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Mountain formation refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust (tectonic plates).^[1] Folding, faulting, volcanic activity, igneous intrusion and metamorphism can all be parts of the orogenic process of mountain building.^[2] The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the geological structures found on it.^[3]

From the late 18th century until its replacement by plate tectonics in the 1960s, geosyncline theory was used to explain much mountain-building.^[4] The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying tectonic processes is called tectonic geomorphology, and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called neotectonics.^[5]^{[clarification needed]}

Types of mountains

There are five main types of mountains: volcanic, fold, plateau, fault-block, and dome. A more detailed classification useful on a local scale predates plate tectonics and adds to these categories.^[6]

Volcanic mountains

Movements of tectonic plates create volcanoes along the plate boundaries, which erupt and form mountains. A volcanic arc system is a series of volcanoes that form near a subduction zone where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts and drags water down with the subducting crust.^[9]

The Dome of Vitosha mountain next to Sofia

Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the Pacific Ring of Fire), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are composite cones or stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes.^[10]^[11]

A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone because of the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily basalt. Mauna Loa is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of angle of repose.^[12]) A composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°),^[13] because of the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Examples include Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro, Mount Fuji, Mount Shasta, Mount Hood and Mount Rainier.^[14]

Fold mountains

When plates collide or undergo subduction (that is, ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. While volcanic arcs form at oceanic-continental plate boundaries, folding occurs at continental-continental plate boundaries. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or orogenesis. Examples are the Balkan Mountains, the Jura and the Zagros mountains.^[15]

Block mountains

When a fault block is raised or tilted, a block mountain can result.^[17] Higher blocks are called horsts, and troughs are called grabens. A spreading apart of the surface causes tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, it does so such that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.

An example is the Sierra Nevada range, where delamination created a block 650 km long and 80 km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.^[18]^[19]

Another example is the Rila–Rhodope massif in Bulgaria, including the well defined horsts of Belasitsa (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and Pirin mountain—a horst forming a massive anticline situated between the complex graben valleys of the Struma and Mesta rivers.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Uplifted passive margins

Unlike orogenic mountains there is no widely accepted geophysical model that explains elevated passive continental margins such as the Scandinavian Mountains, eastern Greenland, the Brazilian Highlands, or Australia's Great Dividing Range.^[23]^[24] Different elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same mechanism of uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field stresses in Earth's lithosphere. According to this view elevated passive margins can be likened to giant anticlinal lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust transition zone (as are all passive margins).^[25]^[26]

Models

Hotspot volcanoes

Hotspots are supplied by a magma source in the Earth's mantle called a mantle plume. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, recent evidence belies this connection.^[27] The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.

Fault blocks

Several movements of the Earth's crust that lead to mountains are associated with faults. These movements actually are amenable to analysis that can predict, for example, the height of a raised block and the width of an intervening rift between blocks using the rheology of the layers and the forces of isostasy. Early bent plate models predicting fractures and fault movements have evolved into today's kinematic and flexural models.^[28]^[29]

References

^ Steven M. Stanley (2004). "Mountain building". Earth system history (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-7167-3907-4.
^ Robert J. Twiss; Eldridge M. Moores (1992). "Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones". Structural Geology (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 493. ISBN 978-0-7167-2252-6.
^ Ollier, Cliff; Pain, Colin (2000). The Origin of Mountains. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-19890-5.
^ "Geosynclinal Theory". publish.illinois.edu. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved March 8, 2018. The major mountain-building idea that was supported from the 19th century and into the 20th is the geosynclinal theory.
^ Kurt Stüwe (2007). "§4.5 Geomorphology". Geodynamics of the lithosphere: an introduction (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 178. ISBN 978-3-540-71236-7.
^ Andrew Goudie (2004). Encyclopedia of geomorphology; Volume 2. Routledge. p. 701. ISBN 978-0-415-32738-1.
^ NASA - Activity at Kliuchevskoi
^ Victor Schmidt; William Harbert (2003). Planet Earth and the New Geoscience (4th ed.). Kendall Hunt. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-7872-9355-0.
^ Stephen D Butz (2004). "Chapter 8: Plate tectonics". Science of Earth Systems. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-7668-3391-3.
^ John Gerrard (1990). "Types of volcano". Mountain environments: an examination of the physical geography of mountains. MIT Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4.
^ Robert Wayne Decker; Barbara Decker (2005). "Chapter 8: Hot spots". Volcanoes (4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 113 ff. ISBN 978-0-7167-8929-1.
^ Arthur Holmes; Donald Duff (2004). Holmes Principles of Physical Geology (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-7487-4381-0.
^ Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 39. American Society of Civil Engineers. 1898. p. 62.
^ James Shipman; Jerry D. Wilson; Aaron Todd (2007). "Minerals, rocks and volcanoes". An Introduction to Physical Science (12th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 650. ISBN 978-0-618-93596-3.
^ Michael P Searle (2007). "Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts". In Robert D Hatcher Jr.; MP Carlson; JH McBride & JR Martinez Catalán (eds.). 4-D framework of continental crust. Geological Society of America. p. 41 ff. ISBN 978-0-8137-1200-0.
^ Chris C. Park (2001). "Figure 6.11". The environment: principles and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 9780415217705.
^ Scott Ryan (2006). "Figure 13-1". CliffsQuickReview Earth Science. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-78937-6.
^ John Gerrard (1990-04-12). Reference cited. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4.
^ Lee, C.-T.; Yin, Q; Rudnick, RL; Chesley, JT; Jacobsen, SB (2000). "Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Sierra Nevada, California" (PDF). Science. 289 (5486): 1912–6. Bibcode:2000Sci...289.1912L. doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1912. PMID 10988067. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15.
^ Мичев (Michev), Николай (Nikolay); Михайлов (Mihaylov), Цветко (Tsvetko); Вапцаров (Vaptsarov), Иван (Ivan); Кираджиев (Kiradzhiev), Светлин (Svetlin) (1980). Географски речник на България [Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Наука и култура (Nauka i kultura). p. 368.
^ Димитрова (Dimitrova), Людмила (Lyudmila) (2004). Национален парк "Пирин". План за управление [Pirin National Park. Management Plan] (in Bulgarian). и колектив. Sofia: Ministry of Environment and Water, Bulgarian Foundation "Biodiversity". p. 53.
^ Дончев (Donchev), Дончо (Doncho); Каракашев (Karakashev), Христо (Hristo) (2004). Теми по физическа и социално-икономическа география на България [Topics on Physical and Social-Economic Geography of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Ciela. pp. 128–129. ISBN 954-649-717-7.
^ Bonow, Johan M. (2009). "atlantens kustberg och högslätter – gamla eller unga?" (PDF). www.geografitorget.se (in Swedish). Geografilärarnas Riksförening.
^ Green, Paul F.; Lidmar-Bergström, Karna; Japsen, Peter; Bonow, Johan M.; Chalmers, James A. (2013). "Stratigraphic landscape analysis, thermochronology and the episodic development of elevated, passive continental margins". Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin. 30: 18. doi:10.34194/geusb.v30.4673.
^ Japsen, Peter; Chalmers, James A.; Green, Paul F.; Bonow, Johan M. (2012). "Elevated, passive continental margins: Not rift shoulders, but expressions of episodic, post-rift burial and exhumation". Global and Planetary Change. 90–91: 73–86. Bibcode:2012GPC....90...73J. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.05.004.
^ Løseth and Hendriksen 2005
^ Y Niu & MJ O'Hara (2004). "Chapter 7: Mantle plumes are NOT from ancient oceanic crust". In Roger Hékinian; Peter Stoffers & Jean-Louis Cheminée (eds.). Oceanic hotspots: intraplate submarine magmatism and tectonism. Springer. p. 239 ff. ISBN 978-3-540-40859-8.
^ AB Watts (2001). "§7.2 Extensional tectonics and rifting". Isostasy and flexure of the lithosphere. Cambridge University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-521-00600-2.
^ GD Karner & NW Driscoll (1999). "Style, timing and distribution of tectonic deformation across the Exmouth Plateau, northwest Australia, determined from stratal architecture and quantitative basin modelling". In Conall Mac Niocaill & Paul Desmond Ryan (eds.). Continental tectonics. Geological society. p. 280. ISBN 978-1-86239-051-5.

External links

[Stanley-1] Steven M. Stanley (2004). "Mountain building". Earth system history (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-7167-3907-4.

[Twiss-2] Robert J. Twiss; Eldridge M. Moores (1992). "Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones". Structural Geology (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 493. ISBN 978-0-7167-2252-6.

[3] Ollier, Cliff; Pain, Colin (2000). The Origin of Mountains. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-19890-5.

[4] "Geosynclinal Theory". publish.illinois.edu. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved March 8, 2018. The major mountain-building idea that was supported from the 19th century and into the 20th is the geosynclinal theory.

[Stuwe-5] Kurt Stüwe (2007). "§4.5 Geomorphology". Geodynamics of the lithosphere: an introduction (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 178. ISBN 978-3-540-71236-7.

[Goudie-6] Andrew Goudie (2004). Encyclopedia of geomorphology; Volume 2. Routledge. p. 701. ISBN 978-0-415-32738-1.

[7] NASA - Activity at Kliuchevskoi

[Harbert-8] Victor Schmidt; William Harbert (2003). Planet Earth and the New Geoscience (4th ed.). Kendall Hunt. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-7872-9355-0.

[Butz-9] Stephen D Butz (2004). "Chapter 8: Plate tectonics". Science of Earth Systems. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-7668-3391-3.

[Gerrard1-10] John Gerrard (1990). "Types of volcano". Mountain environments: an examination of the physical geography of mountains. MIT Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4.

[Decker-11] Robert Wayne Decker; Barbara Decker (2005). "Chapter 8: Hot spots". Volcanoes (4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 113 ff. ISBN 978-0-7167-8929-1.

[Holmes&Duff-12] Arthur Holmes; Donald Duff (2004). Holmes Principles of Physical Geology (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-7487-4381-0.

[transactions-13] Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 39. American Society of Civil Engineers. 1898. p. 62.

[Todd-14] James Shipman; Jerry D. Wilson; Aaron Todd (2007). "Minerals, rocks and volcanoes". An Introduction to Physical Science (12th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 650. ISBN 978-0-618-93596-3.

[Hatcher-15] Michael P Searle (2007). "Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts". In Robert D Hatcher Jr.; MP Carlson; JH McBride & JR Martinez Catalán (eds.). 4-D framework of continental crust. Geological Society of America. p. 41 ff. ISBN 978-0-8137-1200-0.

[Park-16] Chris C. Park (2001). "Figure 6.11". The environment: principles and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 9780415217705.

[Ryan-17] Scott Ryan (2006). "Figure 13-1". CliffsQuickReview Earth Science. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-78937-6.

[Gerrard2-18] John Gerrard (1990-04-12). Reference cited. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4.

[delamination_lee-19] Lee, C.-T.; Yin, Q; Rudnick, RL; Chesley, JT; Jacobsen, SB (2000). "Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Sierra Nevada, California" (PDF). Science. 289 (5486): 1912–6. Bibcode:2000Sci...289.1912L. doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1912. PMID 10988067. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15.

[Geographic_Dictionary_of_Bulgaria_368-20] Мичев (Michev), Николай (Nikolay); Михайлов (Mihaylov), Цветко (Tsvetko); Вапцаров (Vaptsarov), Иван (Ivan); Кираджиев (Kiradzhiev), Светлин (Svetlin) (1980). Географски речник на България [Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Наука и култура (Nauka i kultura). p. 368.

[dimitrova53-21] Димитрова (Dimitrova), Людмила (Lyudmila) (2004). Национален парк "Пирин". План за управление [Pirin National Park. Management Plan] (in Bulgarian). и колектив. Sofia: Ministry of Environment and Water, Bulgarian Foundation "Biodiversity". p. 53.

[22] Дончев (Donchev), Дончо (Doncho); Каракашев (Karakashev), Христо (Hristo) (2004). Теми по физическа и социално-икономическа география на България [Topics on Physical and Social-Economic Geography of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Ciela. pp. 128–129. ISBN 954-649-717-7.

[23] Bonow, Johan M. (2009). "atlantens kustberg och högslätter – gamla eller unga?" (PDF). www.geografitorget.se (in Swedish). Geografilärarnas Riksförening.

[Greenetal2013-24] Green, Paul F.; Lidmar-Bergström, Karna; Japsen, Peter; Bonow, Johan M.; Chalmers, James A. (2013). "Stratigraphic landscape analysis, thermochronology and the episodic development of elevated, passive continental margins". Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin. 30: 18. doi:10.34194/geusb.v30.4673.

[25] Japsen, Peter; Chalmers, James A.; Green, Paul F.; Bonow, Johan M. (2012). "Elevated, passive continental margins: Not rift shoulders, but expressions of episodic, post-rift burial and exhumation". Global and Planetary Change. 90–91: 73–86. Bibcode:2012GPC....90...73J. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.05.004.

[26] Løseth and Hendriksen 2005

[Stoffers-27] Y Niu & MJ O'Hara (2004). "Chapter 7: Mantle plumes are NOT from ancient oceanic crust". In Roger Hékinian; Peter Stoffers & Jean-Louis Cheminée (eds.). Oceanic hotspots: intraplate submarine magmatism and tectonism. Springer. p. 239 ff. ISBN 978-3-540-40859-8.

[Watts-28] AB Watts (2001). "§7.2 Extensional tectonics and rifting". Isostasy and flexure of the lithosphere. Cambridge University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-521-00600-2.

[Weissel-29] GD Karner & NW Driscoll (1999). "Style, timing and distribution of tectonic deformation across the Exmouth Plateau, northwest Australia, determined from stratal architecture and quantitative basin modelling". In Conall Mac Niocaill & Paul Desmond Ryan (eds.). Continental tectonics. Geological society. p. 280. ISBN 978-1-86239-051-5.

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{short description|The geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains}}
+{{Short description|Geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains}}
 [[File:Mountain by reverse fault.gif|thumb|[[Thrust fault|Thrust]] and reverse [[Fault (geology)|fault]] movement are an important component of mountain formation.]]
 [[File:Lewis overthrust fault nh10f.jpg|thumb|Illustration of mountains that developed on a [[fold (geology)|fold]] that thrusted.]]
-'''Mountain formation''' refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of [[mountain]]s. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the Earth's crust ([[List of tectonic plates|tectonic plates]]).<ref name="Stanley">{{cite book |title=Earth system history |author=Steven M. Stanley |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jd01mugCR7EC&pg=PA207 |page=207 |chapter=Mountain building |isbn=978-0-7167-3907-4 |date=2004 |edition=2nd |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref>  [[Fold (geology)|Folding]], [[Fault (geology)|faulting]], [[Volcano|volcanic activity]], [[igneous intrusion]] and [[metamorphism]] can all be parts of the [[Orogeny|orogenic process]] of mountain building.<ref name="Twiss">{{cite book |title=Structural Geology |author=Robert J. Twiss |author2=Eldridge M. Moores |chapter=Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones |page=[https://archive.org/details/structuralgeolog0000twis/page/493 493] |isbn=978-0-7167-2252-6 |date=1992 |edition=2nd |publisher=Macmillan |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=14fn03iJ2r8C&pg=PA493 |url=https://archive.org/details/structuralgeolog0000twis/page/493 }}</ref> The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the [[structural geology|geological structures]] found on it.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ollier |first1=Cliff|last2=Pain |first2=Colin |date=2000|author-link1=Cliff Ollier |title=The Origin of Mountains |url=https://archive.org/details/originmountains00olli|url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |page=[https://archive.org/details/originmountains00olli/page/n22 1] |isbn=978-0-415-19890-5}}</ref>
+'''Mountain formation''' refers to the geological processes that underlie the formation of [[mountain]]s. These processes are associated with large-scale movements of the [[Earth's crust]] ([[List of tectonic plates|tectonic plates]]).<ref name="Stanley">{{cite book |title=Earth system history |author=Steven M. Stanley |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jd01mugCR7EC&pg=PA207 |page=207 |chapter=Mountain building |isbn=978-0-7167-3907-4 |date=2004 |edition=2nd |publisher=Macmillan}}</ref>  [[Fold (geology)|Folding]], [[Fault (geology)|faulting]], [[Volcano|volcanic activity]], [[igneous intrusion]] and [[metamorphism]] can all be parts of the [[Orogeny|orogenic process]] of mountain building.<ref name="Twiss">{{cite book |title=Structural Geology |author=[[Robert J. Twiss]] |author2=[[Eldridge M. Moores]] |chapter=Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones |page=[https://archive.org/details/structuralgeolog0000twis/page/493 493] |isbn=978-0-7167-2252-6 |date=1992 |edition=2nd |publisher=Macmillan |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=14fn03iJ2r8C&pg=PA493 |url=https://archive.org/details/structuralgeolog0000twis/page/493 }}</ref> The formation of mountains is not necessarily related to the [[structural geology|geological structures]] found on it.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ollier |first1=Cliff|last2=Pain |first2=Colin |date=2000|author-link1=Cliff Ollier |title=The Origin of Mountains |url=https://archive.org/details/originmountains00olli|url-access=limited |publisher=Routledge |page=[https://archive.org/details/originmountains00olli/page/n22 1] |isbn=978-0-415-19890-5}}</ref>
-The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying [[tectonics|tectonic]] processes is called ''[[geomorphology|tectonic geomorphology]]'', and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called ''[[neotectonics]]''.<ref name=Stuwe>{{cite book |title=Geodynamics of the lithosphere: an introduction |author= Kurt Stüwe |chapter=§4.5 Geomorphology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwYcuMSUnxEC&pg=PA178 |page=178 |isbn=978-3-540-71236-7 |date=2007 |publisher=Springer |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{clarify|date=January 2017}}
+From the late 18th century until its replacement by [[plate tectonics]] in the 1960s, [[geosyncline|geosyncline theory]] was used to explain much mountain-building.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://publish.illinois.edu/platetectonics/geosynclinal-theory/ |title=Geosynclinal Theory |website=publish.illinois.edu |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |access-date=March 8, 2018|quote=The major mountain-building idea that was supported from the 19th century and into the 20th is the geosynclinal theory.}}</ref> The understanding of specific landscape features in terms of the underlying [[tectonics|tectonic]] processes is called ''[[geomorphology|tectonic geomorphology]]'', and the study of geologically young or ongoing processes is called ''[[neotectonics]]''.<ref name=Stuwe>{{cite book |title=Geodynamics of the lithosphere: an introduction |author= Kurt Stüwe |chapter=§4.5 Geomorphology |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gwYcuMSUnxEC&pg=PA178 |page=178 |isbn=978-3-540-71236-7 |date=2007 |publisher=Springer |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{clarify|date=January 2017}}
-From the late 18th century until its replacement by [[plate tectonics]] in the 1960s, [[geosyncline|geosyncline theory]] was used to explain much mountain-building.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://publish.illinois.edu/platetectonics/geosynclinal-theory/ |title=Geosynclinal Theory |website=publish.illinois.edu |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |access-date=March 8, 2018|quote=The major mountain-building idea that was supported from the 19th century and into the 20th is the geosynclinal theory.}}</ref>
 ==Types of mountains==
 {{See also|List of mountain types}}
-There are five main types of mountains: '''volcanic''', '''fold''', '''plateau''', '''fault-block and dome'''. A more detailed classification useful on a local scale predates plate tectonics and adds to these categories.<ref name=Goudie>{{cite book |author=Andrew Goudie |title=Encyclopedia of geomorphology; Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UHRU_6nUSR4C&pg=PA701 |page=701 |isbn=978-0-415-32738-1 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>
+There are five main types of mountains: '''volcanic''', '''fold''', '''plateau''', '''fault-block''', and '''dome'''. A more detailed classification useful on a local scale predates [[plate tectonics]] and adds to these categories.<ref name=Goudie>{{cite book |author=Andrew Goudie |title=Encyclopedia of geomorphology; Volume 2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UHRU_6nUSR4C&pg=PA701 |page=701 |isbn=978-0-415-32738-1 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>
 ===Volcanic mountains===
-{{See also|Stratovolcano|Shield volcano|Guyot}}
+{{See also|Guyot}}
-[[File:ISS-38 Kliuchevskoi Volcano on Kamchatka.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Annotated view includes [[Ushkovsky]], [[Tolbachik]], [[Bezymianny]], [[Zimina]], and [[Udina]] [[stratovolcano]]es of [[Kamchatka]], Russia. Oblique view taken on November 12, 2013 from ISS.<ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82471 NASA - Activity at Kliuchevskoi]</ref>]]
+[[File:ISS-38 Kliuchevskoi Volcano on Kamchatka.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Annotated view includes [[Ushkovsky]], [[Tolbachik]], [[Bezymianny]], [[Zimina]], and [[Udina]] [[stratovolcano]]es of [[Kamchatka]], Russia. Oblique view taken on November 12, 2013, from ISS.<ref>[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=82471 NASA - Activity at Kliuchevskoi]</ref>]]
 [[File:Volcanoes at subduction.JPG|thumb|right| Stratovolcanoes associated with a [[subduction]] zone (left) and a [[spreading ridge]] volcano (right). A [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] volcano is center.<ref name=Harbert>{{cite book |title=Planet Earth and the New Geoscience |author=Victor Schmidt |author2=William Harbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VMR-e2cBCF4C&pg=PA46 |isbn=978-0-7872-9355-0 |date=2003 |edition=4th |publisher=Kendall Hunt |pages=46–47}}</ref>]]
-Movements of [[tectonic plates]] create [[volcano]]es along the plate boundaries, which erupt and form mountains. A ''volcanic arc system'' is a series of volcanoes that form near a [[subduction]] zone where the crust of a sinking oceanic plate melts and drags water down with the subducting crust.<ref name=Butz>{{cite book |title=Science of Earth Systems |author=Stephen D Butz |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4ArbvXXDEC&pg=PA136 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780766833913/page/136 136] |chapter=Chapter 8: Plate tectonics |isbn=978-0-7668-3391-3 |date=2004 |publisher=Thompson/Delmar Learning |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780766833913/page/136 }}</ref>
+Movements of tectonic plates create [[volcano]]es along the plate boundaries, which erupt and form mountains. A ''volcanic arc system'' is a series of volcanoes that form near a [[subduction]] zone where the crust of a sinking [[Oceanic crust|oceanic plate]] melts and drags water down with the subducting crust.<ref name=Butz>{{cite book |title=Science of Earth Systems |author=Stephen D Butz |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JB4ArbvXXDEC&pg=PA136 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780766833913/page/136 136] |chapter=Chapter 8: Plate tectonics |isbn=978-0-7668-3391-3 |date=2004 |publisher=Thompson/Delmar Learning |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780766833913/page/136 }}</ref>
 [[File:Sofia-vitosha-kempinski.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The Dome of [[Vitosha]] mountain next to [[Sofia]]]]
-Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]]), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are ''composite cones'' or ''stratovolcanoes'' ([[Vesuvius]], [[Mount Kilimanjaro|Kilimanjaro]] and [[Mount Fuji]] are examples) and ''shield volcanoes'' (such as [[Mauna Loa]] on Hawaii, a [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] volcano).<ref name=Gerrard1>{{cite book |title=Mountain environments: an examination of the physical geography of mountains |chapter=Types of volcano |page=[https://archive.org/details/mountainenvironm0000gerr/page/194 194] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHnrVEyMhkQC&pg=PA194 |isbn=978-0-262-07128-4 |date=1990 |publisher=MIT Press |author=John Gerrard |url=https://archive.org/details/mountainenvironm0000gerr/page/194 }}</ref><ref name=Decker>{{cite book |title=Volcanoes |author= Robert Wayne Decker |author2=Barbara Decker |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BilBFXIW5c4C&pg=PA113 |chapter=Chapter 8: Hot spots |isbn=978-0-7167-8929-1 |edition=4th |date=2005 |publisher=Macmillan |page=113 ''ff''}}
+Most volcanoes occur in a band encircling the Pacific Ocean (the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]]), and in another that extends from the Mediterranean across Asia to join the Pacific band in the Indonesian Archipelago. The most important types of volcanic mountain are ''composite cones'' or ''[[Stratovolcano|stratovolcanoes]]'' and ''[[Shield volcano|shield volcanoes]]''.<ref name=Gerrard1>{{cite book |title=Mountain environments: an examination of the physical geography of mountains |chapter=Types of volcano |page=[https://archive.org/details/mountainenvironm0000gerr/page/194 194] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHnrVEyMhkQC&pg=PA194 |isbn=978-0-262-07128-4 |date=1990 |publisher=MIT Press |author=John Gerrard |url=https://archive.org/details/mountainenvironm0000gerr/page/194 }}</ref><ref name=Decker>{{cite book |title=Volcanoes |author= Robert Wayne Decker |author2=Barbara Decker |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BilBFXIW5c4C&pg=PA113 |chapter=Chapter 8: Hot spots |isbn=978-0-7167-8929-1 |edition=4th |date=2005 |publisher=Macmillan |page=113 ''ff''}}
 </ref>
-A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone due to the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily [[basalt]]. [[Mauna Loa]] is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of [[angle of repose]].<ref name=Holmes&Duff>{{cite book |title=Holmes Principles of Physical Geology |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=2004 |edition=4th  |author=Arthur Holmes |author-link = Arthur Holmes|author2=Donald Duff |author-link2 = Donald Duff (geologist and author)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6vknq9SfIIC&pg=PT226 |page=209 |isbn=978-0-7487-4381-0 }}</ref>) The composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°),<ref name=transactions>{{cite book |title=Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlNDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA62 |page=62 |date=1898 |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers}}</ref> due to the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and eruptions are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Besides the examples already mentioned are [[Mount Shasta]], [[Mount Hood]] and [[Mount Rainier]].<ref name=Todd>{{cite book |title=An Introduction to Physical Science |author=James Shipman |author2=Jerry D. Wilson |author3=Aaron Todd |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LvMLoaN0HQC&pg=PT670 |page=650 |chapter=Minerals, rocks and volcanoes |isbn=978-0-618-93596-3 |date=2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning |edition =12th}}</ref> [[Vitosha]] - the domed mountain next to [[Sofia]], capital of [[Bulgaria]], is also formed by [[volcanic activity]].
+A shield volcano has a gently sloping cone because of the low viscosity of the emitted material, primarily [[basalt]]. [[Mauna Loa]] is the classic example, with a slope of 4°-6°. (The relation between slope and viscosity falls under the topic of [[angle of repose]].<ref name=Holmes&Duff>{{cite book |title=Holmes Principles of Physical Geology |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=2004 |edition=4th  |author=Arthur Holmes |author-link = Arthur Holmes|author2=Donald Duff |author-link2 = Donald Duff (geologist and author)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6vknq9SfIIC&pg=PT226 |page=209 |isbn=978-0-7487-4381-0 }}</ref>) A composite volcano or stratovolcano has a more steeply rising cone (33°-40°),<ref name=transactions>{{cite book |title=Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZlNDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA62 |page=62 |date=1898 |publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers}}</ref> because of the higher viscosity of the emitted material, and [[Types of volcanic eruptions|eruptions]] are more violent and less frequent than for shield volcanoes. Examples include [[Vesuvius]], [[Mount Kilimanjaro|Kilimanjaro]], [[Mount Fuji]], [[Mount Shasta]], [[Mount Hood]] and [[Mount Rainier]].<ref name=Todd>{{cite book |title=An Introduction to Physical Science |author=James Shipman |author2=Jerry D. Wilson |author3=Aaron Todd |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LvMLoaN0HQC&pg=PT670 |page=650 |chapter=Minerals, rocks and volcanoes |isbn=978-0-618-93596-3 |date=2007 |publisher=Cengage Learning |edition =12th}}</ref>
 ===Fold mountains===
-{{See also|Fold (geology)|Fold and thrust belt|Fold mountain}}
+{{See also|Fold mountain|Fold and thrust belt}}
 [[File:Kolunchin Zardkuh.JPG|thumb|[[Zard-Kuh]], a fold mountain in the central [[Zagros]] range of Iran.]]
-When plates [[continental collision|collide]] or undergo [[subduction]] (that is – ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and fold, forming mountains. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or [[orogenesis]]. Examples are the [[Balkan Mountains]], the [[Jura Mountains|Jura]] and the [[Zagros]] mountains.<ref name=Hatcher>{{cite book |title=4-D framework of continental crust |editor=Robert D Hatcher Jr. |editor2=MP Carlson | editor3=JH McBride & JR Martinez Catalán |author=Michael P Searle |page=41 ''ff'' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jD-zXhTfJuMC&pg=PA41 |chapter=Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts |isbn=978-0-8137-1200-0 |publisher=Geological Society of America |date=2007}}</ref>
+When [[continental collision|plates collide]] or undergo [[subduction]] (that is, ride one over another), the plates tend to buckle and [[Fold (geology)|fold]], forming mountains. While volcanic arcs form at oceanic-continental plate boundaries, folding occurs at continental-continental plate boundaries. Most of the major continental mountain ranges are associated with thrusting and folding or [[orogenesis]]. Examples are the [[Balkan Mountains]], the [[Jura Mountains|Jura]] and the [[Zagros]] mountains.<ref name=Hatcher>{{cite book |title=4-D framework of continental crust |editor=[[Robert D. Hatcher|Robert D Hatcher Jr.]] |editor2=MP Carlson | editor3=JH McBride & JR Martinez Catalán |author=[[Michael Paul Searle|Michael P Searle]] |page=41 ''ff'' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jD-zXhTfJuMC&pg=PA41 |chapter=Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts |isbn=978-0-8137-1200-0 |publisher=Geological Society of America |date=2007}}</ref>
 ===Block mountains===
+[[File:Fault block mountain.JPG|thumb|Fault-block mountain of the tilted type.<ref name=Park>{{cite book |title=The environment: principles and applications |author=Chris C. Park |chapter=Figure 6.11 |page=160 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ew3MBjbw4OAC&pg=PA160 |date=2001 |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780415217705 }}</ref>]]
-{{main|Fault-block mountain}}
-[[File:Fault block mountain.JPG|thumb|Fault-block mountain of the tilted type.<ref name=Park>{{cite book |title=The environment: principles and applications |author=Chris C. Park |chapter=Figure 6.11 |page=160 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ew3MBjbw4OAC&pg=PA160 |isbn=978-0-415-21770-5 |date=2001 |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>]]
 [[File:Sierra Nevada Mountains.JPG|thumb|Sierra Nevada Mountains (formed by delamination) as seen from the [[International Space Station]].]]
-When a fault block is raised or tilted, block mountains can result.<ref name=Ryan>{{cite book |title=CliffsQuickReview Earth Science |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PV_BabxTTkcC&pg=PA94 |chapter=Figure 13-1 |author=Scott Ryan |isbn=978-0-471-78937-6 |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |url=https://archive.org/details/cliffsquickrevie0000ryan }}</ref> Higher blocks are called ''[[horst (geology)|horst]]s'' and troughs are called ''[[graben]]s''. A spreading apart of the surface causes tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, it does so such that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.
+When a [[fault block]] is raised or tilted, a block mountain can result.<ref name=Ryan>{{cite book |title=CliffsQuickReview Earth Science |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PV_BabxTTkcC&pg=PA94 |chapter=Figure 13-1 |author=Scott Ryan |isbn=978-0-471-78937-6 |date=2006 |publisher=Wiley |url=https://archive.org/details/cliffsquickrevie0000ryan }}</ref> Higher blocks are called ''[[horst (geology)|horst]]s,'' and troughs are called ''[[graben]]s''. A spreading apart of the surface causes tensional forces. When the tensional forces are strong enough to cause a plate to split apart, it does so such that a center block drops down relative to its flanking blocks.
-An example of this is the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada Range]], where [[Delamination (geology)|delamination]] created a block 650&nbsp;km long and 80&nbsp;km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.<ref name=Gerrard2>{{cite book |title=Reference cited |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHnrVEyMhkQC&pg=PA9  |page=9 |author=John Gerrard |isbn=978-0-262-07128-4 |date=1990-04-12 }}</ref><ref name="delamination_lee">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.289.5486.1912|pmid=10988067|title=Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Sierra Nevada, California|first5=SB|last5=Jacobsen|first4=JT|last4=Chesley|first3=RL|last3=Rudnick|first2=Q|date=2000|last2=Yin|last1=Lee|first1=C.-T.|journal=Science|volume=289|issue=5486|pages=1912–6|url=http://www.geol.umd.edu/~rudnick/Webpage/Lee_2000_Science.pdf|bibcode=2000Sci...289.1912L|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615170551/http://www.geol.umd.edu/~rudnick/Webpage/Lee_2000_Science.pdf|archive-date=2011-06-15}}</ref>
+An example is the [[Sierra Nevada]] range, where [[Delamination (geology)|delamination]] created a block 650&nbsp;km long and 80&nbsp;km wide that consists of many individual portions tipped gently west, with east facing slips rising abruptly to produce the highest mountain front in the continental United States.<ref name=Gerrard2>{{cite book |title=Reference cited |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jHnrVEyMhkQC&pg=PA9  |page=9 |author=John Gerrard |isbn=978-0-262-07128-4 |date=1990-04-12 }}</ref><ref name="delamination_lee">{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.289.5486.1912|pmid=10988067|title=Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Sierra Nevada, California|first5=SB|last5=Jacobsen|first4=JT|last4=Chesley|first3=RL|last3=Rudnick|first2=Q|date=2000|last2=Yin|last1=Lee|first1=C.-T.|journal=Science|volume=289|issue=5486|pages=1912–6|url=http://www.geol.umd.edu/~rudnick/Webpage/Lee_2000_Science.pdf|bibcode=2000Sci...289.1912L|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615170551/http://www.geol.umd.edu/~rudnick/Webpage/Lee_2000_Science.pdf|archive-date=2011-06-15}}</ref>
-Another good example is the [[Rila]] - [[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodope]] mountain [[Massif]] in [[Bulgaria]], [[Southeast Europe]], including the well defined [[Horst (geology)|horsts]] of [[Belasitsa]] (linear horst), [[Rila|Rila mountain]] (vaulted domed shaped horst) and [[Pirin|Pirin mountain]] - a horst forming a massive [[anticline]] situated between the complex [[graben]] valleys of [[Struma (river)|Struma]] and that of [[Nestos (river)|Mesta]].<ref name="Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria 368">{{harvnb|Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria|1980|p=368}}</ref><ref name="dimitrova53">{{harvnb|Dimitrova|al|2004|p=53}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Donchev|Karakashev|2004|pp=128–129}}</ref>
+Another example is the [[Rila]]–[[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodope]] [[massif]] in [[Bulgaria]], including the well defined horsts of [[Belasitsa]] (linear horst), Rila mountain (vaulted domed shaped horst) and [[Pirin|Pirin mountain]]—a horst forming a massive [[anticline]] situated between the complex graben valleys of the [[Struma (river)|Struma]] and [[Nestos (river)|Mesta]] rivers.<ref name="Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria 368">{{cite book | ref={{harvid|Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria|1980}}
+ | script-title =bg: Географски речник на България
+ | trans-title = Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria
+ | last1 = Мичев (Michev)
+ | first1 = Николай (Nikolay)
+ | last2 = Михайлов (Mihaylov)
+ | first2 = Цветко (Tsvetko)
+ | last3 = Вапцаров (Vaptsarov)
+ | first3 = Иван (Ivan)
+ | last4 = Кираджиев (Kiradzhiev)
+ | first4 = Светлин (Svetlin)
+ | year = 1980
+ | language = bg
+ | publisher = Наука и култура (Nauka i kultura)
+ | location = Sofia |page=368}}</ref><ref name="dimitrova53">{{cite book | ref={{harvid|Dimitrova et al.|2004}}
+ | trans-title = Pirin National Park. Management Plan
+ | script-title= bg:Национален парк "Пирин". План за управление
+ | last1 = Димитрова (Dimitrova)
+ | first1 = Людмила (Lyudmila)
+ | others = и колектив
+ | year = 2004
+ | language = bg
+ | publisher = [[Ministry of Environment and Water (Bulgaria)|Ministry of Environment and Water]], Bulgarian Foundation "Biodiversity"
+ | location = Sofia |page=53
+ }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | ref={{harvid|Donchev|Karakashev|2004}}
+ | script-title=bg: Теми по физическа и социално-икономическа география на България
+ | trans-title=Topics on Physical and Social-Economic Geography of Bulgaria
+ | last1 = Дончев (Donchev)
+ | first1 = Дончо (Doncho)
+ | last2 = Каракашев (Karakashev)
+ | first2 = Христо (Hristo)
+ | year = 2004
+ | language = bg
+ | publisher = Ciela
+ | location = Sofia
+ | isbn = 954-649-717-7 |pages=128–129}}</ref>
 ===Uplifted passive margins===
-Unlike [[orogeny|orogenic mountains]] there is no widely accepted [[geophysics|geophysical]] model that explains elevated passive continental margins such as the [[Scandinavian Mountains]], [[Eastern Greenland]], the [[Brazilian Highlands]] or Australia's [[Great Dividing Range]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geografitorget.se/gn/nr/2009/bil/1-03.pdf |title=atlantens kustberg och högslätter – gamla eller unga? |last1=Bonow |first1=Johan M. |date=2009 |website=www.geografitorget.se |publisher=Geografilärarnas Riksförening |language=sv}}</ref><ref name=Greenetal2013>{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Paul F. |last2=Lidmar-Bergström |first2=Karna |last4=Bonow |first4=Johan M. |last3=Japsen |first3=Peter |last5=Chalmers |first5=James A. |author-link2=Karna Lidmar-Bergström |date=2013 |title=Stratigraphic landscape analysis, thermochronology and the episodic development of elevated, passive continental margins |url=http://www.geus.dk/publications/bull/nr30/index-uk.htm |journal=[[Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland|Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin]] |volume=30 |pages=18 |doi=10.34194/geusb.v30.4673 |access-date=30 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924022226/http://www.geus.dk/publications/bull/nr30/index-uk.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
+Unlike orogenic mountains there is no widely accepted [[geophysics|geophysical]] model that explains elevated passive [[Continental margin|continental margins]] such as the [[Scandinavian Mountains]], eastern [[Greenland]], the [[Brazilian Highlands]], or Australia's [[Great Dividing Range]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.geografitorget.se/gn/nr/2009/bil/1-03.pdf |title=atlantens kustberg och högslätter – gamla eller unga? |last1=Bonow |first1=Johan M. |date=2009 |website=www.geografitorget.se |publisher=Geografilärarnas Riksförening |language=sv}}</ref><ref name=Greenetal2013>{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Paul F. |last2=Lidmar-Bergström |first2=Karna |last4=Bonow |first4=Johan M. |last3=Japsen |first3=Peter |last5=Chalmers |first5=James A. |author-link2=Karna Lidmar-Bergström |date=2013 |title=Stratigraphic landscape analysis, thermochronology and the episodic development of elevated, passive continental margins |journal=[[Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland|Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin]] |volume=30 |pages=18 |doi=10.34194/geusb.v30.4673 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-Different elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same mechanism of uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field stresses in Earth's [[lithosphere]]. According to this view elevated passived margins can be likened to giant [[anticline|anticlinal]] lithospheric [[fold (geology)|fold]]s, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust transition zone (as are all passive margins).<ref>{{cite journal|author-last=Japsen |author-first=Peter |author-last2=Chalmers|author-first2=James A. |author-last3=Green|author-first3=Paul F.|author-last4=Bonow|author-first4=Johan M. |date=2012|title=Elevated, passive continental margins: Not rift shoulders, but expressions of episodic, post-rift burial and exhumation|journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]]|volume=90-91|pages=73–86|bibcode=2012GPC....90...73J|doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.05.004}}</ref><ref>Løseth and Hendriksen 2005</ref>
+Different elevated passive continental margins most likely share the same mechanism of uplift. This mechanism is possibly related to far-field stresses in Earth's [[lithosphere]]. According to this view elevated passive margins can be likened to giant [[anticline|anticlinal]] lithospheric folds, where folding is caused by horizontal compression acting on a thin to thick crust transition zone (as are all passive margins).<ref>{{cite journal|author-last=Japsen |author-first=Peter |author-last2=Chalmers|author-first2=James A. |author-last3=Green|author-first3=Paul F.|author-last4=Bonow|author-first4=Johan M. |date=2012|title=Elevated, passive continental margins: Not rift shoulders, but expressions of episodic, post-rift burial and exhumation|journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]]|volume=90-91|pages=73–86|bibcode=2012GPC....90...73J|doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.05.004}}</ref><ref>Løseth and Hendriksen 2005</ref>
-===Residual mountains===
-{{further|Inselberg|bornhardt}}
-{{unreferenced section|date=July 2018}}
-Residual mountains are formed as a result of erosion of an existing elevated area. They are also called mountains of [[denudation]].
-Examples in Europe include: the Eastern [[Rhodope Mountains|Rhodopes]], part of the [[Rila]]-Rhodope mountain [[massif]], which is the oldest landmass on the [[Balkan Peninsula]],<ref>The Rilo-Rhodope massif is sometimes referred to as the Rhodope mountains alone.</ref> the [[Scottish Highlands]], the [[Scandinavian Mountains]], and [[Snowdonia]] in [[Wales]].
-Examples in India include: the [[Aravalli Range]], the [[Nilgiri Mountains]] in [[Tamilnadu]], the [[Rajmahal Hills]], and the [[Eastern Ghats|Eastern]] and [[Western Ghats]].{{citation needed|date=July 2018}}
 ==Models==
@@ Line 56: / Line 79: @@
 ===Hotspot volcanoes===
-Hotspots are supplied by a magma source in the Earth's mantle called a [[mantle plume]]. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, recent evidence belies this connection.<ref name=Stoffers>{{cite book |title=Oceanic hotspots: intraplate submarine magmatism and tectonism |author=Y Niu |author2=MJ O'Hara  |name-list-style=amp |chapter=Chapter 7: Mantle plumes are NOT from ancient oceanic crust |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7L34ffaODwC&pg=PA239 |page=239 ''ff''   |editor=Roger Hékinian |editor2=Peter Stoffers | editor3=Jean-Louis Cheminée |isbn=978-3-540-40859-8 |date=2004 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.
+[[Hotspot (geology)|Hotspots]] are supplied by a [[magma]] source in the [[Earth's mantle]] called a [[mantle plume]]. Although originally attributed to a melting of subducted oceanic crust, recent evidence belies this connection.<ref name=Stoffers>{{cite book |title=Oceanic hotspots: intraplate submarine magmatism and tectonism |author=Y Niu |author2=MJ O'Hara  |name-list-style=amp |chapter=Chapter 7: Mantle plumes are NOT from ancient oceanic crust |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7L34ffaODwC&pg=PA239 |page=239 ''ff''   |editor=Roger Hékinian |editor2=Peter Stoffers | editor3=Jean-Louis Cheminée |isbn=978-3-540-40859-8 |date=2004 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> The mechanism for plume formation remains a research topic.
 ===Fault blocks===
@@ Line 66: / Line 89: @@
 *{{annotated link|Cycle of erosion}}
 *{{annotated link|Inselberg}}
-*{{annotated link|Orogeny}}
-*{{annotated link|Tectonics}}
 *{{annotated link|Seamount}}
@@ Line 77: / Line 98: @@
 ==External links==
 *[http://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/698 NASA Goddard Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory]
-*[http://denali.gsfc.nasa.gov/research/volcanology.html NASA Goddard Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory: Volcanology Research]
+*[https://web.archive.org/web/19961209085431/http://denali.gsfc.nasa.gov/research/volcanology.html NASA Goddard Planetary Geodynamics Laboratory: Volcanology Research]
 *[https://web.archive.org/web/20100210000748/http://projects.crustal.ucsb.edu/understanding/globe/globe.html Rotating globe showing areas of earthquake activity]

v t e Structure of Earth
Shells	Crust Mantle Upper mantle Lithospheric mantle Asthenosphere Lower mantle (aka Mesosphere) Core Outer core Inner core
Global discontinuities	Mohorovičić (crust–mantle) 410 discontinuity (upper mantle) 660 discontinuity (upper mantle) D’’ discontinuity (lower mantle) Core–mantle boundary Inner-core boundary
Regional discontinuities	Conrad continental crust Gutenberg (upper mantle) Lehmann (upper mantle)
Category

v t e Tectonic plates
Major plates	African Antarctic Eurasian Indo-Australian Australian Indian North American Pacific South American
Minor plates	Amurian Arabian Burma Caribbean Caroline Cocos Indian Nazca New Hebrides Okhotsk Philippine Scotia Somali Sunda Yangtze
Microplates	Adriatic Aegean Sea Anatolian Balmoral Reef Banda Sea Bird's Head Capricorn Coiba Conway Reef Explorer Futuna Galápagos Gonâve Gorda Greenland Halmahera Iberian Iranian Juan de Fuca Juan Fernández Kerguelen Kermadec Lwandle Madagascar Malpelo Manus Maoke Mariana Molucca Sea Niuafo’ou North Andes North Bismarck North Galápagos Okinawa Panama Pelso Philippine Mobile Belt Rivera Rovuma Sangihe Seychelles Shetland Solomon Sea South Bismarck South Sandwich Timor Tisza Tonga Trobriand Victoria Woodlark
Ancient plates	Baltic Bellingshausen Charcot Cimmeria Farallon Insular Intermontane Izanagi Kula Lhasa Malvinas Moa Phoenix Kshiroda
Oceanic ridges	Aden Ridge Carlsberg Ridge Central Indian Ridge Chile Ridge Cocos Ridge East Pacific Rise Explorer Ridge Gakkel Ridge Galápagos Spreading Center Gorda Ridge Juan de Fuca Ridge Mid-Atlantic Ridge Knipovich Ridge Kolbeinsey Ridge Mohns Ridge Reykjanes Ridge Pacific–Antarctic Ridge South American–Antarctic Ridge Southeast Indian Ridge Southwest Indian Ridge
Ancient oceanic ridges	Aegir Ridge Alpha Ridge Antarctic–Phoenix Ridge Kula–Farallon Ridge Mid-Labrador Ridge Pacific–Farallon Ridge Pacific–Kula Ridge
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