 |issn=0956-053X}}</ref>
The primary industry and source of the lithium-ion battery is [[electric vehicle]]s (EV). Electric vehicles have seen a massive increase in sales in recent years with over 90% of all global car markets having EV incentives in place as of 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Electric Vehicles – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/electric-vehicles|access-date=2021-03-26|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref> With this increase in sales of EVs and the continued sales of them we can see a significant improvement to environmental impacts from the reduction of [[fossil fuel]] dependencies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Lin|last2=Dababneh|first2=Fadwa|last3=Zhao|first3=Jing|date=September 2018|title=Cost-effective supply chain for electric vehicle battery remanufacturing|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.05.115|journal=Applied Energy|volume=226|pages=277–286|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.05.115|bibcode=2018ApEn..226..277L |s2cid=115360445 |issn=0306-2619}}</ref> There have been recent studies that explore different uses for recycled lithium-ion batteries specifically from electric vehicles. Specifically the secondary use of lithium-ion batteries recycled from electric vehicles for secondary use in power load peak shaving in China has been proven to be effective for grid companies.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-12-10|title=Economic analysis of lithium-ion batteries recycled from electric vehicles for secondary use in power load peak shaving in China|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959652620333722|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|language=en|volume=276|pages=123327|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123327|issn=0959-6526|last1=Sun|first1=Bingxiang|last2=Su|first2=Xiaojia|last3=Wang|first3=Dan|last4=Zhang|first4=Lei|last5=Liu|first5=Yingqi|last6=Yang|first6=Yang|last7=Liang|first7=Hui|last8=Gong|first8=Minming|last9=Zhang|first9=Weige|last10=Jiang|first10=Jiuchun|s2cid=225030759 }}</ref> With the environmental threats that are posed by spent lithium-ion batteries paired with the future supply risks of battery components for electric vehicles, remanufacturing of lithium batteries must be considered. Based on the EverBatt model, a test was conducted in China which concluded that remanufacturing of lithium-ion batteries will only be cost effective when the purchase price of spent batteries remains low. Recycling will also have significant benefits to environmental impacts. In terms of greenhouse gas reduction we see a 6.62% reduction in total GHG emissions with the use of remanufacturing.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xiong|first1=Siqin|last2=Ji|first2=Junping|last3=Ma|first3=Xiaoming|date=February 2020|title=Environmental and economic evaluation of remanufacturing lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles|journal=Waste Management|volume=102|pages=579–586|doi=10.1016/j.wasman.2019.11.013|pmid=31770692|s2cid=208321682 |issn=0956-053X|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020WaMan.102..579X }}</ref>


== See also ==
== See also ==
Line 52: Line 61:


[[Category:Lithium-ion batteries]]
[[Category:Lithium-ion batteries]]
[[Category:Environmental impact of products]]

Latest revision as of 07:20, 30 December 2024

Disassembly of a lithium-ion cell showing internal structure

Lithium batteries are batteries that use lithium as an anode. This type of battery is also referred to as a lithium-ion battery[1] and is most commonly used for electric vehicles and electronics.[1] The first type of lithium battery was created by the British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in the early 1970s and used titanium and lithium as the electrodes. Applications for this battery were limited by the high prices of titanium and the unpleasant scent that the reaction produced.[2] Today's lithium-ion battery, modeled after the Whittingham attempt by Akira Yoshino, was first developed in 1985.

Graph visualizing the tonnes of lithium and income generated from Australian lithium mining and exportation over the recent years.
Tonnes of lithium and income generated from Australian lithium mining and exportation over the recent years

While lithium-ion batteries can be used as a part of a sustainable solution, shifting all fossil fuel-powered devices to lithium-based batteries might not be the Earth's best option. There is no scarcity yet, but it is a natural resource that can be depleted.[3] According to researchers at Volkswagen, there are about 14 million tons of lithium left, which corresponds to 165 times the production volume in 2018.[4]

Extraction

[edit]

Lithium is extracted on a commercial scale from three principal sources: salt brines, lithium-rich clay, and hard-rock deposits. Each method incurs certain unavoidable environmental disruptions. Salt brine extraction sites are by far the most popular operations for extracting lithium, they are responsible for around 66% of the world's lithium production.[5] The major environmental benefit of brine extraction compared to other extraction methods is that there is very little machinery needed to be used throughout the operation.[5] Whereas hard-rock deposits and lithium-rich clays both require relatively typical mining methods, involving heavy machinery.[5] Despite this benefit, all methods are continually used as they all achieve relatively similar recovery percentages.[5] Brine extraction achieves a 97% recovery percentage whereas hard-rock deposits achieve a 94% recovery percentage.[5]

Continental brine extraction

[edit]
Map of the Lithium Triangle in South America, which includes Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile
The Lithium Triangle in South America, which includes Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile

Brine extraction uses open-air evaporation to concentrate the brine over time. This results in large quantities of water being lost due to evaporation. It is worth noting that in general, this brine being evaporated has a very high salinity, making the water unusable for any agricultural or human consumption.[6] Afterwards, the concentrated brine is moved to a nearby production facility to produce Li2CO3 and LiOH•H2O.[7] These production facilities are responsible for the bulk of the atmospheric pollution caused by brine extraction sites, releasing harmful gasses such as Sulphur dioxide into the air.[8]

The majority of brine extraction sites are situated in South America, more specifically, in Chile and Argentina, where around half of the world's lithium reserves exist in a place referred to as the "lithium triangle".[5] In Chile,[9] the world's second-largest lithium producer, the nation's two active mines, run by SQM and Albemarle, are both located on the Salar de Atacama salt flat in the Atacama Desert.[10] Tests performed on the brines of these mines showed that the brine has ~350 g/L of total dissolved solids.[7] Studies on this mine and the area's water tables have shown that the total water storage of Salar de Atacama decreased by -1.16 mm per year from 2010-2017.[6] There is a complex divide among and within local communities, with some accepting payouts from the mining corporations and taking part in their community development initiatives, whilst others are either neglected by such programs or refuse the corporations' offers due to their aforementioned environmental concerns.[11][12] In Tagong, a small town in Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture China, there are records of dangerous chemicals such as hydrochloric acid leaking into the Liqi River from the nearby lithium mining facilities.[13] As a result, dead fish and large animals were seen floating down the Liqi River and other nearby rivers near the Tibetan mines.[13] After further investigation, researchers found that this may have been caused by leakage of evaporation pools that sit for months and sometimes even years.[14]

Hard-rock deposits

[edit]

Lithium can also be extracted from hard-rock deposits. These deposits are most commonly found in Australia, the world's largest producer of lithium,[5] through spodumene ores. Spodumene ores and other lithium-bearing hard-rock deposits are far less abundant throughout the world than continental brines.[6] Although the deposits are far less commonly found and available for mining, the operating costs are very similar to the costs of operating a brine extraction operation.[5] As a result, hard-rock deposit extraction sites are continuing to be created and used even though salt brines are much more common to find and typically bear a smaller environmental impact.[6]

Lithium-rich clays

[edit]

Extracting lithium from lithium-rich clays first involves mining the clays themselves which results in lots of atmospheric pollution. There are several minerals within clay that contain lithium such as, lepidolite, hectorite, masutomilite, zinnwaldite, swinefordite, cookeite, and jadarite.[15] After extracting these minerals from the ground, the clays are processed to extract the lithium, this is typically done through chemical reactions like acidification.[15] This chemical process can result in harmful gasses and chemicals being produced as byproducts which can easily result in pollution if not handled properly.[15] Lithium-rich clays are the third major source of lithium, although they are far less abundant than salt brines and hard-rock ores containing lithium. To be exact, lithium-rich clays make up less than 2% of the world's lithium products.[16] For comparison, brine extraction represents 39% and hard-rock ores represent 59% of the lithium production.[16]

Disposal

[edit]

Some types of Lithium-ion batteries such as NMC contain metals such as nickel, manganese and cobalt, which are toxic and can contaminate water supplies and ecosystems if they leach out of landfills.[17] Additionally, fires in landfills or battery-recycling facilities have been attributed to inappropriate disposal of lithium-ion batteries.[18] As a result, some jurisdictions require lithium-ion batteries to be recycled.[19] Despite the environmental cost of improper disposal of lithium-ion batteries, the rate of recycling is still relatively low, as recycling processes remain costly and immature.[20] A study in Australia that was conducted in 2014 estimates that in 2012-2013, 98% of lithium-ion batteries were sent to the landfill.[21]

Recycling

[edit]
List of companies that are responsible for recycling lithium-ion batteries and the capacity of lithium-ion batteries they can intake.
List of companies that are responsible for recycling lithium-ion batteries and the capacity of lithium-ion batteries they can intake.

Lithium-ion batteries must be handled with extreme care from when they're created, to being transported, to being recycled. Recycling is extremely vital to limiting the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries. By recycling the batteries, emissions and energy consumption can be reduced as less lithium would need to be mined and processed.[22]

The EPA has guidelines regarding recycling lithium batteries in the U.S.  There are different processes for single-use or rechargeable batteries, so it is advised that batteries of all sizes are brought to special recycling centers. This will allow a safer process of breaking down the individual metals that can be reclaimed for further use.[23]

There are currently three major methods used for the recycling of lithium-ion batteries, those being pyrometallurgical recovery, hydrometallurgical metal reclamation, and mechanical recycling.[22] A study conducted in 2016 with several recycling plants in Australia found that mechanical recycling recovered the most materials, recovering 7 of the 10 possible materials from lithium-ion batteries on average.[22] This same study also found that hydrometallurgy recovered 6 out of 10 materials on average and pyrometallurgical processes recovered only half of the possible materials on average.[22]

Pyrometallurgical recovery

[edit]

The processes within the pyrometallurgical recovery include pyrolysis, incineration, roasting, and smelting.[22] Right now, most traditional industrial processes are not able to recover lithium. The main process is to extract other metals including cobalt, nickel, and copper. There is a very low recycling efficiency in materials and use of capital resources.  There are high energy requirements along with gas treatment mechanisms that will produce a lower volume of gas byproducts.[24]

Hydrometallurgical metals reclamation

[edit]

Hydrometallurgy uses chemical reactions to dissolve materials into a solution, which is later precipitated to retrieve the desired raw material.[22] This method of recycling destroys all organic materials, such as plastic, during the process.[22] That being said, Hydrometallurgy does achieve a very high purity in the recovered metals, making it a good recycling method.[22] It is commonly used for copper recovery. This method has been used for other metals to help eliminate the problem of sulfur dioxide byproducts that more conventional smelting causes.[25]

Direct/mechanical recycling

[edit]

Direct or mechanical recycling involves breaking down old lithium-ion batteries to extract important, usable components and/or materials to be re-used with new batteries.[22] This process involves shredding or crushing old batteries and then extracting the materials afterwards.[22] This can lead to cross-contamination which can result in certain materials or components becoming unrecyclable.[22] While this form of recycling is an option, it still generally remains more expensive than mining the ores themselves.[26] With the rising demand for lithium-ion batteries, the need for a more efficient recycling program is detrimental with many companies racing to find the most efficient method. One of the most pressing issues is when the batteries are manufactured, recycling is not considered a design priority.[27] The advantage of this recycling method is that it generally involves very little pollution if any from the process, whereas the previous two methods can both produce harmful chemicals and gasses.[22]

Application

[edit]

There are many uses for lithium-ion batteries since they are light, rechargeable and are compact. They are mostly used in electric vehicles and hand-held electronics, but are also increasingly used in military and aerospace applications.[28]

Battery pack in a BMW i3

Electric vehicles

[edit]

The primary industry and source of the lithium-ion battery is electric vehicles (EV). Electric vehicles have seen a massive increase in sales in recent years with over 90% of all global car markets having EV incentives in place as of 2019.[29] With this increase in sales of EVs and the continued sales of them we can see a significant improvement to environmental impacts from the reduction of fossil fuel dependencies.[30] There have been recent studies that explore different uses for recycled lithium-ion batteries specifically from electric vehicles. Specifically the secondary use of lithium-ion batteries recycled from electric vehicles for secondary use in power load peak shaving in China has been proven to be effective for grid companies.[31] With the environmental threats that are posed by spent lithium-ion batteries paired with the future supply risks of battery components for electric vehicles, remanufacturing of lithium batteries must be considered. Based on the EverBatt model, a test was conducted in China which concluded that remanufacturing of lithium-ion batteries will only be cost effective when the purchase price of spent batteries remains low. Recycling will also have significant benefits to environmental impacts. In terms of greenhouse gas reduction we see a 6.62% reduction in total GHG emissions with the use of remanufacturing.[32]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Zeng, Xianlai; Li, Jinhui; Singh, Narendra (2014-05-19). "Recycling of Spent Lithium-Ion Battery: A Critical Review". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 44 (10): 1129–1165. doi:10.1080/10643389.2013.763578. ISSN 1064-3389. S2CID 110579207.
  2. ^ Bottled lightning: superbatteries, electric cars, and the new lithium economy. 2011-11-01.
  3. ^ Pyakurel, Parakram (11 January 2019). "Lithium is finite – but clean technology relies on such non-renewable resources". The Conversation. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
  4. ^ "Lithium mining: What you should know about the contentious issue". www.volkswagenag.com. Retrieved 2022-04-25.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Sterba, Jiri; Krzemień, Alicja; Riesgo Fernández, Pedro; Escanciano García-Miranda, Carmen; Fidalgo Valverde, Gregorio (August 2019). "Lithium mining: Accelerating the transition to sustainable energy". Resources Policy. 62: 416–426. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.05.002. hdl:10651/52578. ISSN 0301-4207.
  6. ^ a b c d Vera, María L.; Torres, Walter R.; Galli, Claudia I.; Chagnes, Alexandre; Flexer, Victoria (March 2023). "Environmental impact of direct lithium extraction from brines". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 4 (3): 149–165. doi:10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5. ISSN 2662-138X.
  7. ^ a b Kelly, Jarod C.; Wang, Michael; Dai, Qiang; Winjobi, Olumide (2021-11-01). "Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries". Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 174: 105762. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105762. ISSN 0921-3449.
  8. ^ Dailey, Sarah (2011). "Where's all the lithium from?". ReNew: Technology for a Sustainable Future (115): 64–65. ISSN 1327-1938.
  9. ^ Rapier, Robert. "The World's Top Lithium Producers". Forbes. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
  10. ^ Agusdinata, Datu Buyung; Liu, Wenjuan; Eakin, Hallie; Romero, Hugo (2018-11-27). "Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda". Environmental Research Letters. 13 (12): 123001. Bibcode:2018ERL....13l3001B. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1. ISSN 1748-9326.
  11. ^ "The Environmental Impact of Lithium Batteries". IER. 2020-11-12. Retrieved 2021-12-14.
  12. ^ Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center. "Lithium Mining in Salar de Atacama, Chile | U.S. Geological Survey". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2021-12-14.
  13. ^ a b Ahmad, Samar (2020). "The Lithium Triangle: Where Chile Argentina, and Bolivia Meet". Harvard International Review. 41 (1): 51–53. ISSN 0739-1854.
  14. ^ "The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction". Wired UK. ISSN 1357-0978. Retrieved 2021-12-14.
  15. ^ a b c Zhao, Hao; Wang, Yang; Cheng, Hongfei (March 2023). "Recent advances in lithium extraction from lithium-bearing clay minerals". Hydrometallurgy. 217: 106025. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2023.106025. ISSN 0304-386X.
  16. ^ a b Goel, Siddharth; Moerenhout, Tom; Sharma, Deepak; Raizada, Swasti; Kumar, Prashant (2023). Global Supply of Lithium (Report). International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD). pp. 21–29.
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