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Dry dung fuel (or dry manure fuel) is animal feces that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source. It is used in many countries. Using dry manure as a fuel source is an example of reuse of human excreta. A disadvantage of using this kind of fuel is increased air pollution.^[1]

Types

Dry dung and moist dung

Dry dung is more commonly used than moist dung, because it burns more easily. Dry manure is typically defined as having a moisture content less than 30 percent.^[2]

Dung cakes

"Dung cakes", made from the by-products of animal husbandry, are traditionally used as fuel in India for cooking food in a domestic hearth called a Chulha. They are made by hand by village women and are traditionally made from cow or buffalo dung. One dung cake of an average size gives 2100 kJ worth of energy. Dung cakes are also known as goitha, uple, kande, gosse or thepdi.

These are the cakes of cow dung molded by bare hands with a curvature to be able to keep stuck to the walls. Once dried they are put in a pile and covered with thatch called bitauda. These bitaudas are visible in parts of rural India albeit with different names. The size and shape of the cake might vary with region. Its also not uncommon to see these cakes directly used in earthen ovens.

This biofuel has been used primarily for two reasons: for easy disposal of cow dung and as easily available and cheap fuel.

Human feces

Human feces can in principle also be dried and used as a fuel source if they are collected in a type of dry toilet, for example an incinerating toilet. Since 2011, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation is supporting the development of such toilets as part of their "Reinvent the Toilet Challenge" to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human excreta.^[3] The omni-processor is another example of using human feces contained in fecal sludge or sewage sludge as a fuel source.

Attributes

Some aspects of using dry animal dung include:^[4]

Potential for cost savings compared to other fuels
May alleviate local pressure on wood resources
Availability - short walking time required to collect dung fuel
No cash outlays necessary for purchase

Countries

Africa

In Egypt dry animal dung (from cows & buffaloes) is mixed with straw or crop residues to make dry fuel called "Gella" or "Jilla" dung cakes in modern times and ""khoroshtof"" in medieval times.^[5] Ancient Egyptians used the dry animal dung as a source of fuel.^[6] Dung cakes and building crop residues were the source of 76.4% of gross energy consumed in Egypt's rural areas during the 1980s.^[7] Temperatures of dung-fueled fires in an experiment on Egyptian village-made dung cake fuel produced:

...a maximum of 640 °C in 12 minutes, falling to 240 °C after 25 minutes and 100 °C after 46 minutes. These temperatures were obtained without refueling and without bellows etc.^[8]

Also, camel dung is used as fuel in Egypt.

Lisu is the cakes of dry cow dung fuel in Lesotho (see photo)

Mali

Asia

Afghanistan, Tapi (تپی ) and used in villages and countrysides
Azerbaijan, Кизяк (kizyak) is used as fuel in mountain villages, e.g. *Xinaliq
кизяк (kizyak)
Bangladesh, dry cow dung fuel is called Ghunte.
China
India, dry buffalo dung is used as fuel and it is sometimes a sacred practice to use cow dung fuel in some areas in India. Cow dung is known as "Gomaya" or "Komaya" in India. Dry animal dung cakes are called upla in Hindi.^[9]
Dungcakes at Village Bhraj, Sangrur District, Punjab
Iran, since prehistoric time to modern eras^[10]
Iraq, this kind of biofuel is named locally Muttal, and it is made in the shape of a disc made from cow or buffalo dung, with a diameter of 20–30 cm and a thickness of 2–5 cm. It is famous in its manufacture by the indigenous people of the marshes of Iraq in particular, and the residents of southern and Middle Euphrates of Iraq in general. It is used in the bakery of rice bread, and in grilling fish to form the favorite food of the people of the marshes, which is Tabag bread and grilled fish, and also is used to burn and emit smoke for a day or more to protect humans, animals and plants from harmful insects. It is stored in the form of heaps, called Gubbah, and is usually mixed with hay in storage, and used in times when there is little fuel.^[11]
Kazakhs dry animal dung is known as "Кизяк" (romanized: kizyak) which is made by collecting dried animal dung on the steppe, wetting it in water then mixing it with straw then making it in discs which were then dried in the sun. It was used as a source of fuel for the winter and, throughout the summer.^[12]
Kyrgyz Republic, dung is used in specially designed home stoves, which vent to the outside
Mongolia, dry cow dung and sheep dung cakes are commonly used as fuel.
Nepal^[13]
Pakistan, dried cow/buffalo dung is used as fuel.^[8]

Europe

Dung cakes being prepared for fuel on the Ile de Brehat, Brittany, France, c. 1900

France in Maison du Marais poitevin in Coulon there is a demonstration of traditional usage of dry dung fuel.

The Americas

Early European settlers on the Great Plains of the United States used dried buffalo manure as a fuel, calling it "buffalo chips."
Pueblo Indians used dry animal dung as a fuel
In Peru, the Yavari steam ship was fueled by llama dung fuel for several decades.
Dry dung can be used in the production of celluloid for film.

History

Dry animal dung was used from prehistoric times,^[14] including in Ancient Persia,^[10] Ancient Egypt and early modern England.^[15] In Equatorial Guinea archaeological evidence has been found of the practice^[16] and biblical records indicate animal and human dung were used as fuel.^[17]

Air pollution

The combustion of dried dung cakes has been shown to release many thousands of organic components into gas and aerosol phases, some of which are unique tracers of dung combustion such as cholestanol and coprostanol.^[18] Dung cakes are generally a higher emission fuel, with the combustion of cow dung cake samples collected from the Delhi area of India releasing around four times more volatile organic compounds than fuel wood samples.^[19] The volatile organic compounds released from cow dung cake combustion have been shown to be significantly more reactive with the hydroxyl radical, with the gases released from the combustion of cow dung cake samples collected from Delhi in India around 120 times more reactive with the hydroxyl radical than the emissions from liquefied petroleum gas. The volatile organic compounds from cow dung cake combustion have also been shown to result in 3-4 times more secondary organic aerosol production than fuel wood and release many more toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.^[20]

References

^ Mudway, Ian S; Duggan, Sean T; Venkataraman, Chandra; Habib, Gazala; Kelly, Frank J; Grigg, Jonathan (2005). "Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates". Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 2 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-2-6. ISSN 1743-8977. PMC 1262769. PMID 16202154.
^ "Biomass Report, Yakima County Public Works Solid Waste Division" (PDF). Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ Elisabeth von Muench, Dorothee Spuhler, Trevor Surridge, Nelson Ekane, Kim Andersson, Emine Goekce Fidan, Arno Rosemarin (2013) Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s sanitation grants, Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal, Issue 17, pp. 4–10
^ "Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ "Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online". English.ahram.org.eg. 28 June 2012. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ "Al-Ahram Weekly | Chronicles |". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. Archived from the original on 17 December 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ "Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Dung & Archeology". Sas.upenn.edu. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ "Animal Dung As A Source of Energy in Remote Areas of Indian Himalayas" (PDF). Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ ^a ^b Miller, Naomi (1 January 1984). "The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application | Naomi Miller". Paléorient. 10 (2). Academia.edu: 71–79. doi:10.3406/paleo.1984.941. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ "www.areq.net". عريق. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
^ "Polish settlements in Russia during WW II". Polishresettlementcampsintheuk.co.uk. 19 September 1936. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ "Health Costs of Dung-Cake Fuel Use by the Poor in Rural Nepal" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
^ Mlekuž, Dimitrij (2009). "The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves". Documenta Praehistorica. 36: 219–225. doi:10.4312/dp.36.14. ISSN 1854-2492.
^ Fiennes, Celia (1888) [1702]. Griffiths (ed.). Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary. Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C.
^ Picornell Gelabert, Llorenç; Asouti, Eleni; Martí, Ethel Allué (2011). "The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 30 (3): 375–384. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002. ISSN 0278-4165.
^ The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm
^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Farren, Naomi J.; Hopkins, James R.; Ward, Martyn W.; Swift, Stefan J.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu (18 February 2021). "Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 21 (4): 2407–2426. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2407S. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021. ISSN 1680-7316.
^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Nelson, Beth S.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu; Ahlawat, Sakshi; Yadav, Lokesh; Sharma, Sudhir K. (18 February 2021). "Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 21 (4): 2383–2406. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2383S. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021. ISSN 1680-7316.
^ Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Yunus, Siti S. M.; Hewitt, C. Nicholas; Nemitz, Eiko; Mandal, Tuhin K.; Gadi, Ranu; Sahu, Lokesh K. (25 February 2021). "Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India". Environmental Science: Atmospheres. 1 (2): 104–117. doi:10.1039/D0EA00009D. ISSN 2634-3606.

External links

Preparing Cow Dung For Fuel

[MudwayDuggan2005-1] Mudway, Ian S; Duggan, Sean T; Venkataraman, Chandra; Habib, Gazala; Kelly, Frank J; Grigg, Jonathan (2005). "Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates". Particle and Fibre Toxicology. 2 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-2-6. ISSN 1743-8977. PMC 1262769. PMID 16202154.

[2] "Biomass Report, Yakima County Public Works Solid Waste Division" (PDF). Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[3] Elisabeth von Muench, Dorothee Spuhler, Trevor Surridge, Nelson Ekane, Kim Andersson, Emine Goekce Fidan, Arno Rosemarin (2013) Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s sanitation grants, Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal, Issue 17, pp. 4–10

[4] "Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[5] "Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online". English.ahram.org.eg. 28 June 2012. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[6] "Al-Ahram Weekly | Chronicles |". Weekly.ahram.org.eg. Archived from the original on 17 December 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[7] "Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[upenn1-8] "Dung & Archeology". Sas.upenn.edu. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[9] "Animal Dung As A Source of Energy in Remote Areas of Indian Himalayas" (PDF). Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[academia1-10] Miller, Naomi (1 January 1984). "The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application | Naomi Miller". Paléorient. 10 (2). Academia.edu: 71–79. doi:10.3406/paleo.1984.941. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[11] "www.areq.net". عريق. Retrieved 10 March 2023.

[12] "Polish settlements in Russia during WW II". Polishresettlementcampsintheuk.co.uk. 19 September 1936. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[13] "Health Costs of Dung-Cake Fuel Use by the Poor in Rural Nepal" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

[Mlekuž2009-14] Mlekuž, Dimitrij (2009). "The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves". Documenta Praehistorica. 36: 219–225. doi:10.4312/dp.36.14. ISSN 1854-2492.

[15] Fiennes, Celia (1888) [1702]. Griffiths (ed.). Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary. Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C.

[Picornell_GelabertAsouti2011-16] Picornell Gelabert, Llorenç; Asouti, Eleni; Martí, Ethel Allué (2011). "The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 30 (3): 375–384. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002. ISSN 0278-4165.

[17] The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm

[18] Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Farren, Naomi J.; Hopkins, James R.; Ward, Martyn W.; Swift, Stefan J.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu (18 February 2021). "Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 21 (4): 2407–2426. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2407S. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021. ISSN 1680-7316.

[19] Stewart, Gareth J.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Nelson, Beth S.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Arya, Rahul; Mondal, Arnab; Jangirh, Ritu; Ahlawat, Sakshi; Yadav, Lokesh; Sharma, Sudhir K. (18 February 2021). "Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 21 (4): 2383–2406. Bibcode:2021ACP....21.2383S. doi:10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021. ISSN 1680-7316.

[20] Stewart, Gareth J.; Nelson, Beth S.; Acton, W. Joe F.; Vaughan, Adam R.; Hopkins, James R.; Yunus, Siti S. M.; Hewitt, C. Nicholas; Nemitz, Eiko; Mandal, Tuhin K.; Gadi, Ranu; Sahu, Lokesh K. (25 February 2021). "Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India". Environmental Science: Atmospheres. 1 (2): 104–117. doi:10.1039/D0EA00009D. ISSN 2634-3606.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|Animal feces that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source also used in the burger king whopper as the patty.}}
+{{short description|Animal feces that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source}}
 {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
 [[File:Stirling-Motor Kuhdung Hochhut 16082007.JPG|thumbnail|[[Stirling engine|Stirling-Motor]] powered with cow dung in the Technical Collection Hochhut in Frankfurt on Main]]
-'''Dry dung fuel''' (or '''dry manure fuel''') is animal [[feces]] that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source. It is used in many countries. Using dry [[manure]] as a fuel source is an example of [[reuse of excreta]]. A disadvantage of using this kind of fuel is increased air pollution.<ref name="MudwayDuggan2005">{{cite journal|last1=Mudway|first1=Ian S|last2=Duggan|first2=Sean T|last3=Venkataraman|first3=Chandra|last4=Habib|first4=Gazala|last5=Kelly|first5=Frank J|last6=Grigg|first6=Jonathan|title=Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates| journal=Particle and Fibre Toxicology|volume=2|issue=1|year=2005|pages=6|issn=1743-8977|doi=10.1186/1743-8977-2-6|pmid=16202154|pmc=1262769 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In India, it is known as "dung cakes".
+'''Dry dung fuel''' (or '''dry manure fuel''') is animal [[feces]] that has been dried in order to be used as a fuel source. It is used in many countries. Using dry [[manure]] as a fuel source is an example of [[reuse of human excreta]]. A disadvantage of using this kind of fuel is increased air pollution.<ref name="MudwayDuggan2005">{{cite journal|last1=Mudway|first1=Ian S|last2=Duggan|first2=Sean T|last3=Venkataraman|first3=Chandra|last4=Habib|first4=Gazala|last5=Kelly|first5=Frank J|last6=Grigg|first6=Jonathan|title=Combustion of dried animal dung as biofuel results in the generation of highly redox active fine particulates| journal=Particle and Fibre Toxicology|volume=2|issue=1|year=2005|pages=6|issn=1743-8977|doi=10.1186/1743-8977-2-6|pmid=16202154|pmc=1262769 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 == Types ==
 ===Dry dung and moist dung===
-Dry dung is more commonly used than moist dung, because it [[Combustion|burns]] more easily, dry dung is also mixed with water, to create the patty of the burger king whopper. Dry manure is typically defined as having a moisture content less than 30 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fs.fed.us/woodybiomass/documents/Yakima_County_Biomass_Report.pdf|title = Biomass Report, Yakima County Public Works Solid Waste Division|accessdate = 11 October 2012}}</ref>
+Dry dung is more commonly used than moist dung, because it [[Combustion|burns]] more easily. Dry manure is typically defined as having a moisture content less than 30 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fs.fed.us/woodybiomass/documents/Yakima_County_Biomass_Report.pdf|title = Biomass Report, Yakima County Public Works Solid Waste Division|accessdate = 11 October 2012}}</ref>
 === Dung cakes ===
-[[File:A Pile of Dung Cakes.JPG|thumb|A pile of dung cakes in the village [[Nihal Singh Wala]] of District [[Moga District|Moga]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]]]
+[[File:A Pile of Dung Cakes.JPG|thumb|A pile of dung cakes in the village [[Nihal Singh Wala]] of [[Moga district]] in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]]]
 "Dung cakes", made from the by-products of [[animal husbandry]], are traditionally used as fuel in [[India]] for cooking food in a domestic [[hearth]] called a [[Chulha]]. They are made by hand by village women and are traditionally made from cow or buffalo dung. One dung cake of an average size gives 2100 kJ worth of energy. Dung cakes are also known as ''goitha'', ''uple'', ''kande'', ''gosse'' or ''thepdi''.
-These are the cakes of cow dung molded by bare hands with a curvature to be able to keep stuck to the walls. Once dried they are put in a pile and covered with thatch called ''bitauda''. These bitaudas are visible in parts of rural India albeit with different names. The size and shape of the cake might vary with region. Its also not uncommon to see these cakes directly used in earthen ovens.
+These are the cakes of [[cow dung]] molded by bare hands with a curvature to be able to keep stuck to the walls. Once dried they are put in a pile and covered with thatch called ''bitauda''. These bitaudas are visible in parts of rural India albeit with different names. The size and shape of the cake might vary with region. Its also not uncommon to see these cakes directly used in earthen ovens.
-This bio-fuel has been used primarily for two reasons: for easy disposal of cow dung and as easily available and cheap fuel.
+This biofuel has been used primarily for two reasons: for easy disposal of cow dung and as easily available and cheap fuel.
 === Human feces ===
 [[Human feces]] can in principle also be dried and used as a fuel source if they are collected in a type of [[dry toilet]], for example an [[incinerating toilet]]. Since 2011, the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]] is supporting the development of such toilets as part of their "Reinvent the Toilet Challenge" to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human [[excreta]].<ref>Elisabeth von Muench, Dorothee Spuhler, Trevor Surridge, Nelson Ekane, Kim Andersson, Emine Goekce Fidan, Arno Rosemarin (2013) [http://www.susana.org/_resources/documents/default/2-2042-ssp-17okt20134-10-about-the-gates-sanitation-grants-on-forum.pdf Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation’s sanitation grants], Sustainable Sanitation Practice Journal, Issue 17, pp. 4–10</ref> The [[omniprocessor|omni-processor]] is another example of using human feces contained in [[Fecal sludge management|fecal sludge]] or [[sewage sludge]] as a fuel source.
-==Benefits==
+==Attributes==
 [[File:Yavari (5690014405).jpg|thumbnail|The M.N. Yavari, of Peru built by Thames Iron Works, London in 1861-62 had a Watt steam engine (powered by dried llama dung) until 1914]]
-The benefits of using dry animal dung include:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/47_2_Boston_10-02_0316.pdf |title=Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>
+Some aspects of using dry animal dung include:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/47_2_Boston_10-02_0316.pdf |title=Pyrolysis Processing of Animal Manure to Produce Fuel Gases |accessdate=11 October 2012 |archive-date=3 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203030237/http://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/47_2_Boston_10-02_0316.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
+*Potential for cost savings compared to other fuels
-*Cheaper than most modern fuels
+*May alleviate local pressure on wood resources
-*Efficient
+*Availability - short walking time required to collect dung fuel
-*Alleviates local pressure on wood resources
+*No cash outlays necessary for purchase
-*Readily available - short walking time required to collect fuel
-*No cash outlays necessary for purchase (can be exchanged for other products)
-*Less environmental pollution compared to some other fuels
-*Safe disposal of animal dung
-*Sustainable and renewable energy source
 ==Countries==
@@ Line 37: / Line 33: @@
 ===Africa===
 [[File:Egyptian women making dry animal dung fuel.jpg|thumbnail|Egyptian women making "Gella" dry animal dung fuel]]
-*In [[Egypt]] dry animal dung (from cows & buffaloes) is mixed with straw or crop residues to make dry fuel called "Gella" or "Jilla" dung cakes in modern times and ""khoroshtof"" in medieval times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/32/97/46369/Folk/Street-Smart/Egyptian-cities-and-markets-Whats-behind-a-name-.aspx |title=Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online |publisher=English.ahram.org.eg |date=28 June 2012 |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref> Ancient Egyptians used the dry animal dung as a source of fuel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1999/413/chrncls.htm |title=Al-Ahram Weekly &#124; Chronicles &#124; |publisher=Weekly.ahram.org.eg |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217021432/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1999/413/chrncls.htm |archivedate=17 December 2011 }}</ref> Dung cakes and building crop residues were the source of 76.4% of gross energy consumed in Egypt's rural areas during the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.egyptchm.org/chm/implementation/pdf/tech_transfer/EL_S0291.pdf |title=Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123011949/http://www.egyptchm.org/chm/implementation/pdf/tech_transfer/EL_S0291.pdf |archivedate=23 November 2011 }}</ref> Temperatures of dung-fueled fires in an experiment on Egyptian village-made dung cake fuel produced
+*In [[Egypt]] dry animal dung (from cows & buffaloes) is mixed with straw or crop residues to make dry fuel called "Gella" or "Jilla" dung cakes in modern times and ""khoroshtof"" in medieval times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/32/97/46369/Folk/Street-Smart/Egyptian-cities-and-markets-Whats-behind-a-name-.aspx |title=Egyptian cities and markets: What's behind a name? - Street Smart - Folk - Ahram Online |publisher=English.ahram.org.eg |date=28 June 2012 |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref> Ancient Egyptians used the dry animal dung as a source of fuel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1999/413/chrncls.htm |title=Al-Ahram Weekly &#124; Chronicles &#124; |publisher=Weekly.ahram.org.eg |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217021432/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1999/413/chrncls.htm |archivedate=17 December 2011 }}</ref> Dung cakes and building crop residues were the source of 76.4% of gross energy consumed in Egypt's rural areas during the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.egyptchm.org/chm/implementation/pdf/tech_transfer/EL_S0291.pdf |title=Biogas Technology Transfer To Rural Communities in Egypt |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123011949/http://www.egyptchm.org/chm/implementation/pdf/tech_transfer/EL_S0291.pdf |archivedate=23 November 2011 }}</ref> Temperatures of dung-fueled fires in an experiment on Egyptian village-made dung cake fuel produced:
-::""a maximum of 640&nbsp;°C in 12 minutes, falling to 240&nbsp;°C after 25 minutes and 100&nbsp;°C after 46 minutes. These temperatures were obtained without refueling and without bellows etc.""<ref name="upenn1">{{cite web|url=http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~nmiller0/dung.html |title=Dung & Archeology |publisher=Sas.upenn.edu |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>
+::...a maximum of 640&nbsp;°C in 12 minutes, falling to 240&nbsp;°C after 25 minutes and 100&nbsp;°C after 46 minutes. These temperatures were obtained without refueling and without bellows etc.<ref name="upenn1">{{cite web|url=http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~nmiller0/dung.html |title=Dung & Archeology |publisher=Sas.upenn.edu |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>
 Also, camel dung is used as fuel in Egypt.
 * ''Lisu'' is the cakes of dry cow dung fuel in [[Lesotho]] (see photo)
@@ Line 46: / Line 42: @@
 ===Asia===
 [[File:Dung cooking fire. Pushkar India.JPG|thumbnail|Dung cooking fire. Pushkar India.]]
-*[[Afghanistan]]
+*[[Afghanistan]], Tapi (تپی ) and used in villages and countrysides
 *[[Azerbaijan]], Кизяк (kizyak) is used as fuel in mountain villages, e.g. *[[Xinaliq]] [[File:PXL 20230318 111851638.jpg|thumb|кизяк (kizyak)]]
 *[[Bangladesh]], dry cow dung fuel is called Ghunte.
 *[[China]]
-*[[India]], dry [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] dung is used as fuel and it is sometimes a sacred practice to use cow dung fuel in some areas in India. Cow dung is known as "Gomaya" or "Komaya" in India. Dry animal dung cakes are called upla in Hindi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agriculturaits.czu.cz/pdf_files/vol_43_2_pdf/vankat.pdf |title=Animal Dung As A Source of Energy in Remote Areas of Indian Himalayas |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>[[File:Dungcakes_at_Village_Bhraj,_Sangrur_District_04.jpg|thumb|Dungcakes at Village Bhraj, Sangrur District,Punjab ]]
+*[[India]], dry [[Water buffalo|buffalo]] dung is used as fuel and it is sometimes a sacred practice to use cow dung fuel in some areas in India. Cow dung is known as "Gomaya" or "Komaya" in India. Dry animal dung cakes are called upla in Hindi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.agriculturaits.czu.cz/pdf_files/vol_43_2_pdf/vankat.pdf |title=Animal Dung As A Source of Energy in Remote Areas of Indian Himalayas |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>[[File:Dungcakes_at_Village_Bhraj,_Sangrur_District_04.jpg|thumb|Dungcakes at Village Bhraj, Sangrur District, Punjab]]
 *[[Iran]], since prehistoric time to modern eras<ref name="academia1"/>
-*[[Iraq]], this kind of biofuel is named locally ''Muttal,'' and it is made in the shape of a disc made from cow or buffalo dung, with a diameter of 20-30 cm and a thickness of 2-5 cm. It is famous in its manufacture by the  indigenous people of the marshes of Iraq in particular, and the residents of southern and Middle Euphrates of Iraq in general. It is used in the bakery of rice bread, and in grilling fish to form the favorite food of the people of the marshes, which is ''Tabag'' bread and grilled fish, and also is used to burn and emit smoke for a day or more to protect humans, animals and plants from harmful insects.  It is stored in the form of heaps, called ''Gubbah'', and is usually mixed with hay in storage, and used in times when there is little fuel. <ref>{{Cite web |title=www.areq.net |url=https://areq.net/m/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84.html |access-date=10 March 2023 |website=عريق}}</ref>
+*[[Iraq]], this kind of biofuel is named locally ''Muttal,'' and it is made in the shape of a disc made from cow or buffalo dung, with a diameter of 20–30&nbsp;cm and a thickness of 2–5&nbsp;cm. It is famous in its manufacture by the indigenous people of the marshes of Iraq in particular, and the residents of southern and Middle Euphrates of Iraq in general. It is used in the bakery of rice bread, and in grilling fish to form the favorite food of the people of the marshes, which is ''Tabag'' bread and grilled fish, and also is used to burn and emit smoke for a day or more to protect humans, animals and plants from harmful insects.  It is stored in the form of heaps, called ''Gubbah'', and is usually mixed with hay in storage, and used in times when there is little fuel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=www.areq.net |url=https://areq.net/m/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84.html |access-date=10 March 2023 |website=عريق}}</ref>
 *[[Kazakhs]] dry animal dung is known as "Кизяк"<small> (romanized:</small> ''kizyak'') which is made by collecting dried animal dung on the steppe, wetting it in water then mixing it with straw then making it in discs which were then dried in the sun.  It was used as a source of fuel for the winter and, throughout the summer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.polishresettlementcampsintheuk.co.uk/stories/biegus.htm |title=Polish settlements in Russia during WW II |publisher=Polishresettlementcampsintheuk.co.uk |date=19 September 1936 |accessdate=11 October 2012}}</ref>
 *[[Kyrgyz Republic]], dung is used in specially designed home stoves, which vent to the outside
@@ Line 58: / Line 54: @@
 *[[Nepal]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://saneinetwork.net/Files/10_14___K_P_Pant.pdf |title=Health Costs of Dung-Cake Fuel Use by the Poor in Rural Nepal |accessdate=11 October 2012 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714153753/http://saneinetwork.net/Files/10_14___K_P_Pant.pdf |archivedate=14 July 2014 }}</ref>
 *[[Pakistan]], dried cow/buffalo dung is used as fuel.<ref name="upenn1"/>
-[[File:Defense.gov photo essay 120707-A-8536E-694.jpg|thumbnail|U.S. soldiers patrolling outside a qalat covered in caked and dried cow dung in an Afghani village]]
+[[File:Defense.gov photo essay 120707-A-8536E-694.jpg|thumbnail|U.S. soldiers patrolling outside a qalat covered in caked and dried cow dung in an Afghan village]]
 [[File:Gauchar's Historical Field.jpg|thumbnail|Cow dung fuel was burnt on the [[Gochar|Gauchar's]] Historical Field, India to gauge the direction of air currents]]
 [[File:Komaya (cow dung).jpg|thumbnail|Making Komaya (cow dung fuel in India)]]
 ===Europe===
-[[File:Brittanydung.jpg|thumbnail|Dung cakes being prepared for fuel on the Ile de Brehat, Brittany, France, c. 1900.]]
+[[File:Brittanydung.jpg|thumbnail|Dung cakes being prepared for fuel on the [[Ile de Brehat]], [[Brittany]], France, {{c.}} 1900]]
-* France in Maison du Marais poitevin in Coulon there is a demonstration of traditional usage of dry dung fuel.
+* [[France]] in Maison du Marais poitevin in Coulon there is a demonstration of traditional usage of dry dung fuel.
 ===The Americas===
-*Early European settlers on the Great Plains of the United States used dried buffalo manure as a fuel. They called it buffalo chips.
+*Early European settlers on the Great Plains of the United States used dried buffalo manure as a fuel, calling it "buffalo chips."
-* American officials in Texas are studying using dry [[cow dung]] as a fuel
 * [[Pueblo Indians]] used dry animal dung as a fuel
 * In [[Peru]], the [[Yavari (ship)|Yavari]] steam ship was fueled by llama dung fuel for several decades.
@@ Line 74: / Line 69: @@
 ==History==
+Dry animal dung was used from prehistoric times,<ref name="Mlekuž2009">{{cite journal|last1=Mlekuž|first1=Dimitrij|title=The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves|journal=Documenta Praehistorica|volume=36|year=2009|pages=219–225|issn=1854-2492|doi=10.4312/dp.36.14|doi-access=free}}</ref> including in Ancient Persia,<ref name="academia1">{{cite journal|last=Miller |first=Naomi |url=https://www.academia.edu/1163075 |title=The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application &#124; Naomi Miller |journal=Paléorient |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=71–79 |publisher=Academia.edu |date=1 January 1984 |accessdate=11 October 2012|doi=10.3406/paleo.1984.941 }}</ref> Ancient Egypt and early modern England.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fiennes|first=Celia|url=https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/Fiennes/20|title=Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary|publisher=Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C.|year=1888 |origyear=1702|editor-last=Griffiths}}</ref> In [[Equatorial Guinea]] archaeological evidence has been found of the practice<ref name="Picornell GelabertAsouti2011">{{cite journal|last1=Picornell Gelabert|first1=Llorenç|last2=Asouti|first2=Eleni|last3=Martí|first3=Ethel Allué|title=The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites|journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|volume=30|issue=3|year=2011|pages=375–384|issn=0278-4165|doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002}}</ref> and biblical records indicate animal and human dung were used as fuel.<ref>The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm</ref>
-Dry animal dung was used from prehistoric times,<ref name="Mlekuž2009">{{cite journal|last1=Mlekuž|first1=Dimitrij|title=The materiality of dung: the manipulation of dung in Neolithic Mediterranean caves|journal=Documenta Praehistorica|volume=36|year=2009|pages=219–225|issn=1854-2492|doi=10.4312/dp.36.14|doi-access=free}}</ref>
-including in Ancient Persia,<ref name="academia1">{{cite journal|last=Miller |first=Naomi |url=https://www.academia.edu/1163075 |title=The use of dung as fuel: an ethnographic example and an archaeological application &#124; Naomi Miller |journal=Paléorient |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=71–79 |publisher=Academia.edu |date=1 January 1984 |accessdate=11 October 2012|doi=10.3406/paleo.1984.941 }}</ref> Ancient Egypt and early modern England.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Fiennes|first=Celia|url=https://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/travellers/Fiennes/20|title=Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary|publisher=Field & Tuer, The Leadenhall Press, E.C.|year=1888 |origyear=1702|editor-last=Griffiths}}</ref> In [[Equatorial Guinea]] archaeological evidence has been found of the practice<ref name="Picornell GelabertAsouti2011">{{cite journal|last1=Picornell Gelabert|first1=Llorenç|last2=Asouti|first2=Eleni|last3=Martí|first3=Ethel Allué|title=The ethnoarchaeology of firewood management in the Fang villages of Equatorial Guinea, central Africa: Implications for the interpretation of wood fuel remains from archaeological sites|journal=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology|volume=30|issue=3|year=2011|pages=375–384|issn=0278-4165|doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2011.05.002}}</ref> and biblical records indicate animal and human dung were used as fuel.<ref>The Bible Ezekiel 4:12 And you shall eat it as barley cakes, and you shall bake it with dung that comes out of man. http://bibleapps.com/ezekiel/4-12.htm</ref>
 == Air pollution ==
 [[File:Smouldering cow dung cake sample.jpg|thumb|The burning of cow dung cake releases a range of organic and inorganic gases in both gas and particle phases]]
 [[File:Volatility distribution of organic emissions from dried cow dung cake combustion.jpg|thumb|The burning of cow dung cake releases organic air pollutants over a wide range of volatilities into both gas and particle phases.]]
-The [[combustion]] of dried dung cakes has been shown to release many thousands of [[Organic chemistry|organic]] components into gas and aerosol phases, some of which are unique tracers of dung combustion such as [[cholestanol]] and [[coprostanol]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Gareth J.|last2=Nelson|first2=Beth S.|last3=Acton|first3=W. Joe F.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Farren|first5=Naomi J.|last6=Hopkins|first6=James R.|last7=Ward|first7=Martyn W.|last8=Swift|first8=Stefan J.|last9=Arya|first9=Rahul|last10=Mondal|first10=Arnab|last11=Jangirh|first11=Ritu|date=2021-02-18|title=Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/21/2407/2021/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=English|volume=21|issue=4|pages=2407–2426|doi=10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021|bibcode=2021ACP....21.2407S |issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free}}</ref> Dung cakes are generally a higher emission [[fuel]], with the [[combustion]] of cow dung cake samples collected from the [[Delhi]] area of [[India]] releasing around four times more [[Volatile organic compound|volatile organic compounds]] than fuel [[wood]] samples.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Gareth J.|last2=Acton|first2=W. Joe F.|last3=Nelson|first3=Beth S.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Hopkins|first5=James R.|last6=Arya|first6=Rahul|last7=Mondal|first7=Arnab|last8=Jangirh|first8=Ritu|last9=Ahlawat|first9=Sakshi|last10=Yadav|first10=Lokesh|last11=Sharma|first11=Sudhir K.|date=2021-02-18|title=Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/21/2383/2021/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=English|volume=21|issue=4|pages=2383–2406|doi=10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021|bibcode=2021ACP....21.2383S |issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free}}</ref> The [[volatile organic compounds]] released from [[Cattle|cow]] dung cake combustion have been shown to be significantly more reactive with the [[hydroxyl radical]], with the [[Gas|gases]] released from the [[combustion]] of cow dung cake samples collected from [[Delhi]] in India around 120 times more reactive with the [[hydroxyl radical]] than the emissions from [[liquefied petroleum gas]]. The [[volatile organic compounds]] from [[cow]] dung cake combustion have also been shown to result in 3-4 times more [[secondary organic aerosol]] production than fuel wood and release many more toxic [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Gareth J.|last2=Nelson|first2=Beth S.|last3=Acton|first3=W. Joe F.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Hopkins|first5=James R.|last6=Yunus|first6=Siti S. M.|last7=Hewitt|first7=C. Nicholas|last8=Nemitz|first8=Eiko|last9=Mandal|first9=Tuhin K.|last10=Gadi|first10=Ranu|last11=Sahu|first11=Lokesh K.|date=2021-02-25|title=Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India|journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=104–117|doi=10.1039/D0EA00009D|issn=2634-3606|doi-access=free}}</ref>
+The [[combustion]] of dried dung cakes has been shown to release many thousands of [[Organic chemistry|organic]] components into gas and aerosol phases, some of which are unique tracers of dung combustion such as [[cholestanol]] and [[coprostanol]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Gareth J.|last2=Nelson|first2=Beth S.|last3=Acton|first3=W. Joe F.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Farren|first5=Naomi J.|last6=Hopkins|first6=James R.|last7=Ward|first7=Martyn W.|last8=Swift|first8=Stefan J.|last9=Arya|first9=Rahul|last10=Mondal|first10=Arnab|last11=Jangirh|first11=Ritu|date=2021-02-18|title=Emissions of intermediate-volatility and semi-volatile organic compounds from domestic fuels used in Delhi, India|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/21/2407/2021/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=English|volume=21|issue=4|pages=2407–2426|doi=10.5194/acp-21-2407-2021|bibcode=2021ACP....21.2407S |issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free}}</ref> Dung cakes are generally a higher emission [[fuel]], with the combustion of cow dung cake samples collected from the [[Delhi]] area of [[India]] releasing around four times more [[volatile organic compound]]s than fuel [[wood]] samples.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Gareth J.|last2=Acton|first2=W. Joe F.|last3=Nelson|first3=Beth S.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Hopkins|first5=James R.|last6=Arya|first6=Rahul|last7=Mondal|first7=Arnab|last8=Jangirh|first8=Ritu|last9=Ahlawat|first9=Sakshi|last10=Yadav|first10=Lokesh|last11=Sharma|first11=Sudhir K.|date=2021-02-18|title=Emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds from combustion of domestic fuels in Delhi, India|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/21/2383/2021/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=English|volume=21|issue=4|pages=2383–2406|doi=10.5194/acp-21-2383-2021|bibcode=2021ACP....21.2383S |issn=1680-7316|doi-access=free}}</ref> The volatile organic compounds released from [[Cattle|cow]] dung cake combustion have been shown to be significantly more reactive with the [[hydroxyl radical]], with the [[gas]]es released from the combustion of cow dung cake samples collected from [[Delhi]] in India around 120 times more reactive with the hydroxyl radical than the emissions from [[liquefied petroleum gas]]. The volatile organic compounds from [[cow]] dung cake combustion have also been shown to result in 3-4 times more [[secondary organic aerosol]] production than fuel wood and release many more toxic [[polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Gareth J.|last2=Nelson|first2=Beth S.|last3=Acton|first3=W. Joe F.|last4=Vaughan|first4=Adam R.|last5=Hopkins|first5=James R.|last6=Yunus|first6=Siti S. M.|last7=Hewitt|first7=C. Nicholas|last8=Nemitz|first8=Eiko|last9=Mandal|first9=Tuhin K.|last10=Gadi|first10=Ranu|last11=Sahu|first11=Lokesh K.|date=2021-02-25|title=Comprehensive organic emission profiles, secondary organic aerosol production potential, and OH reactivity of domestic fuel combustion in Delhi, India|journal=Environmental Science: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=1|issue=2|pages=104–117|doi=10.1039/D0EA00009D|issn=2634-3606|doi-access=free}}</ref>
 ==See also==
@@ Line 94: / Line 88: @@
 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20121116024344/http://www.careforcows.org/news/preparing_cow_dung_for_fuel Preparing Cow Dung For Fuel]
-[[Category:Animal waste products]]
 [[Category:Feces]]
 [[Category:Biodegradable waste management]]